Dynamic of Electric Drives

By
Dr. P.K Biswas
Asst. Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
NIT Mizoram
The electromagnetic forces or torque developed in the driving motor tend to propagate
motion of the drive system. This motion may be uniform if the linear velocity or the
angular velocity in constant, or non- uniform, as it occurs while starting, braking or
changing the load on the drive. A electric motor is the basic component of a modern
variable speed drives. The motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Energy is power multiplied by time. The mechanical power output of a motor is
promotional to product of torque and speed.

Fundamental Torque Equation

A motor generally drivers a load (machine) through some transmission system.
While motor always rotate or may undergo a translational motion.

Equivalent motor-load system

Motor load system of above fig. can be described by the following fundamental torque
equation

d d m dJ
T − T L = ( J m ) = J + m
dt dt dt
 Where,
J = Moment inertia of motor load system
ωm= Angular velocity of the motor rad/ sec
T = Developed motor torque
TL = Load torque
Equation is applicable for variable inertia such as mine winders, industrial robots.
For drives with constant inertia dJ = 0
dt

Therefore,
d m
T=J + TL
dt

Equation shows that torque developed by motor is counter balance by a load torque TL
d m
and a dynamic torque J . Dynamic torque is present only during the transient
dt
operation.
Above equation is also valid when the motor is accelerating or retarding. During
d
steady state operating dtm = 0

Hence

T = TL
It means that during steady state conditions the torque developed by motor equal the load
torque TL.
From the equation , it is possible to determine the different states at which an electric
drive causing rotational motion can remain
➢ T> TL, d m  0 and therefore the drive experience acceleration and the speed increases
dt
d m
➢ T<TL,  0 The drives experience deceleration and the speed decrease.
dt

➢ T=TL, d m = 0, the motor will continue to run at the same speed if it were running or will
dt

Continue to be at rest , if it were not running

➢T > TL the drive accelerates and when T< TL the drive decelerates is true only for the passive
load. The reverse may be true for active load.

➢The term J(dω/dt) represents the inertia or the dynamic torque, which is available during
➢transient conditions.

➢During acceleration the dynamic torque is directed against the motion and during the
d m
braking it will help motion of the drive. T = J  TL
dt

➢The different loads connected to the motor will have different speed, to select the motor
it is desirable to refer all mechanical quantities like load torque, inertia etc at one single
axis, mostly the output shaft of the motor.

➢Principle of energy conservation is used.

There are different types of loads are given below
Active and Passive load
Active torque are due to either gravitational force or deformation in electrical
bodies. The active torque due to gravitational pull are obtained in case of hoists,
lift or elevators and railway locomotive operating on gradients. Such torque are
also developed during compression or release of springs. Loads having active
torque are active loads. The active torque is generally due to gravitational force.
Passive torque are those due to friction on due to shear and deformation in
inelastic bodies. They always oppose motion retarding the rotating of the driven
machine. Moreover with change in direction of motion the sense of torque also
changes. The passive torque always opposes motion. When the direction of
motion changes, the direction of passive torque also changes.
A positive load torque is opposite in direction to the passive motor torque.
The load torque may remains constant and be practically independent of speed
on vary with some power of speed.
Load for which torque varies as power of speed. There are some load for which
the torque may increase with some positive of speed. For example with fan and
centrifugal pump for which the torque varies as square of the speed.
 The rotation of shaft of a motor can be in forward
direction or reverse direction. Some drive are required
to be operated in only one direction. Some drives are
really to be operated in only one direction and evidently
this is the forward direction and is called positive speed.
Positive speed may refer to clockwise rotation or
anticlockwise rotation. For reversible drives one of the
directions of rotation is taken as positive and the other
as negative. Torque is considered positive when it
causes acceleration. When torque causes retardation it
is considered negative. Load torque always opposes
motor torque. This is necessary for maintaining stability
of the drive. If the motor torque and load torque were to
act in the same direction, the speed would continue to
increase indefinitely which will evidently lead to
breakdown.
Motor speed is considered active when rotating in the forward direction. The rotation in
opposite direction gives reverse speed which is assigned the negative sign
Positive motor torque is defined as the torque which produces acceleration or the positive
rate of charge of speed in forward direction. Motor torque is considered negative if it produce
deceleration.
A motor operates in two modes (a) motoring and (b) braking. In motoring mode, it converts
electrical energy to mechanical energy. In braking its works as a generator.
Motor can provide motoring and braking operations for both forward and reverse directions.
Above figure, the torque and speed co-ordinations for both forward (positive)
and reverse (negative) motions. Power developed by a motor is given by the
product of speed and torque. In quadrant I, developed power is active. Hence
machine works as a motor supplying mechanical energy. In second quadrant,
power is negative. Hence machine work under braking opposing the motion.
Therefore, operation in third quadrant and fourth quadrant can be identified
as reverse motoring and braking respectively.
Load torque line Tl1 in first and forth quadrants represents speed-torque characteristics for the
loaded point. This torque is the difference of torque due to loaded hoist and counter weight.
The load torque line Tl2 in second and third quadrants is the speed torque characteristics for an
empty hoist. This torque difference of torques due to counter weight and the empty hoist. It's
sign is negative because the weight of counter weight is always higher than that of an empty
cage.

First quadrant operation of a hoist requires. The movement of the cage upward, which
correspondence to the positive motor speed which is the anti clockwise direction i.e. if
produces positive torque in same direction equal to the magnitude of Load torque Tl1. Positive
power will developed i.e. the forward motoring operation.

Third quadrant when empty cage is lowered. Since empty cage is lesser weight than a counter
weight, the motor should produce a torque in clockwise direction. Since w is negative and
developed power is positive i.e. reverse motoring operation.

Second quadrant when empty cage in move up, since counter weight is heavier than an empty
cage, it is able to pull it up. In order to limit the speed within safe value motor must produces a
breaking torque equal to Tl2 in clockwise (negative) direction. Since speed is positive and
developed power is negative i.e. forward braking operation.
Fourth quadrant loaded cage is lowered. Since the weight of loaded cage is higher than counter
weight, it is able to come down due to the gravity itself. In order to limit the speed of cage
within safe value, motor must produces a positive torque equal to Tl2 in anticlockwise
direction. As both power and speed are negative drive operating is reverse breaking.
➢Windage :- When a run wind generates a torque opposing the motion is called
winding Torque. It is also defined as the resistance of air results in loss of Torque.

➢ Friction Torque:-Friction opposes the motion the loss of torque due to friction is
known as friction torque it will be present at the motor shaft and also in various parts of
the load. The magnitude of friction torque depends on the speed. Friction Torque consist
of three component i.e. viscous component(TV), coulomb component(TC)and stands
still component(TS).viscous component is a component in which varies almost linearly
with speed. It can be expressed as
 Tv = B m

where B= Viscous friction co-efficient.

ωm = speed in rad/sec.
wind age torque varies with square of speed.
It may be written as

Tw = c m 2

where C is constant.
Therefore the total load torque required at any speed

T1 = T L + TC + Tv + Tw
= T L + TC + B m + C m 2

TC is the coulomb Friction which is independent of speed

Generally TC and windage torque are negligible value and taken into account by
assuming the value of viscous friction coefficient B to be higher than that its actual
value.

The Torque equation may be written as

d m
T=J + B m + TL
dt
 Torque and Power vs. Speed for Load Torque and Power vs. speed for Load
torque constant torque proportional to speed

In many loads torque is almost Here, the load torque is proportional

constant and does not change with to the speed and the power is
speed proportional to (speed)². examples
TL= Constant Power is proportional are mixer, stirrers.
to the speed
The example of such type of loads are
elevator, conveyors, paper mills.
printing machines, piston compressors
piston pumps etc.
 Torque and power vs. speed for TL
proportional to (speed)²
Torque and power vs. speed for
traction load Here, the load torque is directly
Since the total mass to be hauled is proportional to the square of speed and
pretty large,the static friction is very develop power is proportional to
high. Therefore a motor for traction load (speed)³.
must have high starting torque and Typical examples of such loads are axial and
power vs. speed for traction load. centrifugal pumps, agitators, centrifugal
mixers, centrifugal ventilators, centrifugal
compressors etc. These load need a low
starting torque and very suitable for energy
conservation.
 ➢Load torque magnitude is proportional to
some power of speed.

➢Centrifugal pumps, propeller in ships or

aeroplanes, fan or blower type of load has
such characteristics.
For fan,
Torque  (Speed)2

Fan type Load

 ➢Hyperbolic speed-torque characteristics,
where load torque is inversely proportional
to speed or load power is constant.

➢Certain type of lathes, boring machines,

milling machines, steel mill coilers etc are
having this type of load characteristics.

Constant Power Load

 Load torques that vary with time
Load variation with time can be periodic and repetitive in certain applications.
One cycle of the load variation is called a duty cycle.
The variation of load torque with time has a greater importance in the selection of a
suitable motor.
Classification of loads that vary with time:
➢Continuous, constant loads: Centrifugal pumps or fans operating for a long time
under the same conditions, paper making machines etc.
➢Continuous, variable loads: Metal cutting lathes, hoisting winches, conveyors etc.
➢Pulsating loads: Reciprocating pumps and compressors, frame saws, textile
looms and generally all machines having crank shaft.
➢Impact loads: Apparent, regular and repetitive load peaks or pulses which occurs
in rolling mills, presses, shearing machines, forging hammers etc. Drives for such
machines will have heavy fly wheels.
➢Short time intermittent loads: Almost all forms of cranes and hoisting mechanisms,
excavators, roll trains etc.
➢Short time loads: Motor generator sets for charging batteries, servo motors used
for remote control of clamping rods of drilling machines.
Loads of the machines like stone crushers and ball mills are characterized by
frequent impact of small peaks so they are classified as continuous variable loads
rather than the impact loads.
One and the same machine can be represented by a load torque which either varies
with the speed or with the time.
For example, a fan load whose load torque is proportional to the square of the
speed, is also a continuous, constant load.
Load torque of a crane is independent of the speed and also short time intermittent
 Load torques that depend not only on speed but
also on the nature of the path traced out by the
load during its motion, are present both hoisting
mechanisms and transport systems. For instance
The resistance to motion of a train travelling
upgradient or taking a turns depends on the
magnitude of the gradient or the radius of
curvature of the track respectively.

Forces during the up gradient motion of the train

Considering a very small α The force resisting the motion of a train traveling up-
gradient is,
FG = W sin  = W tan  where, W = Dead weight of the
FGG= W sin   W tan  or any other transport
train
=W kg system in kg,
1000 G G = Gradient expressed
=W kg , as a rise in meters in track
1000 distance of 1000 meters.
The tractive force required to overcome curve resistance is given by the empirical
formula stated below 700
Fc = W kg where, R = Radius of curvature in meters.
R
 ➢In hoisting systems in which tail ropes or balancing
ropes are not used, the load torque is not only due to the
weight of the unloaded or the loaded cage but also due to
that of the lifting ropes or cables, which depends on the
position of the two cages.

➢When cage 1 is at the bottom most position and is to be

lifted upwards, the entire weight of the rope is also to be
moved up.

➢When both cages remains at the same height, the

weight of the rope to be lifted becomes zero, as the
weight of the ropes on both sides balances each other.

➢ When cage 1 is at higher position than cage 2, a

portion of the weight of the rope acts in such a
way as to aid the upward motion of the cage 1 and when
Hoisting Mechanism cage 1 occupies the topmost position, the whole weight
of the rope aids in upward movement.
 The force that resists the upward motion of the load due to the varying weight of the
rope depending on the position of the load is given as

2x
Fr = W r (1 − )kg
h
where,
Wr = Total weight of the rope (kg),
x = height of the cage at any arbitrary position from the bottom most position (m)
h = the desired maximum height to which the cage is to be moved upwards (m)
Since for very high values of h the weight of the rope may be considerably greater than
that of the load to be lifted upwards, the force Fr affects to a large extent the
performance of the drive used in hoisting mechanisms.

Load torques that varies with angle of displacement of the shaft

In machines having crank shafts such as reciprocating pumps and compressors,

frame saws, etc., the load torque is a function of the position of the crank, i.e. the
angular displacement of the shaft or rotor of the motor.
 Load torque (TL) can be resolved in to two
parts; a constant torque Tav and a variable
torque TL’, which changes periodically in
magnitude depending on the angular position
of the shaft.
Such load torque characteristics, for simplicity,
can be Fourier series as a sum of oscillations
of fundamental and harmonic frequencies, as
m
TL ' = T
r =0
Lr ' sin(r + r )
Reciprocating Compressor Load θ = ωt, where ω is the angular speed of the
shaft of the motor driving the compressor.
During changes in the speed, since only small deviations from a fixed value of the
speed ωa occurs, the angular displacement can be represented by, θ = (ωa + ∆ω)t,
then the variable portion of the load torque will be:
m
TL ' = T '
r =0
Lr ' sin[(r a t +  r ) + r.t ]
The term r . ∆ωt is very small and can be neglected.
Thus, restricting to small deviations in angle from the equilibrium position, a load
torque which varies with the angular displacement of the shaft can be
transformed to one which varies periodically with respect to time.