What Are Formal Fallacies?

Most formal fallacies are errors of logic: The conclusion does not really “follow from” (is not
supported by) the premises. Either the premises are untrue, or the argument is invalid. Below is
an example of an invalid deductive argument:
Premise: All black bears are omnivores.
Premise: All raccoons are omnivores.
Conclusion: All raccoons are black bears.

Bears are a subset of omnivores. Raccoons also are a subset of omnivores. But these two subsets
do not overlap, and that fact makes the conclusion illogical. The argument is invalid—that is, the
relationship between the two premises does not support the conclusion.
“Raccoons are black bears” is instantaneously recognizable as fallacious and may seem too silly
to be worth bothering about. However, that and other forms of poor logic play out on a daily
basis, and they have real world consequences. Below is an example of a common fallacious
argument:
Premise: All Arabs are Muslims.
Premise: All Iranians are Muslims.
Conclusion: All Iranians are Arabs.

This argument fails on two levels. First, the premises are untrue because, although many Arabs
and Iranians are Muslim, not all are. Second, the two ethnic groups (Iranians and Arabs) are sets
that do not overlap; nevertheless, the two groups are confounded because they (largely) share
one quality in common (being Muslim). One only has to look at comments on the web to realize
that the confusion is widespread and that it influences attitudes and opinions about US foreign
policy. The logical problems make this both an invalid and an unsound argument.

Type of fallacies
TYPE OF DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE REASONING
FALLACI
ES

1 Slippery This is a If we ban The author is equating banning

Slope conclusion based Hummers Hummers with banning all cars,
on the premise that because they are which is not the same thing.
if A happens, then bad for the
eventually through environment Conclusion: we should not ban
a series of small eventually the hummers
steps, through B, government will Premis 1: Do not ban hummers for
C,..., X, Y, Z will ban all cars, so the environment
happen, too, we should not ban Premis 2: the government will ban
basically equating Hummers. all car
 A and Z. So, if we
don't want Z to
occur, A must not
be allowed to
occur either.
2 Hasty This is a Even though it's The author is basing his evaluation
Generali conclusion based only the first day, of the entire course on only the first
zation on insufficient or I can tell this is day. To make a fair and reasonable
biased evidence. In going to be a evaluation the author have sufficient
other words, you boring course. evidence to base a conclusion on.
are rushing to a
conclusion before
you have all the
relevant facts
3 Post hoc This is a I drank bottled The author assumes that if one event
ergo conclusion that water and now I chronologically follows another the
propter assumes that if 'A' am sick, so the first event must have caused the
hoc occurred after 'B' water must have second. But the illness could have
then 'B' must have made me sick been caused by other causes
caused 'A.'
4 Genetic This conclusion is The Volkswagen In this example the author is
Fallacy based on an Beetle is an evil equating the character of a car with
argument that the car because it was the character of the people who built
origins of a person, originally the car. However, the two are not
idea, institute, or designed by inherently related.
theory determine Hitler's army.
its character,
nature, or worth.
5 Begging The conclusion Filthy and Arguing that coal pollutes the earth
the that the writer polluting coal and thus should be banned would be
Claim should prove is should be banned logical. But the very conclusion that
validated within should be proved, that coal causes
the claim enough pollution to warrant banning
its use, is already assumed in the
claim by referring to it as "filthy and
polluting."

6 Circular This restates the George Bush is a The conclusion that Bush is a "good
Argumen argument rather good communicator" and the evidence
t than actually communicator used to prove it "he speaks
proving it because he speaks effectively" are basically the same
idea. Specific evidence such as using
 effectively everyday language, breaking down
complex problems, or illustrating his
points with humorous stories would
be needed to prove either half of the
sentence
7 Either/or This is a We can either the two choices are presented as the
conclusion that stop using cars or only options, yet the author ignores a
oversimplifies the destroy the earth. range of choices in between such as
argument by developing cleaner technology, car-
reducing it to only sharing systems for necessities and
two sides or emergencies, or better community
choices. planning to discourage daily driving.
8 Ad This is an attack Green Peace's the author doesn't even name
hominem on the character of strategies aren't particular strategies Green Peace has
a person rather effective because suggested, much less evaluate those
than his or her they are all dirty, strategies on their merits. Instead,
opinions or lazy hippies the author attacks the characters of
arguments the individuals in the group.
9 Ad This is an appeal If you were a true the author equates being a "true
populum/ that presents what American you American," a concept that people
Bandwag most people, or a would support the want to be associated with,
on group of people rights of people to particularly in a time of war, with
Appeal think, in order to choose whatever allowing people to buy any vehicle
persuade one to vehicle they want. they want even though there is no
think the same inherent connection between the two
way. Getting on
the bandwagon is
one such instance
of an ad populum
appeal
10 Red This is a The level of The author switches the discussion
Herring diversionary tactic mercury in away from the safety of the food and
that avoids the key seafood may be talks instead about an economic
issues, often by unsafe, but what issue, the livelihood of those
avoiding opposing will fishers do to catching fish. While one issue may
arguments rather support their affect the other it does not mean we
than addressing families? should ignore possible safety issues
them. because of possible economic
consequences to a few individuals.
11 Straw This move People who don't the author attributes the worst
Man oversimplifies an support the possible motive to an opponent's
opponent's proposed state position. In reality, however, the
viewpoint and then minimum wage opposition probably has more
attacks that hollow increase hate the complex and sympathetic arguments
argument poor to support their point. By not
addressing those arguments, the
author is not treating the opposition
with respect or refuting their position
12 Moral This fallacy That parking the author is comparing the
Equivale compares minor attendant who relatively harmless actions of a
nce misdeeds with gave me a ticket person doing their job with the
major atrocities, is as bad as Hitler horrific actions of Hitler. This
suggesting that comparison is unfair and inaccurate
both are equally
immoral

EXERCISE 5
IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF FALLACIES IN THE FOLLOWING ARGUMENT

a. ……………………………….
b. ……………………………..

c. ………………………………..

d. ……………………………….
 e. ………………………………………..

f. ……………………………………………

g. Mr. Lee's views on Japanese culture are wrong. This is because his parents were killed by
the Japanese army during World War II and that made him anti-Japanese all his life.
h. Smoking causes cancer because my father was a smoker and he died of lung cancer.
i. Professor Lewis, the world authority on logic, claims that all wives cook for their
husbands. But the fact is that his own wife does not cook for him. Therefore, his claim is
false.
j. The last three times I have had a cold I took large doses of vitamin C. On each occasion,
the cold cleared up within a few days. So vitamin C helped me recover from colds

EXERCISE 6
Analyse the premises and the conclusion in the statements below and identify the fallacy.
1. Foreign imports are wrecking our economy and savaging our workers, the backbone of this
country. Buy Indonesian! Before you put your money on that imported fruit, think of the
farmer whose kids may not eat tomorrow.