THr, CιaSSICAL CooKBooK

Andreω Dalby and SaΠy Grainger

,ß|

ι;,'' ;ß
,.,
ßΙ-..
'Ι'Ιιßs
.νυιιιιg sαΙιαιΙ ιιιτια ,,, òοsι ι,ωο obols. Iι Ιιυs
ιο ha τßιιsυιΙ uery ucll. º'hετι, seasoning α small
(,ιι,§.òòπ)/dß plucing ιhe slice ßη ßι, pouring ωhite

ιυßιια ouer, aιlding α coating of οßΙ, and then

simnιering, Ι shall make it as good as squash,
|ßηαΙΙν tinseling it generously ωith silphium .,.

'I'he Classical Cookbookis the first book of

ßιs kind to explore the cuisine of the
Mediterranean ßη ancient times, from
750 B.C. to A.D. 450. The authors drarv οη
α mass of fascinating sources beyond the
f'amiliar recipes of the Roman gourmet
Apicius, who mainly described the food
of the privileged classes at Üιe end of the
Roman Empire.
ΑΙΙ types offood are represented here,
αΙΙοινßηg the modern cook to re-create the
varied diet of the classical,σrorld, from the
banquets of the rich to the simpler meals of
soldiers, farmers, and slaves. \ýßε can still
enjoy Terrine of Asparagus, Srveet \ýßßηε
Cakes, Olive Relish, or Tbronaean Shark,
Each chapter provides α historical
outline, ,σrith translations of the original
recipes follolved by versions for the modern
cook. The book is illustrated throughout
with delightful scenes of food, hunters, and
revelers from wall paintings, mosaics, and
Greek vases.

With 31 color and 57 black-and-ωhiτe

illustrations

Continued οη back flap -

w

CLASSICAL
CoOKBooK
 ΤΗτ

CLASSICAL
CooKBooK
Andreω Dalby and Sally Grainger

ΤΗΕ J. PAUL GETTY Λ,{ι]SΕυΜ

LOS ANGELES
 ΑΒονΕ: Ι family meal portrqιed ßη α reliefJrom the tοηιb oJ Lucius Erennius Praeseιιs,
Lucius reclinεs; his ωψ and baby are at his side.
HALF-TITLE PAGB,, The design of αη early siluer coinfrom Selinus, α Greek òοΙοιιγ ßη
ζòεΙετγ'.
Sicih, λ α ιιßsυαΙ reminder of τhe city\ name: sdιinon, ßη Greek, meanτ
FRoNTIspIEcE Grain ωas the goddess Demeτer's giJτ το humaniτy.ºiipτokmus acτs as
messenξer, and Demeter's daughter, Persephone, ffirs α Ιßbαtßοιι oJ ωßηε as he sets out,
TITLE pAGE: Persephone, daughτer oJ τhe haruesτ goddess Demeτer, ωas faτed το spend
siχ months of euery year ßη the [Jnderuorld as companion to Pluto. Βγ α painτer uorking
for τhe poττer Codrus, abouτ 130 ι.c.

Θ 1996 Sally Grainger and Andrerv Dalby

Sally Grainger and Andrew Dalby have asserted their right tο be identified
as the auιhofs of this work

Published ßη τhe United States by ýe J. ΡαυΙ Getτy Museum,

ιΖοο Geττy Cenτer Drive,Suite California 9οο49-Ι687
il¹;.iir*iιTs,
Published ßη the United Kingdom by The British -NΔuseum Press
Α division of The British λΔuseum Company Ltd

Ατ the J. ΡαυΙ Geττy Museum

Gregory.λ4. Britton, Publisher
Mark Greenberg, Editor ßη Chief
Lois Lyons, Bditor oJ τhe American Edition

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publicaτion Data

Dalby, Andreq ι947-
The classical cookbook/Andrew Dalby and Sally Grainger.
p.cm.
Originally published: London: British Museum Press, τ996.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 97Ε-0-89236-39,ι-0
ι. Cookefy, Greek-History. Ζ. Cookery, Roman History. L Grainger, Sally. π. Tiτle.

TX7z3.5.G8 Dz4 ΖοοΖ

64I.5938 dòΖτ 2οο2ο7οο83

Designed b_v Behram Kapadia

\peset ßη Plantin Light by Rorvland Phototlpesetting Ltd
Bur1, St Edmunds, SuΓfolk
Prinτed inThailand by lτnago Publishing Ltd

Firsτ U.S. ediτion published ßη ι996 bl'the J, ΡαυΙ Getty Museum, Malibu, California 9οΖ65-5779
 C ontenτs

Preface 7

Inπoduction 8

1 ΤΗΕ HOMECOMING OF ODYSSEΙ]S 27

2 ΤΗΕ ΒΑΝQΙ]ΕΤ OF PHILOXENΙJS φ

3 ΤΗΕ MARKETS OF ΤΗΕ MEDITERRANEAN ò6

4 Α §ζ/EDDING FEAST ΙΝ MACEDON 7ο

5 CATO'S FARM ΒΖ

6 ΤΗΕ ΨEALTH OF EMPIRE 97

7 Ο}ß HADRIA}{'S ΨALL ιι1

8 SιJPPER ΑΤ ΤΗΕ BATHS ιΖ6

Α Noτe οη Greeh and Laτin Sources of Recipes ι40

Further Reading ιlι

Quotations and References ιφ
Index ιξ
Illastration Achnoωledgemenτs ι14
 PkEFAcE

, :posITE Half-fiIled,
,,.:, Ι\Ζ7. have tried to do something quite nevv ßη this book. Μαηγ
;arly Greeh ωßηε-
\ λ/ people have written about the Roman cookery texτApiciιzs, buτ
"-,:
bεcame α ροOΙ,
:-::ß: ιιαteτ birds
νΥ ηο one has γετ gathered α collection ofrecipes from τhe enτire
: ::,,rlling its banks.
ancienτ world - from boτh Greek and Roman ,wriτings - and shown how
they can be recreated ßη the modern kitchen. We havp seτ τhe resulτing
'menus' beside picτures and narratives of dining, drinking and fesτiviτy
which have survived from that period. The result should, we hope, help
το bridge τhe gap beτween modern experience and the τasτes, smells,
sights and sounds of τwo τhousand years ago.
This book is α collaboration, but the reader may like to knoιv thaτ τhe
'Ι'rvho speaks abouτ τhe finding and adapting ofancient recipes is Sally,
rvhile τhe τranslaτions and ιhe historical background are Andrerv's rvork.
Sally τhanks the many people vlho tasted her experimental recipes and
conτribuιed τhrough τheir advice to the final form of τhe book. Their
honesτy and frankness were invaluable ßη creating recipes τhat rηrere boτh
αυτhεητßò and pleasurable to eat. Special τhanks are due το Professor
Barrie ΗαΙ1 and Annabel ΗαΙΙ, Terry McKay, Philip Ηυητετ, Peτe
Whitby, Angela Dicks and Dr Chris Grocock.
Andrerry thanks Jane Roιvlandson and Gerald and Valerie Mars for
their help, and Maureen, Elizabeth and Rachel for unending patience
and support. The extracts from Philoxenus and Hippolochus quoted ßη
chapτers Ζ and 4 are revised from translations by him firsτ published ßη
Petits Propos Culinaires nos Ζ6 and Ζ9, ιvith the generous permission of
the editor, ΑΙαη Davidson.
Oτher τranslaτions have been newly made. They are far from liτeral,
someτimes adding α r.vord or phrase to make τhe meaning clearer,
someτimes abridging. Where quantities are given ßη ancienτ recipes,
'ρßητ' has been adopτed ßη τranslation as τhe rough equivalenτ of Laτin
seχtarius.
 ΙχτRοDιJCτιο}.{

When there is happiness among αΙΙ the people; ιvhen feasters ßη the house,
sitting ßη rows, can lisιen ιο α singer, whilò beòide them tables are full of bread
and meaι, and α waiter bringò rvine from brimming borvls and fills their cups:
τhis seems ιο me ßη my heart το be τhe best of αΙl.
Odysseus ιο his hosι ΑΙòßηοιιs ßη HoMER, Odyssey 9

he daily life of classical Greece and Rome, although separated

from us by ιwο thousand years of history, can be recreated ßη
almosτ phoτographic deτail.
Οη τhe painted cups and rvine-mixing bowls of ancient Athens,
vignettes of roιvdy feasting and of everyday household actiyity are
interspersed with scenes from τhe legends of gods and heroes. The wall
paintings and even the graffiti of Pompeii, buried ßη the terrible eruption
of Vesuvius ßη αο 79, allorv us to see the citizens and slaves of ιhe Roman
Empire as clearly as τhey saw one another. From the garrisons of
northern Britain ιο ιhε ferτile valley of τhε Nile, personal letters of
Duchs, geese and quails υηΚηοινη Greeks and Romans, reτrieved by archaeologists, bring their
ωere αΙΙ familiar r.η,riters back to life, And some of the greatest wriιings of the classical
fαmτατιΙ fοωΙ ßη òarly rvorld ιvere copied and recopied by scribes through medieval τimes.
Greece.
Never forgotten, ιhey have become models of clear τhinking and vivid
narrative for modern authors.
These precious clues το τhe ancienτ lvorld are ηοτ as easy το inτerpreτ as
they seem. Not οηΙγ were there huge conτrasts beτween rich and poor;
there rvas the divide between slave and free. The documents give us the
chance tο hear the voices, and see τhrough τhe eyes, ofall ofthese, yet it is
not easy to ρυι ourselves ßη their place.
One ιναγ ßη which we can αττεmρτ τhis is τhrough the realities of every
day. Iη αηγ society, food and drink are ατ τhe cenτre ofsocial life. Α vrealth
of information is available οη what Greeks and Romans ate and drank - ßη
pictures, ßη rvritιen texts, ßη archaeological finds, Ιη this book, therefore,
rve place real ancient recipes beside descriptions of household life and
 Introduction

fesτiviτy from different times and places around the ancient Mediτerra-
nean.
Each of our eight chapters is based closely οη Greek or Latin ιexts,
supported by archaeological evidence. The narraτive texts \η/ε use begin
αbουτ 7οο ιc lviτh ιhe Odyssey, τhe compelling Greek epic of τhe
wanderings of Odysseus. Our lasτ major source is α conversation manual,
ιντßττεη abouτ αο Ζοο for Romans sτudying Greek: luckily for us, τhis
liττle-knorvn texτbook runs τhrough the dialogue needed for α leisurely
visiτ το τhe baτhs finishing υρ wiτh α hot supper (and wßτh τips το τhe cook
and waiτers). Thus each chapter ßη turn takes α differenτ kind of social
grouping, α different occasion. Together they suggesι the τrue varieτy of
Greek and Roman life and food.
Immediately after τhis introduction γου will find help with the prob-
lems of recreating ancient food, along urith notes about some unfamiliar
ingredienτs. At τhe end of the book are guides to furτher reading,
including τranslaτions (ιvhere they exist) of τhε ancienτ τεχτs from which
our recipes come.

\Vhen the Odyssey, one of the two masterpieces of Greek storyτelling,

was
composed, Greece was α land of isolated farmsteads and small τοwηs,
beseτ by rvars and piracy. There were ηο big states: each liττle torryn had ßτs
proτecτing wall, and each counτry farm had iτs τhorn hedge. The magic of
τhe Odyssey is thaτ its hero vievrs τhis world as αη outsider, for Odysseus is
α shiprvrecked,wanderer, α beggar. Ιf we can approach τhe ι.vorld of early
Greece at αΙΙ, how betτer than to do ßτ τhrough his eyes?
Greece produced barley for bread, olives for the irreplaceable olive οßΙ,
grapes for abundanτ wine. But ßη that rocky landscape many Greeks
depended οη the sea for much of their food. Fishermen and seamen by
necessity, τhεγ were beginning to explore the rvide Mediτerranean, τhε
'wine-dark sea'. Ιη τhe centuries το come τhey ιvould spread ουτ and build
nelv Greek towns αΙΙ round the Mediterranean, at hundreds of siτes τhατ
offered α natural harbour, α stretch of farmland, α route for inland τrade.
Greek τowns grew into ciτies, with τhe spectacular τemples, τheaτres
and monuments τhατ are still το be seen, bυτ somehor-v they held οη ιο
their independence. Cradles of local democracy, they led the world for α
time ßη science, philosophy, seamanship and warfare. Sea τrade broughτ
the luxuries that ,,yere tasted αι Greek syιzposia or drinking-parties (see
chapter Ζ), ιvhere serious discussion alternated with music, games and
acrobaτic displays. Food and wine, the gluττony of felloιv ciτizens and τhe
self-imporτance of cooks were continual themes of comedy at αηηυαΙ
drama fesτivals.
Βγ 35ο ιß, ,when τhe gourmeτ Archesτraιus (see chapτer rvas 3)
searching τhe markeτs of the Mediιerranean, Greek ciτies doττed τhe
 The Classical Cookbook

coastline from Spain and France αΙΙ the τναγ to the Near East. Greeks of
Marseille ,were enjoying the rvines of the Rhüne valley, Greeks of Libya
were exporτing precious silphium resin ιο the kiτchens of their homeland,
Greeks of τhe Black Sea ,were pickling tuna. Βυτ τhεγ v,rere losing τheir
independence to the powerful kingdoms that norry began το emerge.
Archesτraτus himself, α Sicilian Greek, ιvas α subject of the tyrannical
kings of Syracuse.
Macedonia soon became the dominant po\I/er. Ιt vras from tiny
Macedonia τhat Alexander the Great (zs6-zzz Bc) set ουτ οη his amazing
career of conquest. Soon masιer of the old Persian Empire, he τοοΚ Greek
seττlers and τhe Greek way of life το the Middle East and beyond, and
broughτ back τhe marvellous wealth of the East. These riches) spenτ ατ
lavish feasτs such as τhe wedding ofCaranus (chapter 4), caused ruinous
inflaτion and social unresτ ßη Greece after 3οο ΒC. The scienτisτs rvho wεητ
easτ ßη Alexander's τßmε broughτ new foods to Greece: citrus fruits,
peaches, pisτachio nuts - and even peacocks.
Ψhile the Macedonian kingdoms spent their riches, however, Rome's
power grew. Beτween αbουτ 4οο and 5ο BC τhis country town of central
ΙταΙγ, draιving ατ first οη ηατßνε resources (as seen ßη Cato's farm,
chapτer 5), became ruler of αΙΙ ltaly before conquering ßη τurn Spain,
Macedonia and Greece, northern Africa, Gaul (France) and the whole
easτern Mediτerranean. The wealth of the Easτ ,,vas τransferred rryesτ-
rvards, and ιvith the wealth came the demand for nerv luxuries. Ιnvenτive
Greek cooks, and novel Greek delicacies, came tο Rome. Chapter 6 draws
οη τhe hilarious Saτyicon of Peτronius and οη other writings of τhe firsτ
cenτury eo ιο skeτch τhe heyday of rich and powerful imperial Rome.
The inspiraτion for chapτer 7 is αη ßηνßιαιßοη το α lady's birτhday parτy.
Found among discarded documents of the commander's office at one of
τhe Roman garrisons ßη norτhern Briτain, ßτ combines v,rith other τexτs το
build υρ α picτure of τhe daily life of soldiers and oτhers ßη ιhe disτanτ
provinces of τhe great empire. The Romans broughι ιο Βτßταßη many of
τhe herbs, vegetables and fruiιs that now seem ηατßνε.
Ψiτh chapτer 8 rve reτurn το τhε great capital. Ιη hot and sτicky Rome
τhe baτhs were favouriτe leisure resorτs. Iη τhese luxurious esτablish-
ments one swam, exercised, steamed, \vas massaged - and then one ate.
Ιη τhis seττing ιve glimpse the food and wine of τhe laτer empire,
inheriτance of medieval Europe.

The life of τhe very poor saw ΙßττΙε change over this long period. Bread was
the staple food (barley bread for many Greeks, rvheat bread for Romans),
and some ciτies, including Rome itself, issued α free bread raτion. Those
who could ηοτ bake made varieτies of porridge or polenta with their rvheaτ
and barley. For some τhere ιvas nlthing else το eat but bread, fruit and

Ιο
 Intloýιction

Food lies οη the diner's

table as he calk for
ωßηε: 'Copenhagen
Paintet', about
48ο gc.

vegeτables gathered from the rvild, and such delicacies as shellΙish and
snails.
Even τhe leisurely banqueτs of ιhe rich began wiτh bread, horvever. For
ινεαΙτhγ Greeks of about 4οο Bc the one main meal of τhe day sτarted ßη
τhe early evening (and drinking and talking might go οη αΙΙ night). Αι α
men's dinner-party the host's rvife and young children were never seen.
Guesτs' rvives r.vere not expected, τhough some men mighτ bring girl
friends. Men reclined οη couches, each rvith α small table; older boys, if
lucky enough to be alloιved to attend, lvould sit οη α faτher's or friend's
couch. Α host lvould often hire α cook and rvaiters for the occasion.
The room rvould be Ιßτ ιvith hanging lamps. Scents uzould fill τhe air,
for perfumed oils and wreaths of srlleet-smelling leaves v,rould have been
passed around. Boτh wheat and barley loaves,,vere served ßη baskets. The
successive dishes of the main course follov,red one another ßη α definiιe
order, τaken by α waiter tο each diner ßη turn for him το Select α morsel.
They began rvith appetising savouries such as fresh fruit, shellfish,
roasτed birds, sαΙτ sturgeon and τμηα, and mεατ delicacies ßη highly

ΙΙ
 The Classical Cookbooh

Dancc and music, ωßth

double pipe and
castanets. Vignette
inside α dinking-cup,
by the painter
Epictetus, about
5οο Β().

flavoured sauces; they progressed το fine fresh fish, and perhaps climaxed
wiιh sτewed or spiτ-roasτed lamb or kid.
Then the tables, with discarded scraps and bones, rvere cleared away
and clean tables tοοΚ their place. Ψßιh the desserι course) knorvn το boτh
Greeks and Romans as 'second tables', rryine was served. Greek hosts
always mixed rvine wiτh \.vaτer - ßτ ,was α hosτ's duτy to ensure thατ his
guesτs did not become τοο drunk τοο soon! The desserτ consisτed ofcakes,
s\I/eetmeats, cheese, dried fruits and ηυτs: α wealτhy hosτ rvould
demonsτraτe his generosiτy wiτh α varied selecτion of τhese sweeτs as well
as ινßιh α fine choice οΓ ιvines.
The emphasis no,w τurning το rvine, τhe dinner-parτy became α
symposion, α drinking-parτy. Someτimes τhε hosτ and guests made their
οτνη entertainment, ranging from philosophical and literary tαΙΚ to songs
and instrumental music. Or enterιainers might be hired, slave musicians,
dancers and acrobats,
The dinner just described is τhe archeτypal Greek dinner of history and
liιeraτure. Ιτ is noτ τγρßòαΙ οf αΙΙ ciιies, or of αΙΙ τimes. This book ινßΙΙ show
horv Greece and Rome, civilisations of contrasts, introduced endless
varietv οη the theme.

Ι2

Ι'ιι Κßιιg τhe apples of
ιιιιηιιπιαΙßtγ ßη the
ιιιγιΙιßι,αL Garden of the
,,sριßιΙεs. Small
Ι Ι
,| Ιιτηßαη oil-jar of the
ι
ΙιιΙι, ,\Ιh century BC.
Introduction
These were not the first culιures ßη which attention v/as paid το the
ingredients and the special flavours of food and wine. There are recipes
οη cuneiform tableτs from Mesopotamia of the third millennium ιc.
Spices, herbs and vintage rryines were found ßη τhe burial chamber of
King Tutankhamun of Egypt (c. η46-ηΖ7 Bc). But so far as v/e Κηο\τ
τhe Greeks ,lvere the first to think seriously about the importance of
cookery as one of the skills or arts of human life, Professional cooks,
needless το say, ,were ßη ηο doubτ abouτ τhaτ. Even ΡΙατο (4Ζ7148 vc),
however, gave α ferv sentences of his philosophical dialogue Gorg,ins to
putting cookery ßη its place. Around the same τime αη anonymous
medical wriτer likened τhe work of the cook το that of τhe musician, ßη α
passage of liττle-knoιryn poetic prose that makes α fine introducτion tο α
collection οΓ αηòßεηι recipes.
From the same noιes come different tunes: from sharp, from flat; αΙΙ are
notes, but each has α different sound. The most differenτ combine best, the
least different combine ,worsι: if one composes αΙΙ οη the same ηοtε, ιhere is
ηο pleasure αt αΙl. The boldest, the most varied sequences give mosι pleasure.
So ßt is τhat cooks make food and drink for us, creating dishes from
dissimilars and similars. Norv they vary the ingredients, ηο,ιι/ they use ιhε
same ones buτ ιvith different effecτ. Ιf one makes αΙΙ alike, there is ηο
pleasure. If one puτs αΙΙ τogeτher ßη τhe same dish, ßτ τνßΙΙ ηοτ be righτ.
The notes of music sound some high, some Ιονl. The tongue tastes food as
if ßτ were music, distinguishing s\veet and sharp, discord and concord, ßη αΙΙ
that it encounters. \When ιhe tongue is aιtuned there is pleasure ßη the music;
ιvhen it is out of tune there is agony!
Recreating Ancient F ood
Ψhen γου begin to experimenτ wiτh ancienτ food, people will ask: 'Ho,w
do γου kno,w what ßτ should tasτe like?' The answer is that ηο one knows,
and ηο reconstruction is secure. The recipes ßη this book, therefore, are α
personal inτerpreτaτion of dishes τhατ are as much as 25ο0 years old.
Mosτ ancienτ recipes presenτ α basic lisτ of ingredienτs wiτh ηο
indicaτion of quanτiτy. The meτhod is ofτen sτaτed ßη α brief and confused
senτence) or left entirely to be inferred. Even more imporιanτ, there is ηο
hinτ of τη,hατ should be τhe dominant flavour. Fortunaτely Greek and
Laτin poeτs and agricultural rrrriters occasionally provide clues as to horry α
dish looked or τasted and τhe manner ßη rvhich ingredienτs were prepared
and stored. These are invaluable aids to interpreτing ancienτ recipes.
Cooking is αη instinctive art. It should never be αη absoluτe science,
bound by precise qυαητßτßεs, times and temperatures. The recipes τhαt
follow should not be seen as the οηΙγ way to prepare each dish - ηοτ least
because τhε best ancient cooks shared this instinctive approach το
cookery. Ιτ is ηο accident thaτ the major Roman culinary τεχt, the
Ι3
 The Classical Cookbooh

The act of sacifi.ce tο α òοιιeòtßοη of recipes entitιed Αρßòßυò οη Cοοκòιγ, gives hardιy αηγ
Greek god. quantities for ingredients. The book ,σras apparentιy compiιed for
professional cooks, mosτ of τhem slaves, το refer το as αη aid το memory.
They wουιd ηοτ need το be τοιd preciseιy whατ quanτiτies το use: τhατ
.ouid come ηατυταιιγ, based οη τheir own ταòτeò and τhose of τheir
masters or employers
The dοmßηλητ flavours of Greek and Roman cuisine are honey,
vinegar, fermented fish sauce (of which more ιater) and α vast array of
α
fresh and dried herbs and spices. The secreτ is το balance τhe sweeτness
with the bitter, sour and downright υηυòυαι flavours τhαt appear ßη τhe
recipes. The Romans (and to α ιesser extent the Greeks) appear το have
been unduly fond of sweet flavours ßη sauces. Honey and grape syrup
appear ßη νßττυαιιγ every one. ψine and honey rvere mixed το make α
sλieτ aperiτi f , mυßòυm, τhατ was served ατ τhe beginning of τhe meαι. This
does noτ mean, however, τhατ modern recreaτions of αηòßeητ sauces musτ
be òιογßηgιγ Sweet. Once γου have deveιoped α feeιing for ancient food,
α group of
γου .υη ºλαgßηε yourself, as α slave-cook, introducing
λoπhern barþrians or provincials το τhe delighτs of τhis nelv and unusual
cuisine.
Greek and Roman cuisines differ mαßηιγ ßη the quantity of seasonings
used. The essenτial flavours are τhe same. The Romans are said το have

Ι4
 Inπoduction

been 'porridge-eating barbarians' before they discovered Greek food DÞnhers discussing the
τowards the end of the third century sc. Eastern cooks, some of τhem ωßηe. ΒeΙοω this main
scene the 'Ashby
prisoners of war, introduced the Roman elite to the ne,w seasonings and
Ραßηtει' (about
flavours of τhe eastern Mediτerranean. Iη ιhis nouuelle cuisine of Ζοο sò
48ο εc) has depicτed α
honey, vinegar, fish sauce, dry and srveet vrine, cumin, coriander, range of SyπφOsium
oregano and many other herbs lvere subtly combined to create α simple paraphernalia: cups,
culinary sτyle that stresses ιhe natural flavours of τhe fish or meaτ of τhe ωine-jug and the boots
dish. The Romans τοοΚ tο the nevl cuisine rapidly and developed τheir ωhich guests remoued
before reclining.
own ideas. Some Romans, forgetting the maxim ºess is more', developed
α preference for heavily spiced dishes thaτ v/ere ηοτ necessarily το
everyone's taste. Nervly rich, they displayed their wealth ßη their food:
spices were costly.
They lefτ τhemselves open το ridicule and parody. Α sτage cook, ßη α
cornedy by Plautus (c. Ζ5ο-ι84 ιc), mocked this nerv τrend:
Ι don't season α dinner the way the other cooks do, They serve υρ α whole
meador-v ßη τheir dishes - they treat the guests like grazing òαττΙε, shoving
greens at them, then seasoning the greens with more greens. Iη go fresh
coriander, fennel, garlic and alexanders, and οη the side there's sorrel,
cabbage, beet and blite: they pour α pound of silphium ßηtο ßτ, and smash
mustard seed ßη οη top,: stuff so fierce it makes their ο\νη eyes ,σ,later before
τhey've finished grinding ßτ, §ihen τhey cook α dinner τhey aren't flavouring ßτ

Ι5
Fish-pLaτe from ιhε
(jreeh states ßη southem
Ι ταΙγ . |Y/as ßτ for
seιι,ing fish? 'Ι-his one
depick (not ιο scale!)
redmul\et, sòa üass,
bream and òυιιΙεfsh.

ινßιh seasonings, but with night-ol,vls τhat are going to eat out your living
ßηtεsιßηεò! Νο rvonder people around here die young ιvhen ιhey pack υρ αΙΙ
τhis green sτuff inside τhem, vegeτables that are frighteμing even to ταΙΚ
about, let alone eat. Ιfthe corvs rvon't eat ßι, γου can be sure that people will!

Classical Greek cuisine added three or four spices or herbs to α dish: ßη

α typical recipe ßη Apicius, as many as ten strong flavourings are to be
found. Jusτ as rviτh complex Orienτal dishes, τhe result should be highly
appeτising, for each Roman cook had to temper his recipes to τhε tasτes
and requirements of those rvho rvould share the meal,
Roman food can easily defend iτself against αηγ charge of excessive
seasoning. The simple unadorned Greek style has its merits, there is ηο
doubι. Βυτ τhere is someτhing unique αbουτ Roman food: α ταsτε
explosion, reminiscenτ of Indian food ατ its besτ, τhaτ rvill be found new,
exotic and exciting. The Roman Empire is often τhought of as decadent
and extravagant, and the Apicius cookery book provides some evidence
for τhis, buτ ßt also sτrongly reflecτs α more refined, tasteful cuisine, α
cuisine for τhe sophisτicaτed, culτured Roman lvho had as much
contempτ aS αηγ Satirical poet for the fashion-conscious gourmeιS,
Apicius contains such dubious delicacies as larks'tongues, sterile sows'
wombs, dormice; α plethora of birds, rvarblers, parrots) turτle dovòs,
peacocks, flamingoes; sea food such as sea urchins, porpoises, jellyfish.
Other sources mention camel hoof and cockerel combs. They are αΙΙ
delighτfully exotic and suiτ the sτereoτype of τhe decadenτ Roman
gourmet rvho chose the most bizarre of foods because they rvere rare and
expensive and fashionable, quite forgeττing about τhe taste. Βγ contrasτ
ιve have concentrated ßη τhis book οη foods that are available ßη norτhern
Europe, are not too expensive, and are rvorth the attention of α modern
cook,
These recipes deserve το be used and are intended το be used. They
represent α selection of the best that Greek and Roman cooks have
bequeaτhed us.

ι6
 Introduction

The Ancient Kitchen

Our understanding of the ancient kitchen is largely based οη evidence
from the torvn houses ßη Pompeii. Its dominant feature is the hearth,
ιvhich ßη more primitive cultures ,,vas at ground level but later became α
raised pladorm of masonry ατ α convenient heighτ, Ιη one house τhe ρΙατ-
form extends from wall to wall and has four arches for storage of charcoal
beneaτh. These have often been inteφreted as ovens but ßτ is clear τhατ τhε
oven stood separately from the hearth and τηrαs often outside, especially as
ßτ rvas fired with wood.
The key to this raised platform is that charcoal, without excessive
fumes, rrras used indoors. Α gridiron rvas placed over the coals to take ýe
cooking pots. Experiments Ι have done using charcoal οη α masonry plat-
form bυßΙτ for the purpose have proved very illuminating. §ie αΙΙ Κηοιν
horv to barbecue: the technique is very simple. Ho,nvever, ýe Romans
would ηοτ have wasτed so much of the heat generated as rve do. Α char-
coal fire has αη exτended life well beyond usual barbecue needs, §ihen τhe
ashes are rryell burnt and apparently exhausted, the heat generated and
sτored ßη τhe plaτform can mainτain α simmer for αη exτended period rvhile
α fresh fire is started, moving from one side to the oýer, for frying and
bringing to the boθ. Using this technique αΙ1 the basic methods.of cooking
for which vve now use α gas or electric hob can be performed. The tech-
nique is largely dependent οη understanding the quality ofheat generated
and involves α good deal of waiting around for ýe fire tο be ready for α
particular cooking method.
Μαηγ of τhe recipes ßη this book, which from necessiτy ,,vere prepared

Classical Greek siluer

sieue, later pized as αη
antique by α Roman
coLlector.

Ι7
 The Classical Cookbook

ßη modern kitchen, have norry been reproduced using authentic ceramic

α
ροτs and mεταΙ cooking vessels. Bronze poτs have been found ßη siτuιrι,ýe
house of the Veπii ßη Pompeii, and Roman soldiers have been found
buried ιvith their οινη personal bronze cooking pot. Cheaper earthenware
vessels had α shorιer life-span and ιvere difflculτ το keep clean as ýey ιvere
unglazed. Ιη Apicius ýe cook often calls for α nerv ροt, implying that
residues from previous dishes could taint some foods. Lead vessels
existed, strange as that may seem, and appear to have been used ιryhen
boiling dorryn must (grape juice) into syrups for §weetening and colouring.
ΡΙßηγ τhe Elder actually τells us that τhey liked the particular flavour
imparted by lead!
Roman ovens \λ/ere dome-shaped and could be built into αη outer,,ναΙl.
Larger ovens could be free-standing, made of brick and shaped like α bee-
hive. Those found at Pompeii are elaboraτe structures that could hold
many loaves at once. Ovens inside the kitchen were charcoal-fired and
eiτher free-standing or used οη top of the hearth. The literary sources refer
το this type of oven as eitheτ usιurn οτ clibanus. They ιvere dome-shaped
ιηιßÜι α small hole ßη the top and α proiecting flange that seems to have been
used to hold τhe coals, and they rvere made of bronze, ßτοη or α coarse
earthen,,vare, Archaeological finds shorv ιhat large amounts of grog (sand,
sτone and broken pot) rvere mixed ινßτh ýe clay το enable it to rvithsτand
ýe τhermal shock of direct òοηtαòτ ινßτh ýe fire.
Ιη use the τesτum Is suspended over the fire υητß very hot, and ýen the
hearth is cleaned. The bread or cake rvas placed directly οη the hearth and
Roman saucepan: α
highly practical design,
ýe τesτurn placed over it. Hot coals ιvere heaped around and οη top of the
the ings οη the base τesτum befoτe the baking process began. Using equipment based οη
(ight) ensuing more archaeological finds, Ι have found that α baking temperatuιre of 375-4oooF
eιιeη heat disπibution. (r9o-zoooC) is easily maintained, and Ι have produced some very

ι8
 Introduction

successful bread and cakes. Ιt is apparent that these ovens were used at
α domestic level for baking honey cheesecakes (pages 921),,,vhich are
besτ served warm, The accumulaτed hot ashes from α day's cooking
are the ideal medium for the baking process) whereby ηο hεατ ατ αΙΙ is
lyasted.
Placed οη tορ of α dish of similar material, ,esra could be used for cook-
ing moist dishes such as mεατ or fish. The dish rvould stand directly οη the
hearth, wiý the τεsτυm over τhe food, and the coals rvould be pushed υρ
against the sides and οη the flange iust as for baking. Apicius gives instruc-
tions for just such α method when he tells the reader to cook kidneys ßη α
clibanus: see the recipe for Barley Rolls (page 5Ζ) for α discussion οη alter-
native baking covers.
Some very sophisticaτed pieces of equipment have been unearτhed at
Pompeii. Iτ seems the Roman cook had access το such iτems as fish ΚεττΙεs,
moulds ßη the shape of suckling pigs and hare, and poπable braziers thaτ
could cook and keep dishes hot ßη the dining room. Other kitchen furni-
τure include fixed stone pillars which served as the base for α wooden table
and kiτchen sinks, often supplied u,ith hot ινατετ, Ιη α larger kitchen τhe
ubiquitous amphora stood against ýe ιναΙΙ ιο store wine and fish sauce.
Large mοτtαπ'α, suspended οη tripods) \ryere used ιο mix the various
sauces. The Roman ιnortarium rvas α large shallolv vessel with grit em-
bedded ßη τhe clay το aid τhe break-up of spices (Ι οινη α number of
replicas for use ßη my experiments) and they are far superior to the
modern deep smooτh mortar) ιvhich by comparison is very inadequate).
Α morτar is essential for reproducing Greek and Roman food. Pounding
and purÝeing would have been α task for α menial household slave ßη
αη ancient kitchen and ιηrουΙd have taken hours of effort. Ιf γου do
not have α slave to hand, then Ι suggest γου invest ßη α food processor
at once!

S ome Unfamiliar Ι ngredients

FIsιl Seucε 'Here is |ordly garum, α costly gifτ, made from τhε firsτ
blood of α sτill-gasping mackerel'- Martial's verse, ιvriιτen ιο accompany
α liττle present of α jar of garum, or liquamen as it rvas also Κηοτνη, cannoτ
change τhe fact ιhaτ Greek and Roman fish sauce has α raτher unattracτive
sound. Ψhole fish,was mixed wiτh salt and left to ferment for υρ το τhree
monτhs. The resulting liquid was strained off and bottled. Ιt vιas used - ßη
surprisingly large quantities - ßη many Roman and Greek dishes. The
smell given off during its producτion was so bad τhaι making gaιum ßπ
urban areas \.vas sometimes outlawed. Fish sauce manufacture,,llas ßη facτ
τhe οηΙγ large-scale facτory indusτry ßη τhe ancienτ world. Archaeological

Ι9
 The Classical Cookbook

siτes ßη souτhern Spain and around ιhε Black Sea aττesτ το the exisιence οf
α fish sauce indusτry as early as τhε eighτh and sevenτh cenτuries sC.
These factory siτes are, typically, beside α beach or harbour. The fish
was οηΙ1, α feιv hours from the net rvhen the process began. Ιt is ηοτν clear
ιhaτ τhe image of garum as α τοtτεη decaying subsτance is quiιe
misleading. Ψhaτ ιοοΚ place was not bacterial action (ιvhich would have
been impossible given the high proportion of salt) but enzymic
proteolvsis, α process ßη which the enzymes ßη the guτ of the fish reacτ
ιη,ßý the salt to produce α pungent brine. Ψhole fish and the enaails from
larger fish ,σere used. Βγ conιrast, vvhen the fish τηrαs cleaned before salt-
ing, the more active enzymes \Λ/ετε removed and α clearer brine vras the
result. The solid residue left behind when garum rvas strained off ιηrαò
cal7ed αΙιò, and may have been ηοt unlike τhε blachan or τταsß of modern
South-easτ Asia, It rvas valued ßη iτs own righτ for its seasoning qualiτies
and as α medicine. According to αη ancient encyclopaedia, αΚò wαò
applied to burns, but it was effective οηΙγ ιvhen patients did not know
rryhat was being used οη them. Considering the poιverful smell of αΙΙ these
substances, hοτηι could they fail το guess?
It is quiτe clear from τhε ancient recipes IhaI garum, οτ liquamen,was α
strongly flavoured brine, τhin and free-flowing. Amphoras labelled 'best
strained liquamen' have been found. Roman fish sauce ιπas absolutely
nothing like modern anchovy pasτe: using the laττer has been τhe
dοινηΓαΙΙ οf many αη ατιεmρι ιο recreaτc αηòßεηι recipes.
Enthusiasts for Roman food have tried to make galam ßη modern
Briιain and l.Jorth America. Unless carried out under α hot sun and ατ α
considerable distance Γτοm neighbours, τhese experimcnιs are unrvise
and probably unsafe. Luckily there is ηο need for them. Fish sauce rvas
utterly indispensable ßη ancienτ cookery (ßτ is the way ßη which salt rvas
added tο nearly every recipe), buτ it is also essential, το τhis day, το τhe
cuisine of South-east,Asia. Ιη modern South-east Asia the making of fish
sauce, by α yearJong fermentaτion process almost identical wiτh lvhat
is described ßη the ancient sources, is α rvidespread coττage indusτry.
Ψhen setting out to recreate ancient flavours, then, γου must start with
α boτιle of fish sauce, Vietnamese nuoc mam or Thai nam ρΙα. There are
health questions concerning the unpasteurised fish sauces marketed ßη
Souτh-easτ Asia iτself, buι τhe brands τhaτ are exporτed are pasτeurised,
and this treatment makes ηο real difference to the flavour of ιhe finished
dish. }1zoc π am caπ be bought ßη αηγ Chinese supermarket. Ιf γου cannot
find α local source, ask for advice from τhe nearest Thai or Vieτnamese
restaurant.
Incidentally, there are from time το time rumours τhat garum-
making has survived αι τhis or τhατ Mediτerranean village. As far as
Greece and ltaly are concerned, these are nothing more than rumours so
 Introduction

far. Ιη ancienτ τimes fish sauce was often infused with herbs during prep-
ατατßοη. I alrvays decanτ mγ nuoc man aπdadd fresh sprigs of oregano or
rue.

SιιτΗιυm AND ΑSΑFοΕτιοι Silphium was α remarkable spice, knorvn

το Greeks and Romans for its medicinal properties as well as for iτs use ßη
food. Iτ was grown οηΙγ ßη Cyrenaica (modern Libya) and was so valuable
τhaτ ιhe Roman sιate treasury sτored ßt alongside gold and silver. Then
came α disasιer for τhe hisτory of cuisine. The Roman encyclopaedisτ
ΡΙßηγ (αο 24-7φ explains τhat silphium was ηο longer το be found:
For many year§ now it has not been seen ßη Libya: the agents rvho lease
grazing land, scenιing higher profiτs, had allowed sheep το overgraze τhε
silphium stands. The single stem found ιvithin living memory \.vas sent ιο
ιhe Emperor Nero. Ιf αη animal should ever come υροη α promising shoot,
τhε sign will be τhατ α sheep afτer εατßηg ßτ rapidly goes το sleep, rvhereas α gοατ º'ωο centaurs taste τhe
sneezes rather loudiy. For α long time ηοιν, horvever, the οηΙγ silphium neω ωßηe. Ιt ωas
broughτ το us ßη Rome has been that originaτing ßη lran and Armenia, ,which fermenιed ßη huge half-
is plenιiful enough, but not nearly as good as Cyrenaic. sunken earthenωare
uaτs (ρßιhοß).
Scholars have found ßτ hard το believe τhατ τhe silphium of Libya could
really have become extinct) and γου sometimes read of its rediscovery.
Βυτ τhe goaτ never sneezes: the rediscovered 'silphium' never has τhe
flavour or the po\ver of its legendary forebear. Nero really did eaτ τhe lasτ
of ßτ.
Luckily τhe substituτe thaτ was used from Pliny's τime onrvards, τhe
'silphium' of Central Asia, is still easily available, although ßτ is hardly
ever used by Ψesτern cooks. Ιt is asafoeτida, τhε resin of τhe planτ Ferula
asafoeτida, α relative offennel. Ιη using this we can be confidenτ τhaτ vle
are doing εχαòτΙγ ιηιhαι the cooks of τhe Roman Empire, the cooks vrho
first used the recipes of Apicius, r.vould have done. Asafoetida is used
ιvidely ßη ιhe Middle East for medicinal purposes, and ßη India ßη cookery
(it is often listed as αη ingredient οη packets of ready-made poppadoms
and nans). Ιτ is rumoured tο be one of the secret ingredienτs ßη Ψorcesτer-
shire Sauce. The pure aroma and flavour of asafoeτida can be compared
wiτh leek or garlic, bυτ are besι signalled by one of its modern names,
'devil's dung'.
Asafoetida can be purchased ßη τhe §iesτ ßη ττη,ο differenτ forms, bοτh
deriving from τhe resin τhaτ is τapped from τhe τοοτ of τhe planτ. §ie
prefer τhe pure τßηòτυτε, rvonderfully rich and pungenτ, Once widely
available from chemists, ßτ can still be bought from α ιηrell-sτocked
apoτhecary or herbalist. Baldrvin's (for the address see page Ζ4) can
provide this as well as many of τhe obscure herbs called for ßη ancienτ
rccipes. Almost as porverful is the asafoetida that is sold as hing irι Indian

2Ι
 .,'r§ιΙΛηι

The Greek King of food stores. Α yellorv powder, this consists of asafoetida resin mixed ιηιßth
Cyrene (modern l-ibya) flour or bean meal ιο sτabilise ßτ, jusι as rvas done wiτh ancienι silphium;
supeιuising exports.
τurmeric may also be added for colour.
This 1τh-cenτury-sc
Sparιan cup is said to
The recipes τhατ follow suggesτ τhε qυαητßιγ of asafoeτida το use,
depicτ τhe silphium wheτher α pinch of hing or one or τινο drops of τßηòτυτε. Whichever form
üιslmess, α Cyrenaic γου use, ιake care. Asafoetida can impart α parτicularly unpleasant ταsτε
monopoly, rryhen used το excess, as Ι found το my òοsτ during my early experimenτs.
For α Roman banquet for seventy people, Ι made half α gallon of lentil
sτew ι.vhich Ι υηfοττυηατεΙγ seasoned ινßτh raιher too much asafoeτida. Ιη
αη αττεmρτ το salvage τhe ste\η/ Ι added honey. This ιvorked, but ßτ needed
tοο much honey. As α last resort Ι added sugar, rvhich saved the dish and
τurned ßτ ßητο α success. Sugar rvas α cosτly rarity ßη ancienτ Rome - α
medicine, ηοτ α food ingredienτ - but my siτuaτion was desperaτe!

LονRcε This, Leuisticum officinale, is the single most commonly used

herb ßη Apicius. There are ατ leasτ fifτy recipes τhaτ begin ιvith τhe rvords
'pound pepper and lovage'. Romans used ßt at Ιεαsτ as commonly as α
modern cook might use parsley. Ιt has α bitter sharp flavour that has
perhaps caused it tο lose popularit_v ßη recent centuries, yet it is very
useful ßη everyday cooking, and especially good ßη fish and pulse
(legume) dishes. Iτs flavour is fundamenτal to authentic Roman food.

Ζ2
 ,,λ -ß.ß
! :-!,-
η 1
]
.;.

β
.ι
., ,,

*ÝΡ

,ri.§';];

Lovage grorvs rvell ßη α temperate climate and it is best used fresh. Ιf Sτil\-\ife from τhe
House of Julia Felix,
γου have α herb garden, give it α ττγ - but remember τhατ it can reach Ροιηρεßß: α tasselled
ιο ft (3 m). If your supply runs ουt) holvever, γου can use the pale green
cloth, apeωterωine-
leaves of celery as αη alternative: τhe flavour is remarkably similar. Ιf γου jug, thnιshes, α plate of
have access ιο α large supply oflovage αΙΙ at once, γου can preserve ßτ by eggs, α small jar of
chopping it finely and storing ßt ßη olive οßl. ωßηε, and α bronze
mortar and seιιling
Rυε Anoτher culinary herb τhat was once very popular , Ruτa graueoLens spoon αΙΙ heφ to suggest
Ιαχυτγ food and ωßηε.
is norv rarely used. This is α pity: its unusual bitter flavour is still valuable
ßη τhe kiτchen, and ßτ has had α great τερυτατßοη as α medicinal herb. Ιτ,
τοο, imparts αη unmisτakable flavour το ancienτ recipes.
Rue is α hardy evergreen that grorvs well ßη αηγ soil. Ιt can be found
dried, buτ ßτ is so easily grorvn - even οη τhe window sill - thaτ τhe dried
leaf need never be used. The stems and leaves of rue can cause αη allergic
reaction ßη sensitive skins ifpicked ßη bright sunlight, so take care over
τhis. Once picked, ßτ is quite safe as α food ingredienτ.

Οτrlεη Hrnss AND SpIcEs The ναsτ majoriτy of herbs and spices
menτioned ßη this book are readily available from herbalisτs, healτh-food
shops and supermarkets (aniseed, fennel seed, pine kernels, ρορργ
seed), Most of the herbs can be grown ßη αηγ garden (pennyroyal, for

L1
 The Classical Cookbook

example). CαΙαmßηι is ηοt so easy ιο find, unless γου know v,zhere it groιvs
wild. Βαγ berries can be picked ßη late ryinter or early spring if γου have α
bay τree, or they can sometimes be found οη fresh bay leaves when γου
buy τhem. 'Biττer almonds'found ßη α Chinese supermarket, τhough ηοτ
the same species as ancienτ bitter almonds) are α safer substitute for them,
because the bitter variety of our western almond is poisonous unless
roasτed. Ground coriander seed is ιvidely available; coriander leaf is noτ
so common. The ρΙαητ ιηιßΙΙ not gτοτw ever}ºvhere, bυτ fresh coriander is
sold ßη season ßη bunches ßη many food sτores. Iι can also be boughτ
preserved ßη οßΙ, as described for lovage above.
Α good mail-order source of unusual herbs and spices ßη the υΚ is
G. Baldlvin & Co. Lτd, ι7ι-lº3 §ialrηlorτh Road, London sEI7 IRw.

PRssUιι (RnIslπ \Χ/ινε) ¶ Knossos vine, ουτ of Μßηοαη Creτe, sends

γου τhis raisin ryine. Ιτ is τhe poor man's vsval Mulsum,' wroτe Marτial.
The Romans used many different types of sweeτener ßη τheir sauces, one
of the finest of which waspassum)which also imparted α rich deep colour.
Raisin rvine rvas made ßη Crete throughouι ancient and medieval times,
and is sτill produced ßη ΙταΙγ and France (where it is Κηοινη as υßη de
paille). Ιτ is certainly not α poor man's drink. The poet Marτial's little gift-
verse, quoted above, is displaying false modesty. For more οη muLsum,
incidenτally, see the recipe for Spiced Ψine οη page ιοι.
ΡΙßηγ describes horv the Cretans made their famous raisin urine:
Some make passuπ from αηγ sweet, early-ripening, rvhite grapes, ιlrying the
bunches ßη the sun τßΙΙ little over half their weighτ remains. Then they genτly
express τhe must. The more painstaking makers dry the grapes ßη this same
way, pick the individual grapes and soak them, rvithouτ τhe stalks, ßη fine
wine τßΙΙ τhey srvell, αηd then press them. This sτyle is considered betτer than
αηγ other.

Υου may be undersιandably τòΙυòιαηι ιο buy expensive passiιo, or zir

sarlo, modern raisin wine, from αη ltalian food store, for use as α food
flavouring; indeed, γου may not be able to find them. Luckily the Latin
farming writer Columella (c. AD 6ο) gives full instrucτions for making
passum, from,which ßτ is clear that α version adequate for cooking, based
οη red rvine, can be imitated οη α small scale ßη τhe modern kiτchen, Take
ι ρßητ(ΖνΖ. cups/57o ml) red r-vine and 4οΖ(ιΖο g) raisins. Soak τhe raisins
ßη τhe r.vine for tr1,1o το τhree days υηtßΙ they are soft and srvollen, Blend
or mash the mixture and strain through α fine sieve, pushing through as
much as possible of the ρυΙρ. The result can be used immediaτely.

Dετ,ηυτυιυ Rπυ οτυεR CοπòειιτηeτΕD GRApE JUIcεs Caroenum,

defruτum and §αρα,ý/ετε grape musts reduced by boiling. Likepassιzlιι τhey

24
 Farmer milking α goat.
Roman tomb relief .
τý/ετε used as sweeteners ßη sauces. The three names identify differenτ
sτrengths. Defrutum, vvhich is needed ßη some of the recipes ßη τhis book,
is red grape juice reduced by α half or more. Simply ταΚε ι litre (4% cups)
red grape juice, reduce ßt υηtßΙ one third is left, and sτore. It is used ßη
tablespoon measures.

Απòιεπτ AND MoDERN CHEEsEs Greeks and Romans made many

different types of cheese, but there is little detailed informaτion abouτ
τhem. Mosτ of the recipes simply call for goat's or sheep's cheese (coιv's
milk cheese is ηοτ so ofτen required), ιviτhouτ τelling us τνhατ τhe τεχτυτε
was. Yet the texture is all-important for the recipes ßη τhis book,
parτicularly for τhe srveeτ cakes from Cατο's farming handbook ßη
chapter 5. Here fresh cheese is essential, because nerry cheese has little
salτiness το interfere τηrßth the honey.
Columella gives useful instructions for cheese-making. He τells us το
put α pennyweight of rennet, the ιveight of α silver denarius (3.99 g), το α
ραßΙ of milk. The milk is then rvarmed and, rvhen it begins to curdle, is
sτrained τhrough α rvicker baskeτ. Ιτ is τhen moulded and compressed, Ατ
this stage ßt can either be hardened rryith salt or simply soaked briefly ßη
brine.
25
 The Classical Cookbook

Ι wanτed το make α sofτ sweeτ cheese το use ßη τhε recipe for Layered
Cheesecake (page 94), and ßη folloιving Columella's instructions tried το
keep ýe salt to α minimum. Ιt ιηιαs also very successful as αη eaτing cheese.
Having experimented τνßτh many different cheeses, Ι recommend feta, α
type which dates from medieval times and may be made from either
sheep's or goat's milk; chÝvre, α goaτ's milk cheese also knorvn as
boucheron, that is sold ßη the tradiιional log shape; Pecorino Romano, α
hard sheep's cheese very similar to Parmesan; ricotta, which is tradition-
αΙΙγ made from the whey lefτ over from τhe manufacture of Pecorino
Romano; and Pecorino Toscano, α semi-hard sheep's cheese thaτ is mildly
salty and is the closesτ Ι can find το τhε cheese Ι myself made using
Columella's recipe.

Α Νοττ Ατουτ BιRIπs AND SwEETBREADS Greeks and Romans used

these frequently ßη their stuffings and sausages. They are included ßη the
recipes that follow, but obviously using them is α matter of individual
choice. Iη Britain BSE (bovine spongiform encephalopathy), commonly
κηοννη as 'mad òοτη, disease', has ηο\ν been effectively eradicaτed.
Officially lamb's brain and sweeτbreads are safe, yet they have become
very scarce because of the prevailing caution. Αη independenτ butcher
may be able tο obtain them, Srveeτbreads are delicious and it is α great ρßτγ
that they have become so unpopular. Lamb's brain, as used ßη Roman
sτuffing, is also sτrongly recommended. Ιη ýe ττνο recipes ßη which ßτ
occurs Ι have suggested minced (ground) lamb as αη alternative.

MεRsUkεs used ßη τhe recipes are level unless oιherrvise sτaτed.

Ησω tο serιιe ωßηε,

Athenian style. |Yine ßò
already mixedωiτh
ωater ßη the kraιer: the
oinochoe (1ug) ιß
dipped inτo τhe kraτer
ßη order to fill the cups
(tωο kinds, skyphos
andkylix) held by τhe
bσy οη τhe lefτ.

Ζ6
 Ι

ΤΗε HoMEcoMING
οF OoyssEιIs
he τen-year siege of Troy, the victory gained by means of α
rvooden horse, the unhappy homecomings of the victorious Greek
v,larriors - these stories were familiar tο everv Greek who went to
school. They were told ßη the lliad and Odyssey, tιvo epic ιales rvhich, as
everyone kneιv, had been sung by α blind poet, Homer, before recorded
hisτory began. They ιvere tales so marvellous τhat noτhing could spoil
τhem, ηοτ even τhe facτ τhατ τhey ιvere seτ τεχτs το be learnτ by hearτ.
Homer himself did not say hoιv many hundreds of years had passed
since Troy fell: he was singing of α lost age of heroes. Νοιν ιhat Troy and
Mycenae and Pylos have been excavated ,we Κηοτγ that if the siege ever
happened, as τhe lliad τells us it did, ßι must have been before ι2οο BC,
five centuries or more before the poems ,,vere composed.
Inτhe lliad and Odlusey α rvhole vrorld is picτured. Iτ is noτ τhe real
Mycenaean world of ι3οο Bc,σ,lith its labyrinτhine palaces and iτs clay
τableτs; nor is ßτ quiτe τhe Greek world of 7οο ιc ßη which Homer mυsτ
have lived. But ßτ is α ιryorld so convincing ßη every deτail, and so familiar
το αΙΙ rvho read the epics, that it has tο be part of αηγ reconstruction of
Greek and Roman life.

Afighτing,cock: ear|ι
nidence of the
introduction of τhe
ιIomestic chicken to
Greece , οη αιι Athenian
òφ of αbουτ 45ο τC,
pτobably by ιhe 'Tleson
I)aintef.

27
 The Classical Coohbook

ºhe Iliad τells the sτory of the Greek warriors' quarrels outside the
ιvalls of Troy. There they raided or hunted for meat. And with their roasτ
meat they drank strong) sweet, red wine, brought there by seamen who
ιvould beach τheir ships, sετ υρ α market οη the shore and accept captive
slaves and livesτock ßη exchange for τheir vinτage.
Ιη the Odyssey ,we hear of Odysseus' ten-year wanderings and
advenτures οη his,σlay home το lthaca. He stayed τοο long, perhaps, rviτh
τhe beautiful goddess Calypso, tßΙΙ Hermes, the gods'messenger) came το
τeΙΙ her τhaτ ßτ qras τime το let him go. The ροeτ shows us Calypso and
Odysseus sharing α homely supper before going to bed τogether for τhε
lasτ τime: 'They came το τhe hollorl,z cave) τhe goddess and τhe man
τogeτher. So he vras sitting τhere οη τhe chair where Hermes had sat, and
τhe young woman laid ουt every food, for him to eat and drink, that
morτal men can eaτ; she ιvas sitting facing godlike Odysseus, and maids
put out ambrosia and nectar for her.'
Ιτ is parτ of τhe charm of the Odys§θ} τhat α picτure of α young
houseιvife, serving her man vriτh food before eaτing herself, can τhε nexτ
mοmεητ be α portraiτ of α goddess attended by maids * for ßτ ι-vas
immortals rvho had to feed οη ambrosia and nectar.
Shipιvrecked οη Scherie (α fantasy island, but believed by many to be
Corfu), Odysseus,was forτunate to be ιvelcomed το τhe palace of Alcinous.
He paused το admire τhe king's fruit garden: 'Outside τhe yard is α big
orchard οη boτh sides ofτhe gates, offour acres, and α hedge runs along
each side of ßτ, There, ταΙΙ τrees spread τheir leaves, pears and pom-
egranates and shiny-fruited apples and s,weet figs and leafy olives. Their
OÞιsseus is not affected fruiτ never fails or falls shorτ, winτer or summer, αΙΙ τhe year: as τhe §aesτ
blι Circe's magic Ψind blou,s ßτ ferτilises some and ripens others, Pear υροη pear grows old
potion. His men ωere and apple υροη apple, grapes υροη grapes and fig υροη fig.'
not so luchlι and haue Food and drink were at the centre of Homeric life, Food lefι over from
been turned into sιuine τhe Ιαsτ meal τvas, by unspoken rule, given generously to α stranger before
(see page 4ο).
he rvas asked his name. And ßη α king's household, lavish feasting v/as τhε
'Daybreak Paintet',
abouτ 5οο BC.
order of the day even when the king himself ιναs missing and feared dead.
This, at αΙΙ events, was,uvhat Odysseus discovered when he returned to
his homeland of lthaca. Disguised as α penniless vagranτ, carrying α
leaτher begging bag which he hoped το fill with food, drawn by τhe smell
of roast mεατ (beei mυττοη or pork v,zould have been roasted over αη open
fire ßη τhe farmyard), Odysseus stood at last ατ τhe doorway of his oryn
smoke-filled hall, ιvatching the carousal of the men who were compeτing
το claim the hand of his faithful Penelope.
Ατ τhε cenτral fireplace of α Homeric household, \,ve gaτher, τhe
Men sat οη stools around
\Ir'omen, children and servants clustered. the
ιvalls, each wiτh α well-scrubbed table before him. The tables had το be
clean, for the diners had ηο plates. Joints of roast meat,were served, bread

Ζ8
 The Homecoming of Odyssaus

rvas ταΚεη around piled high ßη baskets, α rvine-rvaiter rvas always at hand. fuIen and dogs together
Α singer sang sτories of gods and heroes - sιories iusτ like ιhe Odyssey haue conιercd tΙιe
ΙεgòηιΙαη, Calydonian
iτself, perhaps - and mighτ earn α well-chosen cut of meat ßη reward for α
boar, Athenian cup,
ιη,ell-told τale.
early6ιhcenτuN BC.
This ιvas τhε scene ιhατ τhe mysterious beggar saw. Soon he rvas το
throrv off his disguise, to snatch dovvn the bow that οηΙγ he could draιv,
and το massacre τhe young men ιvho had invaded his house, eaten υρ his
livesτock and slept ιyith his slave-girls. Then at lasι he ιvould taste once
more ιhε best wine from his dark sιoreroom, kepι locked αιναγ by his old
housekeeper ιο arvaiι his reιurn.

There are ηο recipes ßη the Ι liad or Od5,ssey . Yet the poet's vision of the
world of τhe 'heroes'was so sharp and clear τhaτ ι.νε do hear α good deal of
ντhατ he imagined they ate and drank. And his imagination ran to simple,
hearιy, roasτ mεαι. The dishes listed beloιv are suggesτed ßη one way or
anoτher by τhe epics - and τhey serve το inτroduce αΙΙ ιhe main sources of
recipes used ßη laιer chapters. Homer might νι,εΙΙ have been surprised by
our selecτion of dishes, buτ he would ηοτ have been surprised by mosτ of
τhe individual ingredients or the flavours. Ψe cannot suggest α Homeric
swεετ - excepτ τhe fresh fruiιs of Alcinous' orchard, fruits ιhατ ηο one

29
 The Classical Cookbook

Mistress drinks
greedily; slaue girl
ωalhs gloomily behind,
caιrying α ωine-shin οη
her head, Athenian
ηιιg (skyphos) ο/
abouτ 465 ηò:.

happens to bite inτo from beginning το end of τhε epic - bυτ instead we
have taken inspiration from Galen's description of α 'pancake', α dish
whose hisτory cerτainly does go back very nearly to τhε τßmε of Homer.
Norv to the wine τhaτ,would accompany α Homeric feast. The priesτ
Maron, who lived οη the north Aegean coast of Greece, presented α fine
gift to Odysseus ßη the course of his τravels. Maron'drerv off for me sweeτ
unmixed rvine ßη trvelve amphoras, α divine drink: none of the slaves or
servants ßη his house had known ßτ, bυτ himself and his dear wife and one
housekeeper οηΙγ. And whenever he drank τhe honeyed red wine, filling
α cup he poured it into twenty measures of ιvater, and α marvellous srveet
smell rose from ιhe mixing bowl.' Some gullible Romans took every ιvord
of τhe epics as hisτory, ΡΙßηγ ιvriτes: 'Fame came earliest, we learn from
Homer, tο Maronean ινßηε from the Aegean coast of Thrace. . Homer
reported τhat Maronean ιναs to be mixed with trventy parts of water. Iη
ιhat counιry the grape retains its strength and formidable porver, for α
Very recent author, Mucianus (τhree τimes Consul), reported thaτ when
he was there he sarv each pinτ being mixed wiτh eight of \I/ater: it was
black ßη colour, fragrant, and became fuller rvith age.'
Ψe cannot really taste Maron's wine. Ψe οηΙγ knorv, from the phrases
τhατ came ηαιυταΙΙγ το τhe ροετ, τhaτ Homeric wine rvas 'black' (as red
ιvine really is, especially ßη earthenrvare cups), 'fiery', 'smoky' and
sometimes 'sweet' or 'honeyed' - and that the hosι mixed it ιvith vrater
before it rη,as served. For αη epic feast, there can be ηο better choice ofdry
ιvhite ιvine τhαη τhe firmly aromaτic Manτinea, iust such α rvine as
Menelaus' neighbours might have brought ßη for his sons' rvedding feast

3ο
- or τhε lighter Robola of Cephallenia, where Odysseus is supposed το Feasting among the
have held some land. Choose α poιverful red rvine: solid Nemea, perhaps, gods. There are cakes
from τhe venerable vineyards ßη the hills north of Argos. Ψine from here andfruýs οη the tables
before each couch.
was surely good enough for Agamemnon. As α desserτ rvhite rvine, there
Fieze from αη
is the gloriously sweet and aromatic muscaτ of Lemnos, ßη ιhe norτh Athenian ωine-mixing
Aegean, just off the Thracian coast. Α Greek delicatessen can flnd αΙΙ of bοωΙ, probably by τhe
τhese, and α Greek mineral ,σater tο go beside them, Whatever τhe heroes 'Meleager Paintet',
might τhink, we prefer to serve the water separately from the rvine! abouτ j9o ac,

Oliue Relish
Α maid poured ωαtετ from α beauφl gold jug ouer τhe uisiτors' hands inτo
α siluer bοωΙ, and dτειρ φ α carued τable. Αη aged househeeper had ρυτ
out bread, adding many relishes, and encouraged them to tasτe αΙΙ τ,hat ωas
ßη τhe house. Α ωaiτer set out for τhem bronze τrays of αΙΙ sorτs of meaτs,
and goΠ dnnking-cups. Α senant often passed by to pour ωßηε for them.
HoMER, Odyssq ι, ι36-43

Ηοω to mahe green, blach οτ mixed oliue relish. Remoue stones from green,
black or mixed oliues, then prepareas folloωs: chop them and add οßΙ,
uinegar, coriander, cumin, fennel, rue, mint, Pot them: the οßΙ should couer
them. Readlι to use.
òετο, Οη Agiculture ττ9

Cato is τhe early Roman soldier and politician rvhose farming handbook
forms τhe basis of chapter 5. This recipe therefore dates from abouτ

3Ι
 The Classical Cookbook

2οο Bc) buτ olives provided relish and flavouring αΙΙ through ancient
τimes. The olive τree had been under òυΙτßνατßοη ßη Greece for α τhousand
years, if ηοτ longer, rvhen τhe IliadaπdOdyssey were composed; classical
civilisation is almost unimaginable without it. At classical Greek
banqueτs olives were served ßη brine, and sometimes, ηο doubt, they
were served as relishes similar to τhis. Olive pasτes and relishes are ιvidely
available τoday ßη delicaτessens.
One or tιvo details of the ancient recipe are unclear. Βγ 'fennel,
,,vell
rue, mint' Cato clearly means the fresh leaves. The recipe works
if τhe 'coriander', too, is the fresh leaf. Βυτ by 'cumin' he mυsτ mean
seed: the leaf is ηοt aromatic. Ι find ýat adding cumin overpo,wers the
herbs, so it is omitted beloιry, Fennel leaf ιηιßΙΙ not be easy to find unless
γου grow ßτ yourself, τhough τhaτ is noτ difficulτ: it must be fresh, as τhe
leaf loses its flavour vghen dried. The distinctive aniseed flavour of fennel
leaf is also found ßη τhe bulbous rooτ of some modern varieτies, which can
no,w be found οη sale as α vegetable, so ιhe chopped root will serve as α
subsτiτuτe. Το make life easier buy piττed olives - buι do buy τhem loose,
from αη ltalian or Greek delicaτessen, not boτtled, canned or vacuum-
packed.

Sεινεs Fουι

4 οΖ(rzo c) τιηòκ οιινεs

4 οΖ (ιΖο c) òιετπ οιινεs
4 TABLEspooπs (6ο mι) ηεο ττιΝΕ vτNEGAR
4 TABLEsj99υI99I2
jLIvE oIL
Ι HEAPED TEASPOON CHOPPED FENNEL LEAF OR
FINELY DICED FENNEL ROOT
2 TEASPOONS CHOPPED FRESH CORIANDER
2 TEASPOONS DRIED OR CHOPPED FRESH RUE
2 HEAPED TEASPooNS DRIED oR 3 TEASPooNS CHoPPED FRESH ΜΙΝΤ

Chop the olives roughly and pour οη the vinegar and olive οßl. Prepare
τhε herbs, chopping τhem finely if fresh, and add το τhε mixτure. Place
τhe olive relish ßη α sealable conιainer and pour α little olive οßΙ over the
tορ.

Ατ τhis sτage it can be eaten, as Caτo firmly says, bυτ Ι find τhατ it improves
rryiτh α fery days' marinating. Ιt is so delicious thaτ Ι have rarely kepτ it for
longer. Try ßτ lviτh piτta bread, accompanied by α sharp sheep's cheese
such as feta.

)L
 The Homecoming of ()ιlysscus

Toronaean Shark οτ Τυηα

Ιη Torone γου must buy belly steahs of the porbeagle sharh. Spinkling
them ωith cumin and α little salτ γου ωßΙΙ add noτhing else, my friend,
unlεss majιbe green oliue οßΙ: ωhen they are done γου ωßΙΙ be seιving
chopped salad for dτessing, and the steaks υßτh ßτ. As γου cooh αΙΙ these
sτeahs,α 'craι' for your coohing pot, don't mix ßη α splash of ωaτer ωiτh
them, or ωßηε u,inegar, but just pour οη οßΙ by itself and ýγ cumin and
aromatic herbs. CοοΚ ouer embers, not α ferce fire, and stir frequently to
ταhε care thaτ τhey do not bυιη.
ARCHESTRATUS 23

It amused laιer Greeks, who rryere enthusiasts for seafood, τhατ Homer's
heroes 'never ατε α fish'- ßη spiτe ofthe facτ τhaτ τhey spenτ τεη years fighτing
ατ Troy, where plentiful τuna and many other fine fish were το be found.
Μεατ,,vas ßη reality α rare luxury for most Greeks, which is probably why
τhe poeτ ρυτ so much emphasis οη ßτ. As archaeologisτs knorv, fish had
already been part ofthe Greekdiet for thousands ofyears, and ηο apology is
|Yine-jar, siluer ωßth needed for including it ßη αη epic menu, Archestratus' instrucτions,
ι!ßΙιΙßηg, from the quoτed here, daτe from abouτ 35ο Bc, bυτ τhε meτhod used ßη α household
l'arsian Empire (soon of Homer's τime could r,,,ell have been idenτical. Of τhe ingredienτs τhaτ
ιο be conquered by
Archestratus calls for, οηΙγ cumin rvas not native to Greece. Even cumin is
Λlcxander) _ The
hundles are Ιßοη-
listed, among other aromatics, οη the clay tablets ßη Linear Β script used
Mlftns. for keeping accounts ßη τhe Mycenaean palaces of the Bronze Age; so ßτ
reached Greece at least six hundred years before Homer.
Shark is rarely eaten ßη Britain except ßη restaurants - and that is α greaτ
ρßτγ. Iτ is one of the meaτiesι of αΙΙ the Mediterranean fishes, and
surprisingly well-flavoured. Iη τhe USA the closely relaτed mako has
become deservedly more popular recently. Ιf γου can find οηΙγ frozen
(rather τhan chilled) shark, γου may prefer to subsιitute τuna, which is
more readily available chilled. If using frozen shark, ensure thaτ ßt is
thoroughly defrosted and drained: ßt can hold α great deal ofιvater.
Sεινεs },-ουη

4 SHARK oR ΤυΝΑ STEAKS,

EAcH wEIGHING ΑΒουτ 4 οΖ (ιΖο c)
3 TABLESpooπs (45 mι) EXTRA-vIRGIN oLIvE oIL

"
r.η."üδ"«,,*r*
2 TEASPOONS CHOPPED FRESH OR DRIED MIXED HERBS
(τεηsιαν, οιΞιχ9] J9lrAIDER, ΜιΝτ)
Υη TEASPOON SALT

f)
 The Classical Cookbook

Brush τhe steaks with olive οßl. Combine the cumin, herbs and salt ßη one
bowl. Press α liπle of τhis mixτure οη boτh sides of each sτeak and fry τhem
ßη α liττle olive οßΙ for 6 to 8 minutes οη each side unτil they are golden-
brorvn. Serve with α crisp green salad dressed ιη,ßth α tablespoon of olive
οßΙ, α τablespoon ofred rvine vinegar and α splash offish sauce.

§ie shall see more of the τrenchanτ opinions of τhe gourmeτ ροετ
Archestratus ßη chapter 3. Here he insists, ßη his usual way, οη the one
Greek city that produced his chosen dish at its best. Torone rr,zas ßη
αηòßεητ times τhe cenτre of α rvine-exporτing disτricτ οη τhe cenτral
peninsula of three-pronged Chalcidice ßη norτhern Greece, Νο wine is
exported from quiet Torone beach norv, and ηοt manyvisitors stop there,
ιhough ιhe holiday resort of Porto Carras is just ι5 miles υρ the coast.

Chicken Stuffed ωith Oliues

Bird: Put brohen fresh oliues ßη the cauity, seu υρ and boil.
Remoue the oliues ωhen coohed,
Apicius 6, 5,7

Sεινεs Ττνο το Fουι

6 οΖ (ι 7 ο G) BLι95jΞIΞIIºIIERABLY PITTED
Ι SMALL FRESH CHICKEN
2 ΒΑΥ LEAVES

SALT
ΙΟ BLACK PEPPERCORNS
Ι οΝΙοΝ
Ι cARRoT
Ι CELERY STALK

Chop τhe olives roughly and sτuff the chicken ιvith them. Using α large
darning needle, sε,ý/ υρ the cavity lvith coιton thread or fine cooking
sτring. Place τhe chicken ßη α saucepan and cover τνßτh τηrατετ. Add τhe bay
leaf, salτ, peppercorns and vegeτables. Bring το τhe boil and simmer for
ι 7Ζ hours until tender. Remove from τhe ,water and cool slighιly before
carving.

34
 The Homecoming of Odysseus

The oliue haιvest.

Trees ωere said to fruiι
more steadily if ηοt
treated uiolently - but
this ωas still the usual
ωαγ. Athenianωine-
jarof abouτ 5Ζο BC by
the Anrimenes
Painτet'.

Αρßιßυs is the well-known Roman cookery book of abouτ eo 4οο (see

chapter 8). This is one of its simplest recipes, lacking τhe numerous
spices of which so mαηγ Apicius recipes are full. Ιτ could have been
prepared ßη almost αηγ ancienτ household. The principle behind ßτ is that
the olives should give the chicken their flavour and then be discarded.
This is fine ßη iτself - buτ what α v/aste of olives! Ι τherefore use piττed
olives and serve them wiτh τhe meaτ.
Μγ inclination to experiment with ancient recipes beyond the confines
of the text prompted me to try α number of variations οη τhßs dish. The
peppercorns are my addition: they were available ßη Roman times,
τhough ηοτ ßη early Greece. The chicken can be roasτed insτead ofboiled,
using olive οßΙ wiτh α liττle fish sauce as the medium. Olive relish (see
page 3ι) can be used to form α stuffing if α small amount of cooked
bulghur wheaτ is added το ßτ - τhe resulτ is excellenτ.

35

L--
 The Classical Cookbooh

As for the chicken itself, by Homer's own time the first Greek cocks had
probably cro,,ved! The 'barnyard fowl', native tο southern China, had
gradually spread rlrestrvards tο Greece: unmisτakable vigneττes of cocks
and hens can be found ßη Greek vase-paintings ofabouτ 7οο Bc. They were
exotic Eastern birds. Geese, horvever, ιvere kept ßη Homeric farmyards,
and \yere already being carefully fattened rvith wheat. Duck, goose, quail
and pigeon rvould also be appropriaτe substitutes ßη τhis recipe.

Roast l<id οτ Lamb

'Set υρ α bigger bοωΙ, son of Menoetius, and mßχ the ω,ßηε strongeT, and
mahe α cup foy each of them. 'Ι'hese men that haue come undey mry roof are
υειγ fuar to me,' said Achilles; and Patroclus obeyed his good fiend. Then
he put dοωη α big chopping-block ßη τhe light of the fire, and placed οη ßτ
the bach of α sheep and of α fat gοατ, and α hog|s chine rich ßη lard.
Auτomedon held τhe meat for him, and Achilles cuτ ßτ υρ. He chopped ßτ
and stuch the pieces οη skeωers. Meanωhile godlike Patroclus made ιhε fire
into α great blaze, and then, ωhen τhe Jιτε had burnτ ουτ and the flames
had Üied, he spread the embers and αιταηgεd the sheωeys aboue the fire,
resting them οη τheir supports, and he spinhled the meaτ ωith holy salt.
Then ωhen he had roasted it and piled it οη trays, Patroclus tooh bread
and set it out οη α table ßη Jine baskets, and Achilles serued the meat.
HoMER, Iliad 9,2ο2-ι7

Mainaτed hid or lamb: ι pinτ mßLΚ, 4 οΖ honey, ι οΖ peppeT, α liττle salτ,

α LittLe asafoetida. For the sauce: Ζ fl οΖ οßΙ, Ζ fl. ozfish sauce,
Ζ fl οΖ honey, Β cιushed dates, half pint good ωßηε, α little starch.
Apicius 8,6,7

Roast kid or lamb will make α fine and appropriaτe cenτre tο αη epic feasτ.
Lamb r-vas the favourite meat for special occasions ßη ancient Greece, just
as ßτ is for α modern Easter. This recipe from Apiciιzs is α firsτ-class way το
prepare roasτ lamb for α special dinner. Ιτ takes α liττle effort, bυτ is well
\η/orth ßτ. Discarding the marinade may seem ιvasteful, but it curdles
when heated and,would spoil the finished dish.

Sειvιs Sιx
SHOULDER oF KID oR 2γ2 LB (I.25 Kc) ιεò οF LAMB
oLIvE oIL

36
 The Homecoming of Odysseus

Marinade
ι ΡιΝτ (2γ2 CUPS/57o ML) τιιιικ
4 οΖ (ΥΖ cur/rzo ò) òιεει ΗοΝΕΥ
τ τηιιεsροοπ (3ο c) τεττεη
SALT
ΥΖ TEASPOON ASAFOETIDA POWDER OR 5 DROPS ASAFOETIDA TINCTURE

Sauce
8 CRUSHED FRESH oR DRIED DATES

ιο FL οΖ (ιγ4 CUPS/28o ML) RED \γιΝΕ

4 TABLEsJ99II(69I9 :LIvE oIL
Ζ τηιιεsροοπs (6ο c) òιειR ΗοΝΕγ
4 τιιιιsροοπs (6ο r*ι) rrsn sAucE
Α LιTTLE coRNFLouR (òοηπsτιηòΗ)

Combine the marinade ingredients and leave the meat overnight ßη the
marinade, turning it occasionally to ensure full absorption. Soak the
fresh or dried daτes ßη α ΙßττΙε red vvine ατ τhe same τime. The ηεχι day
remove τhe meaτ from ιhε marinade, ραt it dry) and τhen roasι ßτ ßη αη
oven pre-heaτed to 4oo'F (zoo'C/gas mark 6), ,μrell seasoned and wiτh
olive οßl. The timing should be Ζο minuτes το each ι lb (45ο g) and Ζο
'§i'hen
minuτes ßη addiτion. ιhε meaι is nearly ready, pound τhe daτes το α
ρυΙρ and add το τhe remaining red wine, honey, fish sauce and οßl. Bring
το τhε boil and cook ουι briefly, and thicken wiτh cornflour. §ihen τhe
ioinτ is cooked, remove it from the oven and leave to resτ for ro minuτes
before carving τhick slices and serving ιvith α ΙßτtΙε of τhε sauce οη τhε
side.

This recipe is one of the feιv ßη ιhe Roman cookery book that gives
quanτities. They seem accurate - αt least, they work very rvell - and Ι have
lefτ τhem unalτered. The fact that quantities are given has suggesτed το
some scholars τhat ιhis was originally α Greek recipe. Perhaps more
τelling is τhaτ there are feιver herbs and spices ßη τhis dish τhan ßη oτher
Apicius recipes. Even though it comes from α ιexτ α τhousand years later
τhan Homer - and even though pepper and asafoetida would have been
unfamiliar το τhe epic poet - the recipe is ηοτ ουτ of place ßη τhis chapιer.
Ιτ is parιicularly good with kid if γου can find ßτ. Ι managed to obtain
some ατ α halal butcher ßη London. It will probably need το be ordered ßη
advance, buτ repays τhe exτra efforτ.

37
 The Classical Cookbook

Pancakes ωith Honey and

S esame S eeds
Let us find time to speak of other cahes, the ones made ωith ωheat
flour.
Teganiιai, as ωe call them, are made simply ωith οßl. The οßΙ is
ρυτ ßη α
fιying-pan resting οη α smokeless fire, and ωhen it has heated, tie ωheat
flιυτ, mixed ωiτh plenty of ωater, is poured οη. Rapidly, as ßt
fies ßη the
οßΙ, it sets and thichens like fresh cheese setting ßη the baskek. And at this
point the coohs turn it, putting the uisible side under, neχt to the
ραη, and
bnnging the sufficiently fied side, ωhich uas undelneath at
first, υρ οη to
the top, and ωhen the underneath is set they turn ßt again anotherλo ο,
majιbe three times till they think it is αΙΙ equally coohed. Some mßχ it ωith
honqι, and others again ωith sea-salt.
GALEN, Οη the Prσpertieò of Fοοdò ι, 3

Sειvεs FouR
4 οΖ (r cup/ιzo c) τιουι
8 τι οΖ (r cup/zzs ßιιι) wετεη
2 TABLEspooNs (6ο G) cLEAR ΗοΝΕγ
OIL FOR FRYING
ι TABLESpooπ (ι5 c) ToASTED SESAME SEEDS

Μßχ τhe flour, rvaιer and ι τablespoon honey τogeτher inτo α baττer. Heaτ Ζ
τablespoons οßΙ ßη α frying-pan and pour α quarter of τhe mixτure ßηtο the
fat. \X/hen it has set, turn it two or three times to give αη even colour.
Cook 3 more pancakes ßη the same \γαγ. Serve αΙΙ 4 pancakes hot wßτh τhe
remainder of the honey poured over and sprinkþ r.vith sesame seeds.

Ιτ is α òοηιßηυαΙ surprise hοιη, liττle food changes from one millennium

το
the ηeχτ. The great physician Galen (eo ι29-99), α τireless observer of
details of food and drink, gives α ιlescripτion so'serious and painstaking
thατ we smile to imagine him making notes as he r.vatcheιl α òüοκ τurnin! opposlTE The blind
pancakes. Ιτ is hard to remember τhat he is ιvriτing ι 8οο years ago. \X/hai Phineus is tormented by
is more, the dish was already eight hundred years old ßη his time. º'he ωinged harpies ωhο
early Greek poet Ηßρροηαχ had ,υιτßιτeη οΙ pancakes 'drugged wiτh befoul and steal his
sesame seeds'. Comedy gluττons οη τhe Athenian stage hadipoken of food. Α scene from
'mist rising αι dewy daybreak from τηrατm pancakes' anJ of honey poured mryth οη αη Athenian
jug by τhe'Cleophrades
over them as they sizz\e: α breakfast meal, ηο doubt, and οηe-τhατ rvas
Paintel , about
possibly sold οη τhe sτreets ofancienτ Aτhens from porτable braziers.
18ο nc.

38
 Τ he Η ome c oming ο/- ()ι/γ.s.sι,π.l

Υου can serve modern pancakes rvith honey and tοαslειΙ sesame secds.
However, τνhατ Galen is describing is noτ precisclv ιhε pancιιkc f-amiliar
το us, bυτ someτhing as τhick as α blini or eyen thicker, considering ιhαι ßτ
is to be τurned so many times, Ι also suspect that more οßΙ rvas used Γor
frl,ing than rve rvould normally use, and this is reflected ßη the mοι]ετη
αdαριαιßοη given abovc.

39
 The Classical Cookbook

Poπidge (Iφkeon)
Fαßτ-Ιιαßτεd Hecamede made kykeon for ιhεηι - Hecamede ωhom the old
man had got as his pize from Tenedos, selecτed for him by the Greeks
because of his exccllencζ as αιι aduiser. First she moτ,ed α τable ιφ to them,
α fine polished τable ωiτh α darh gleaming sτand: οη it she placed α bronze
dish ωith αη οηßοιι ßη ßτ as relish το τhe dink, and also γεΙΙσιυ honey. Nexτ
came the heap of holy barley meal. Thus, ßη α cup, τhε ΙοτsεΙγ ωοmαη made
α kykeon lbr τhem ωiτh Ρταmηßαη ωßηε: she grated gοαι' s cheese into ßτ
u,,ith α bronze grater, and sριßηκΙιd barley meal οη it, and u,hen she had
prepared ιßε kykeon she inuited them to drink.
HοMER, Iliad ιι,638-4ι

What was this curious, nourishing brew thaτ τhe capιive \λ,οmαη prepared
for Nestor's friends after α hard day's work ατ τhε siege of Troy7 §ihatever
Α ωοmαη ginds Jlour. ßι rvas, it occurs again and again ßη early Greek poetry - and the reader
Greek ten,acotιa
soon comes ιο feel thaι ßt has α τßτυαΙ elemenτ. As α mixτure of wine and
Jiguιine.
cereal, it brings ιogeτher the gifτs of Γ)ionysus, τhe wine god, and of
Demeter, the goddess who gave us wheat and barley. Ιt could be made
dangerouslv porverful, too. \ý/οmεη who knew about herbs could use α
kyheon for strange purposes: perhaps to send men tο sleep; perhaps
worse. Circe 'sτirred cheese and barley and yellorv honey inτo Pramnian
ryine and mixed harmful drugs ινßτh this hykeon'το τυτη Odysseus' sailors
inτo swine (see τhe drawing οη page Ζ8).
Horv, then, was kyheon made? It may be αη impossible quest, but Ι
have at least atιempιed το rediscover τhis food of the heroes. The first clue
comes from the name itself, for ΚγΚÜη means to churn or òΙοτ or τhicken
by stirring. This suggests something like α soup or even α porridge, Α
Byzantine scholar made the very same connection: 'Kyheon seems to have
been some,uvhere betrveen food and drink" he argued. 'Perhaps really it
was someτhing τhαt was supped like soup.'
Ατ firsι Ι imagined ιhαt the τhickening agenτ \η/αs τhe barlev, and τhαι
it must stand ßη the wine until it becomes soft and cheιvy. Βυτ even τhen ßτ
does ηοι τrulv cloτ or τhicken. Ψas τhε barley ground before ßτ was added?
If so, ßτ was roasτed firsτ, το remove ßτ from iτs husks. The poeτ seems το
specify 'roasτed and ground meal', bυι eyen roasτed and ground barley
νιßΙΙ not thicken the mixture. After various experiments Ι τried placing τhe
ιvine, barley, honey and α ΙßιιΙε sofτ goaτ's cheese ßη α ραη and heaιed τhe
mixture. As would be expecτed, τhis made α very pleasanτ porridge.
Α recipe ßη Caτo's farming handbook confirmed τhaτ Ι mighτ be geττing
near to the ττυε nature of kykeon.'Carτhaginian porridge το be cooked
τhus,' he insιrucιs, 'Ρυι ι lb emmer ßη τνατετ ιßΙΙ ßτ is τhoroughly soaked.

4ο
 The Ηοmεòοηιßηg of Odysseus

Pour ßτ clean vessel. Το τhis add 3 lb new cheese, 7Ζ lb honey, ι egg.

into α
Μßχ αΙΙ α new ροt.' Emmer, α novr' rare species
togeιher \rell and turn ßηιο
of rvheaτ, ιvould have been roasted while still ßη iτs husk and τhen ground
by hand, probably to τhe texture of semolina. Subsτiτuτing wine for
Cατο's rvater and eliminating the egg, rvhich rvould thicken and enrich τhe
mixture further, rrge have α very similar dish to kyheon.
Things become clearer. The soft nerv cheese - someτhing like ricoττa ßη
ιexτure - is the primary ingredienι and τhe major thickening agenτ. The
barley meal gives structure to ιhε porridge and prevents curdling.
The cloττing and churning that define hykeon, horvever, are linked το τhe
cheese, not the barley. Ψhen cooked ουt genιly, this mixture produces α
sofτ pourable porridge ιhατ could indeed be supped from τhe cup,
Caιo's recipe is very good as it sτands. Divide the quanτiτies by four and
use semolina insιead o[emmer.

Sεnvεs Fουι
4 οΖ (% cur/rzo c) sιιιοιιπι
ιΖ οΖ (375 c) ιιòοττε cHEEsE
2 TABLESPoorτs (6ο c) ΗοΝΕγ
Α LΙTTLE ΒΕΑΤΕΝ EGG

Place τhe semolina ßη iusτ enough rvaιer το cover ßτ and allow το soak for ιο
το 15 minuτes, When sofτ, drain away αηγ remaining \vaτer and add τhe Ιη the mythical GατιΙòη
τßòοtτα cheese, honey and beaten egg. Bring slowlv tο boiling ροßητ, bυτ of the HespeiιIes the
do ηοτ let ßτ boil, Allow to simmer for α ferl, minuτes. golden αρρΙòs are
guarded by the sιιαhε
Ψhen αΙΙ is said and done, these approaches to kvheon are, αt besτ, Ladon, ωatched fu
ΑιΙαs' daughιars.
informed guesses. The truth remains to be discovered: the pleasure ßη Hcrac\,es is soon ιο
researching ancienτ cuisine is ßη the deτecτive work, τhε hunτ for clues shoot thc snahc ατιd
τhaτ leads tο unexpected tastes and textures and, ιvith luck, mav lead reιrieue three apples,
close ιο the original recipe. his eleuenth Labour,

4Ι
 2
ΤΗε ΒΑτ.{QιιΕτ
oF PHILoxEI{ιJs
he usual picture of the parties and entertainments of classical
Athens seems to have room for ΙßττΙe more than rvine. The rηrord
_l symposion mεαητ, simply, 'drinking togeτher'. Those rich enough
ιο have α house with moie than one or t\ryo rooms would have α room set
aside for jusτ this purpose, at least as formal as αηγ English dining room.
It ι.vould be furnished wiτh five or more couches around its rvalls, and iιs
size rvould be described ßη precisely this way - α 'five-couch room' or
rvhatever ßι might be. There would be small, easily portable τables to
stand ßη front ofeach couch.
There are more details ßη α unique document from Sicily or Greece of
around 4οο BC, the sτrange sensuous Banqueτ of Philoxenus, α poeτic
celebration of obsessive culinary pleasures, α literary dinner-party:
Ψater for our hands, α silver jug, α gentle child ιο pour ßτ;
Goodly sprigs of slender myrtlò ιyoven for ,;,,reaths.
Ιη came α pair of slaves with α shiny table, and another, and another, until
they filled τhe room.
They feτched ßη snow-whiτe barley-rolls ßη baskeτs,
Α casserole - ηο, bigger than thaτ - call ßτ α malmite , full of α noble eel with
α ΙοοΚ of the conger abouτ him,
Honey-glazed shrimps besides, my love,
Squid sprinkled ιviτh sea-salt,
Baby birds ßη flaky pastry,
And α baked τυηα, gods! ττhαι α huge one, fresh from the flre and the ραη
and the carving-knife,
Enough sιeaks from iτs τender belly ιο delighτ us boτh as long as we mighτ
care tο stay and munch.
Ψho was this unusual author? Modern ediιors assert thαι ßτ rvas
Philoxenus of Leucas, α legendary glutton of lvhom it rvas said thαι he
pracτised drinking unbearably hοτ waτer and puττing his hand ßητο τhe hoτ
τνατετ florv ατ τhe baτhs, το τταßηhimself το snaτch and srvallow τhe besτ of
each dish as soon as it emerged from the oven.
Βυτ, gluττon τhough he was, ηο one knor.vs if Philoxenus of Leucas
τντοτε anyτhing ατ αΙl. Ιτ is more likely τhaτ the Banquetwas rvriττen by τhe

1Ζ
 The Banquet of Philoxenus

once famous Philoxenus of Cythera, α much more inτeresτing figure. He Women fetching ωater:
was òουττ poet to the ruler of the Greek cities ßη Sicily, Dionysius ι of their πaditional
Syracuse (c. 43ο167 rc), and rvas besτ known for his ιαirε Galaτea irl opportunity to meet and
τalh,
ιvhich the Cyclops falls ßη love with α mountain nymph. The unlucky
Philoxenus, rumour said, had once been caught ßη bed rllith anoτher
Galatea, the king's mistress, and had been condemned to hard labour ßη
the Syracusan quarries as α punishment. There is nothing of this,
hoιvever, ßη ιhò Banquet!
At last rve had had our fill of food and drink:
The servants cleared away, and brought ßη rvarm water, soap and οßΙ of
orris to rvash our hands.
They gave us muslin torvels, divine perfumes, wreaths of violeτs.
Then τhe same polished τables, loaded υρ wiτh more good τhings, sailed
back to us, 'second tables' as men say:
Srveet pastry shells,

43
 The Classical Coohbook

Crispy flapjacks,
Toasted sesame cakes drenched ßη honey sauce,
Cheesecake, made ινßth milk and honey, α sweet that rvas baked like α pie;
Cheese-and-sesame sweetmeats fried ßη hottest οßΙ and rolled ßη sesame
seeds rπere passed around , .

\X/ith the bringing ßη of clean tables came the break beτrveen dinner and
drinking-parτy. Ατ this stage, with the svyeeτs and ηυτs, wine ,ιναs first
served; ατ τhis point ßη thc cvening, rvherever τhey had eaten, leisured
Greeks looked for α house where ιhe rvine promised to flow.

Ιη α respectable house, the dining room was α place for men's dinners and
drinking-parτies. Women of the household ιη,ουΙd be out of sight, though
dancers and flute-girls, hired for the occasion, might be seen ßη the dining
room often enough,
Enτerτainmenτ and wine; poeτry and music; and οfτεη, ßτ seems, deep
and serious conversation. Οη the occasion thaτ is described ßη Plato's
famous Symposium - hor-v realistically, ηο one knows - the philosopher
Socraτes (c. ηlo-3gg ιc), τhe saτirical play,wrighτ Arisτophanes and τheir
Τωο fat reι,ellers: companions debaτed the nature of love. The occasion for that famous
'Dikaios Painter', conversaτion was simply this: their host, the ροετ Agathon, had invited
abouτ5oo nc. his friends to celebrate his prize ατ τhe αηηυαΙ drama festival of Athens.

44
 The Banquet of Philoxenus

Socrates arrived late: rypically, he had paused ßη α neighbouring door-

way to think through α philosophical problem. One or tιvo uninvited
guests had squeezed ßη meanrryhile, but room was §till found for Socrates:
the couches ιvere big enough for tιvo guesτs and even) at α pinch, for
ýree,
Did they want α flute-girl this time? She had been booked ßη advance,
but the guests \ryere ßη favour of conversation) ηοt music. º think,' said
doctor Eryximachus, 'ινε should tell the flute-girl to go α\η/αγ and ρΙαγ το
herself - or, if she fancies, to the ,women indoors.'
And so the discussion began. Aristophanes'ferτile imaginaτion τold of
τhe Creaτor who had τaken beings τhατ rvere originally spherical and
sliced them into t,wo. Some made t\ryo men, some made men and women,
some made two \ryomen, and αΙΙ of us are forever searching for our other
halves. When Arisτophanes' sτοτγ was completed, each of τhe oτher
participants gave his οτη,η ideas οη τhε theme of love, its origin and ßτs
purpose. Symposium scene blι
The nighτ advanced. Α noise ryas heard ßη the yard, ΡΙατο τεΙΙs us: Duis, abouτ 4jo ac,
Cups and ωinò-jugs
There ι.vas α knocking at the outer door, very noisy, as if it r,ηrere α group of hang οη τhe ωαΙΙ behind
revellers: α fluιe-girl could be heard. the dinkers,ωho are
'Go and see, boys,'said Agathon. ºf ßτ is anyone ιve like, inviτe τhem ßη. If ωaited οη by slaue-
not, say thaι vue have finished drinking already.' bηs.

45
 The Classical Coohbook

Α liττle laτer τhey heard τhe voice oΓAlcibiades ßη τhe courτyard, very drunk
and shouting out,'§ihere's Agathon? ΓαΚε me tο Agathon!'
He ιvas helped ßη by τhe flute-girl and some of his other cronies. He sτood αι
the door crorvned with α ιhick wreath of ßτγ and violets, with α great many
ribbons dangling over his head, and said: 'Greetings, gentlemen. §ßßΙΙ γου
τake as fellow,drinker α man who is already very drunk indeed? Or shall rve
simply ρυt α congratulatory garland οη Agaτhon, our reason for coming, and
go away?'

Alcibiades (c. 45ο-4ο4 Bc), once Socraτes' ρυρßΙ, now α flamboyanτ

poliτician buτ laτer το be branded α τraiτor το Aτhens, rvas welcomed ßη.
He ryas insτalled as τhε τhird occupanτ of Socraτes' couch, and τhe
discussion went οη) sometimes bantering, someτimes serious. Βγ
daybreak τhe narrator concludes, most of τhe guests ιvere asleep - but
Socraτes was sτill τalking earnesτly.
Α more dorvn-to-earτh author, Xenophon, seems tο have felt thaτ ΡΙατο
had given α false picture ofthe drinking-parties that Socrates attended.
Xenophon's Symposium could hardly be more different. The
conversation ranges at random over many subiects. There was
entertainment, too, brought by αη entrepreneur rvho ,went from door to
door looking for parties. He owned α slave boy who danced and α girl ιvho
did acrobaτics, leaping ßη and ουτ ofa ring ofupτurned srvords. Socraτes'
conτribution at Xenophon's drinking-party was not to send the
enτerτainers αιναγ bυτ ιο ταΚε charge of τhe programme. He felτ τhaτ
beauτy could be displayed to beττer effecτ τhan among s,words, and
suggested αη erotic dance that rvas performed by the trvo slaves together.

The recipes τhατ follow will help το build α menu for α classical dinner-
parιy. Several dishes are suggesτed by Philoxenus' lines jusτ quoτed,
including τhe honey-glazed shrimps, the tuna steak and the barley rolls.
Α furτher shorτ exτracτ reminds us of some of τhe 'nibbles' τhat can be
served as the wine continues to flor.v:
Fresh young chickpeas ßη safflower dip,
Egg.,
Young soft-skinned almonds,
Ψalnuτs thaτ children like το cherv;
They served us αΙΙ the things thaτ are fit to serve αt wealthy feasts.
'Γhe drinking, the games of kottabos, the clever talk, ßη ιvhich each smart
new phrase ßη turn was greeted ινßth applause,
ΑΙΙ came to αη end at last.

Aτhenians, ßη the fifτh and fourτh centuries, enjoyed ιvines from the
Aegean coasτs and especially those from τhe larger islands, Thasos,
Lesbos, Chios. The philosopher and scienτist Aristoτle (c, 384-3ΖΖ ιc'1,

46
The Banquet of Philoxenus

Α party-girl òhοωs her

sΑill ar koττabos: rhe
last drσp of ωßηε ωαò
propelled ατ α targeτ
ωßth α cleιer flick of the
ωist. Aτhenian cup,
probably by Onesimus,
abouτ 5οο εc.

BELow Τωο ωomen

ρΙαγ kottabos. The one
οη the left sαγò to her
unseen louer: 'This
one's for γου,
Eutlιymides.'

{a
Δ
Ρ
/{
ι

47
 The Classical Coohbook

rvho lectured ßη Athens, rvas asked οη his deaτhbed to name his

successor. The choice Ιαγ beτr.veen Eudemus of Rhodes and
Theophrasτus (c. 37ι-Ζ87 rc) of Eresus οη Lesbos. The dying Arisτoτle
sεητ for Rhodian wine. 'This is τruly α sound and pleasanτ,wine,' he said
as he sipped it. Then he asked for α cup of Lesbian ryine. 'Both are very
good indeed,' he said, 'but the Lesbian is the sιveeter.' His followers τοοΚ
the gentle hint and appointed Theophrasτus ιο lead the school.
Ατ leasτ one laτer ιvriτer, τhe physician Galen, τhought τhe rvine of
Theophrastus'home tovgn Eresus to be the most aromatic and srveetesτ of
αΙl. The wines of these islands are not novr often found ouτside Greece,
but the heady muscaτ of Samos, well known since Byzanτine τimes, τνßΙΙ
make α fine dessert wine and α stand-in for srveet Lesbian. For α modern
represenτaτive of Chian, τhe island rηrhere 'black' τvine was said το have
been invented, we can ΙοοΚ α liτtle further afield. Chian vines ,were
τransplanτed το ΙταΙγ ßη Roman τimes. They could well be ancesτors of τhε
Aglianico ('Hellenic') grapes of some southern ltalian vineyards. For α
good smoky red with Greek ancesτry, α fine accompanimenτ το game and
roasts, therefore, choose Aglianico del Vulture.

Honey-glazed Shrimps
Sεkvεs Ττνο

8 οΖ (ΖΖ5 GΙ995Ξ9{ΞΞαΕD sHRIMps

r τηιιεsροοπ (r5 mι) οιινΕ oIL
Ζ τειιτsροουs (3ο ιτι) rrsn sAucE
r τετιεsροου (3ο c) òιτεR ΗοΝΕγ
2 TEASPOONS CHOPPED FRESH OREGANO
BLACK PEPPER

If using frozen shrimps, ensure that τhey are r,vell defrosτed and drained.
Place τhe οßΙ, fish sauce and honey ßη α saucepan and add τhe shrimps.
Sautü them gently ßη the cooking liquor for Ζ or 3 minutes υητßΙ they are
τender. Remove τhem wiτh α perforaτed spoon and keep warm. Conτinue
to cook out the liquor until it has reduced by half. Add the chopped
oregano and pour τhe sauce over the shrimps. Sprinkle ιvith freshly
ground black pepper, Serve as α first course rvith α crusτy loaf and α
simple salad.

48
 The Banquet of Philoxcnus

This recipe is adapτed from various ancient sources: Philoxenus makes

τhε shrimps sound tasty, bυτ his poem does ηοτ help ßη recreaτing τhe
dishl Fish sauce (for its salt) and olive οßΙ ιvould undoubtedly have been
among the ingredients, along with the honey. Oregano is suggested
because τhe Greeks were rvell aιvare of its suiτability ßη seafood dishes.

Τυηα Steak
young salted τuna frst: it cost tωο obols. Ιt has το be yinsed υειγ ωεΙΙ
'I-his
'I'hen, seasoning α small casserole, placing the sLjce ßη ßι, pouing
ωhiτe
ωßηε ouer, adding α coating of οßΙ, and then simmeing, Ι shall mahe ßτ as
good as mαγγοω, finally tinselling it geneτousljι ωith silphium.
Alexis r86, quoιed ßη Rτυεπεευs ι r7d

Sεkvus Ττνο

2 ΤυΝΑ STEAKS
WHITE ΙΤΙΝΕ ΤΟ COVER
SALT AND PEPPER
Ζ τε,ιιεsροοπs (3ο ιτι) oLIvE oIL
3 DRoPS ASAFOETIDA TINCTURE

Α shopper haggles ωßτh Use α medium white rrvine and barely cover the steaks: season u,ith salt
αrtshmonger ouòr tuna and pepper and add the olive οßl. The steaks can be cooked οη τορ ofτhe
steaks,
sτονε or ßη τhe oven and should be ready ßη αbουτ 2ο το 25 minuτes,
depending οη ιheir ιhickncss. ΒòΓιιτε ,"ruing add ιhe αsαfοειßüα ιincτurc
to τhe liquor and 1educe α liττle.

The original recipe (α snippet from αη Athenian comedy) is for 'I-arihhos

horaion, rvhich seems to be one-year-old tuna caught 'ßη season'- that is,
οη ßτs journey from the Black Sea το τhε Mediτerranean - and τhen salτed,
ιvhich explains rvhy τhe cook insisτs οη τhe facτ τhατ τhe sτeak should be
rinsed το remove unwanted saltiness. This delightful recipe is τypical of τhe
Greek preference for preparing food simply and wiτhouτ fuss.
ºf γου should come to the holy city of Byzantium,'τvrote the gourmet
Archesτraτus,'εατ anoτher slice of horaion for me τhere: ßτ is good and
τender.'The τuna of Isτanbul is, indeed, unbeaτable. Nowadays we can
buy frozen tuna sτeaks wiτh little trouble, buτ ßt can also be found fresh-
chilled ατ good fishmongers and some supermarkets and is u,ell worth τhε
search.

49
 The Classical Coohbook

Cabbage τhe Aτhenian νψ

Cabbage should be sliced ωith the shalpesτ possible ßτοη blade, τhen
ωashed, dra,ined, and chopped ωith plenty of coiander and ιυε. Then
spinhle ωiτh honey uinegar and add just α litτIe biτ of silphium.
Incidentally, γου can eat this as α meze,
Mnesiιheus, quoted ßη oιrsesτus , Medical CοΙΙεòtßοηò 4, 4, τ

Oxymeli [honey uinegar] : Simmer honey τßΙΙ it foams, discard the scum,
add enough uinegar το mahe it neiτher too sharp nor too sωeet, boil again
till it is mixed and not ταω. For use, mix ωith ωαtετ, just as γου ωould
mix ωßηe þiτh ωaτer.
GALEN, Staying ΗεαΙtΙιγ 4,6

Sεινεs Sιx

Ι SMALL WHITE CABBAGE

2 HEAPED TEASPOONS CHOPPED FRESH GREEN CORIANDER ΙΝ OIL

2 TEASPOONS CHOPPED FRESH OR DRIED RUE

2 PINCHES ASAFOETIDA POWDER

SALT

Honey Vinegar

4 οΖ (% òυρ/τΖο c) rIοπεν
2 TABLESpoous (3ο ßντι) ιεο \ryINE vINEGAR

Firsτ make ιhe honey vinegar. FοΙΙοιν Galen's advice: boil τhe honey and
skim it, add the vinegar and reduce α litτle. Store υηtßΙ needed.
Finely slice the cabbage; wash and drain it, Toss ινßth ιhe herbs and
3 tablespoons honey vinegar and sprinkle lvith the asafoetida poιvder and
α liττle sαΙτ.

This is quite α popular recipe among Greek and Roman vyriters.

Oribasius (fourth century eo), α rvell-knorvn doctor of the laτe Roman
Empire, has borrorved it from α much older book of dietary advice by
Mnesiτheus (fourτh century ιò), α medical τη,τßτετ from Aτhens. The
docτors are inτeresτed ßη τhis dish because it cured headaches and rvas
good for stomach upsets. Ατ least, τhaτ is the claim made by the
cncyclopaedist ΡΙßηγ: he gives anoιher version ofthe recipe, one that he
had found ßη Caτo's farming handbook (where it rvas recommended for

5ο
 The Banquet of Philoxenus

sτiff joinτs). Ιt is from τhε recipe of Caτo (c. Ζ34-ι49 ιc) τhat Ι have Equipmentforωine.
borrowed the salt ßη my modern version. Back,lefttoight: α
psykter (ωßπε- cooler) ;
Ψhatever its medicinal value, Mnesitheus was quite right abouτ
aslamnos and αη
cabbage ßη honey vinegar being delicious as α starter or side dish. It sτill amphora (storage jarÞ ,
is, and is simple to prepare. τhe latter shoωing α
Romans were enτhusiastic grorvers and eaters of cabbage. ΡΙßηγ youngman caπying αη
describes three types. The first rvas α curly one whose leaves vvere ºßΚε amphoraonhis
parsley', comparable perhaps tο Savoy cabbage. The second had broad shoulder; Ιωο kraters
(mixing bοωΚ). Centre:
leaves τhaι could be seen grorving from ιhe sτem, like kale or spring
ωßηe - ladle and s ty ainer
cabbage. The third had tight, closely packed leaves and appears tο have
ßη front of αΚγΙßχ (cup) ,
been α white cabbage. He goes οη to outline how many illnesses cabbage uprurned. Leftandighτ
could cure. Ιt lvas used as α poultice for,σ,rounds. Ιf τaken before α meal ßτ
foreground: cups,jugs
prevented drunkenness, and if taken after drinking it could cure α and tωo small dishes for
hangover, but sadly our experience doesn'τ confirm τhis! nuts or sωeets.

5Ι
 The Classical Cookbooh

Barley Ro//s
F-irsτ Ι shall recall τhe gifk το humanhind of fair-haiτed Demeτer, fiend
Moschus: tahe them to your heart. The best one can get, the finest of αΙΙ,
cleanly hullιd from good ripe ears, is the barlEι jτοm the sea-ωashed breast
of famous Eresus ßη Lesbos - ωhiter τhan airborne snoω. Ιf τhe gods eat
barley, τhis is ωhere Hermes goes shopping for it,
ARCHESTRATUS 4

Among the cereals, barley ιvas the most popular ßη ancient Greece, as
Archesτraτus' enτhusiasm αττεsτs, bυτ even τhere ßτ \yas ηοτ αΙΙ τhaτ ofτen
used for bread. Ιη Rome, by conτrasτ, barley rvas the punishmenτ ration
for soldiers. Under τhe Roman Empire, Greeks τοο came το despise τhe
grain that grows so,well ßη the Greek climate.
Barley is very Ιοτν ßη gluten. When οηΙγ pure barley meal is used for
bread, the resulτing loaf is flat and healy. Ιτs keeping qualities are poor;
the crust and texture can be very dry. It seems likely that ancient bakers,
if preparing barley rolls for αη elaborate banquet such as Philoxenus
describes, ryould have mixed τheir barley meal vrith some oτher flour to
produce α lighτer loaf: coarse bread τη,ουΙd be out of place. Elizabeth
David, ßη her definiτive Erglisft Bread and Yeast Coohery, recommends α
5ο per cent mixture of barley m*eal and strong vrholewheat flour, rvhich Ι
have follo,,ιved. She also quotes α very simple barley bread recipe,
originating ßη Cornrvall, that is remarkably ιvell adapted to classical tastes
and kitchens and ιηrhich provides ιhe basis for the recipe given above:
'Cover τhe nelvly mixed bread rviτh α cloτh and seτ ßη α rvarm place. Ψhen
risen form inτo cone-shaped loaves and bake under α kettle οη τhe hearth.
The loaves ιvere usually grouped ßη τhrees, and the soft crusτ, r-vhere the
loaves touched each oτher, vr'as called kissing crusts.'
Greeks and Romans τοο baked οη the heaπh under α cover, οτ τesτum.
Cooks piled red-hot coals over τhe τεsτυm) creating α mini-oven οη τhe
open hearth. This ι.ye òαηηοτ really duplicate: αΙΙ that we can do is to heat
ýe conτainer τhaτ τηre use. The cover can be replaced by α large casserole
or αηγ large mεταΙ or crockery boιvl that is ovenproof, Μαηγ of ýe τesτa
found by archaeologisτs have α small number of holes ßη the top. I have
experimented rvith α large, shallorv, clay florverpot, rz ßη (Ζο cm) across
and about 5 ßη (ι3 cm) deep. The drainage holes ßη the top of this allow
air circulaτion. If your orvn'baking cover' does noτ provide air holes, prop
one side of the conτainer about ι ßη (Ζ.5 cm) above the baking tray. Υου
may have το bake ττνßòε if your conτainer is too small το cover αΙΙ the rolls.
ΑΙΙ the recipes using these covers rvork just as rvell simply baked ßη the
oven.

52
 The Banquet of Philoxenus

Mekrs Τ,,νιινε

Leauen
Ζ οΖ (ΥΖ cup/6o c) ηειιεγ FLoUR
Ι TEASPOON FRESH OR γ2 TEASPOON DRIED YEAST

Dough
6 οΖ (ιΥΖ curs/ r 7ο c) sτηουò ιγιτοLΕ\ßΗΕΑτ FLoUR
6 οΖ (ινΖ curs/r7o c) τεηιεν FLoUR
Ι TEASPOON SALT

F'or τhe leaven, dissolve τhε yeast ßη r tablespoon (ι 5 ml) ,warm vlater and
use to form α dough ,with Ζ οΖ (Ι/Ζ cup/6o g) barley flour. Knead the dough
briefly, mould into α ραt, cross ßτ lightly and put α thumb-prinτ ßη the
centre. Pour Ζ teaspoons of warm water into the indentation. Place ßη α
glass dish wiτh α lid and leave το ferment ßη α rvarm place for ατ Ιεαsτ 24
hours.
Norv for the dough: sift the ιvholerηlheat and barley flours τogether, add
ι teaspoon salt and the leaven and form α dough with sufficienτ warm
ryater. Knead well and allow tο rest and rise ßη α bo,,vl, covered rl,rith
plastic \ryrap or α plastic bag, ßη α lvarm place until it has doubled ßη size.
Divide the dough into rz pieces and mould them ι.vith the palm of your
hand into smooth balls. Leave to rise ßη α vrarm place, covered ,with α
cloτh.
Fleat the oven to 4oo"F (zoo"C/gas mark 6) and also heat α baking τray
and αη upτurned casserole, shalloιv clay pot or metal bowl - ιvhatever γου
decide το use as α 'baking cover', Brush the tray wiτh α ΙßττΙε olive οθ and
place the rolls ßη Ζ circles of 6, ιvith the edges barely τouching. Cover rviτh
ιhε upturned container and bake for ι5 to Ζο minutes until lighτly golden
and holloι.v-sounding ιvhen tapped.

Food and dink οfτεη

sιιggested coin designs,
zWetapontum (òouthem
-Ι taljι), ear of ωheat
cznd locust.

53
 The Classical Cookbook

Cheese and Sesame Sωeetmeats

Globi ro be made thus: mßχ cheese and semolina as aboue; make as many
balls as γου ωαηt. Put fat ßη α hot copper ραη: fly one ο.τ tωo at α time,
tuιning them frequently ωßth α ραßτ of spatulιs. When coohed, remoue
them, coat ßη honey, spinhk ωith poppy-seeds, seιve.
cετο, Or Agiculture 79

The cheese and sesame sweetmeats of Philoxenus were such α τεmρτßηg

idea that Ι resolved ιο rvork out α recipe that rvould reflect something of
τhe ancienτ flavour. Α recipe ßη Caτo's farming manual forms τhe basis,
yet his recipe is anything but complete. ¶s above' seems το send τhe
reader back to Cato's recipe for Layered Cheesecake (see page 94); ßη τhaτ
recipe, hoτvever, ιhe cheese and semolina are separate components.

IYine is poured ßηιο α

ΚγΙßχ (αφ) ßη α simple
τßιυαΙ scene ιhαι
symbolises departure or
death. Aτhenian cup by
Duis, αbουι 18ο ει;.

54
 The Banquet of Philoxenus

Some enlightened guesswork is needed to fill the gaps ßη the Roman

instructions. Ψhat fοΙΙοτηrs, then) is one way to recreate the cheese and
Sesame Sweetmeats of Philoxenus and Cato. Ι prefer tο use not lard but
olive οßΙ as α deep-frying medium - it was cerτainly more popular among
the Greeks and Romans themselves.

Mekεs Αsουτ Fιιτιιπ

,ο ,, ο, ]r%jγ§Ι3φιι) ßιιιικ
Ζ οΖ (Ζ,η".Ξψ9χß6οj,) sEMoLINA

3 τηιιgsροοπs (9ο c) Ηοπτν

4οΖ (r.9cη§gffljHEEsE
3 οΖ (3/ι cur/85 G) JΞIIΞjΞΞI::_LIGHTLY RoASTED
OLIYE OR VEGETABLE OIL FOR DEEP-FRYING

Bring the milk tο the boil and sprinkle the semolina over ßτ, stirring αΙΙ the
time. Cook ουτ briefly, taking care not to let it burn. Turn inτo α clean
bolvl and allorv ιο cool slightly, stirring occasionally. This should give α
firm paste. Ψhen it is cooler, add ι tablespoon honey and the ricotta. Μßχ
v,,ell and sτir ßη Ζ οΖ (Ζ τablespoons/6o g) roasτed sesame seeds.
Prepare α simple deep-fryer ßη α saucepan using olive or vegetable οßl.
Tesτ τhe οßΙ for τemperature by dropping α liττle of τhe mixτure ßη τhe οßΙ:
when ßτ rises and begins tο colour, τhe οßΙ is ready. Form quenelles using
2 teaspoons: take α small αmουητ of mixture ßη one spoon, cup the other
spoon around ßτ and ρυΙΙ ßτ off; τερεατ τhε acτion υητßΙ γου have α smooτh
egg-shaped ball. Drop 2 or 3 sweeτmeaτs ατ α τime inτo τhe hoτ faτ and τurn
them occasionally until τhey are golden-brown. Lifτ from τhe οßΙ and
drain οη paper tov/els. Cook the rest of the srveetmeats ßη the same,way.
IWarm τhe remaining honey and τoss the cooked sweetmeaτs ßη ßτ, τhen
toss ßη the remaining roasted sesame seeds. These sweetmeaιs are
delicious eaτen eiτher hoτ or cold.

55
 3
ΤΗε λzleRKETs oF
τΗτ NlEDITERRAI\IEAλι

he Mediτerranean lvorld ßη which τhe Greek ciτies flourished -

and fought one another - rvas αι least aS open tο travel and ιrade as
ßι is ηο,σ,,. Ιτ ,σ,,αs α ryorld of ominous poliτical changes. Ιη τhαt,
also, ßτ resembles the presenτ dav.
The Greeks had founded cities ßη much of Sicilv, ßη southern ltaly and
along τhe Mediτerranean cοasτs of rvhat is now France and Spain. The
African coasτ, however, had been colonised by Phoenicians from Syria.
Their new metropolis, Carιhage, dominated the southern seaways and
continually disputed possession of Sicily with the Greek monarchs of
Syracusc. Phoenicia itself ηον,, provided α Mediterranean fleet for the
great Persian Empire, which had τhreaιened tο conquer Greece and rryas
ofτen involved behind τhe scenes ßη petτy rvars beτryeen Greek ciτies.
Meanιvhile, οη τhe northern shores of the Aegean, τhe porver of the kings
of Macedon, τhe wily Perdiccas (died 4ι3 nc) and his successors) was
grorving.
Ιτ τοοΚ five monτhs το sail from souτhern Spain ιο τhe eastern end of τhe
Black Sea. F-ive monτhs rryas αΙmοsτ α rrlhole sailing season) for long-
distance voyages ßη lvinter rvere avoided. Shipwrecks rvere enough of α
risk even ßη summer,
These long sea rοutes were busy rviιh merchanτmen, lvith fishing
boats, and often rviτh pirate vessels and warships. Trade rvas α risky and
complicated business: almost every òßτ1, had iτs own currency, iτs οτνη
larvs and market regulations, ßιs shortages and surpluses. Even so, there
were many \η/hο invested ßη trade, and some rvho became rich. Α òßτγ such
as Athens had grown prosperous οη the trade of τhε Aegean and τhe
Mediterranean, ßη spite of Spartan rivalry, ßη spite of Macedonian and
Thracian τhreaιs. Ιη α scrap of Aτhenian comedy we can read α kind of
hymn, satirical γει truthful, το τhe wealth that came το Athens by sea:

º'εΙΙ me ηοτν, Muses, hοιν many good things the god Dionysus brings us ßη
his black ship as he plies the rvine-dark sea. F'rom Cyrene, silphium and
oxhide; from the Hellespont, mackerel and every salt fish; from Thessaly,
porridge and οχ ribs; from King Sitalces, αη itch for the Sparτans; from King

56
 The Maykek of the Meditcιyancan

Perdiccas, many αshipload oflies. The Syracusans send us pigs and cheese; Α slighι disputò among
as for the people ofCorfu, may the sea-god Poseidon damn them ßη τheir slick ιhε gods? IIeracles
ships, for ιhey have shifτy τhoughτs! Incense from Syria; fair Creτe provides feasιs ωßιh Dionysus,
cypress-rvood for sacrifices; Africa has ivory for sale; Rhodes has dreamy attended üγ saryrs.
raisins and figs. From Euboea come pears and fat apples; òlaves from
Phrygia; mercenaries from Arcadia. The Paphlagonians send us τhe chesτ-
nuts and glossy almonds rvhich are the ornaments of αηγ feast. Phoenicia
provides wheat and the fruit of the date-palm; Carthage sends rugs and fancy
pillolvs.
Trading lar-vs and regulations vrere often inscribed οη stone το be
appealed to by either side ßη α dispute. Οη one of these inscripτions we
can read τhaτ τhe ciτizens of τhe prosperous island of Thasos tried το
conτrol local τrade ßη wine: 'Musτ nor wine, τhe fruit οη τhe vine shall noτ
be bought before the New Μοοη οf Plynteria: αηγ offending buyer shall
ραγ α fine, stater for stater. . . Νο Thasian ship shall land foreign wine

57
 The Classical Cookbook

beτrveen Mounτ Athos and Cape Pacheia, or ßτ shall ραγ τhε same ρεηαΙτγ
same
as for serving \η/αtετ for wine, and the pilot shall ραγ τhe .'
There rvas τrade ßη many other commodities besides food and wine.
Aτhens reached α vride market with the fine painted pottery that provides
some of τhe illustrations ßη this book. Slaves, including people rvho rvere
kidnapped by pirates or captured ßη war, vrere bought and sold. Other
people τravelled voluntarily to find α living - including cooks, for Syrian
bakers and Sicilian cooks rvere already widely soughτ afτer.
However, food rvas certainly the cenιre of interest at many harbour
markeτs of τhε ancient Mediterranean. Ιη one comedy after another, οη
BELow AND τhe Aτhenian sτage, hosτs and cooks boasτed ofιhe fish ιhey had found ατ
opposITE Κγlßχ (cup) markeτ. Ψe Κηοτν something more of τhe qualiτy and varieτy of markeτ
blι α painter ωorhing produce ßη τhose times thanks tο α most unusual ιvriter of about 35ο BC.
for Brygos. The Archesτraτus was α Sicilian rvho 'circumnavigated the ιvorld to satisfy
entertainment is
his hunger - and even loιver appetites', said α Roman scholar: quite
perhaps at α courtesan's
establishment: boots
unfairly, because tο judge by his surviving poetry Archestratus rvroτe
and ωalking-sticks οηΙγ abouτ food! He must certainly have been αη inveτerate traveller.
suggesL that the men are Ηοτν else could he have found out about the specialities of αΙΙ τhese small
gueStS. seaside ciτies, well over fifty of them, from Sicily to the Black Sea? Μοsτ

58
 The Maykets of the Mediteryanean

of τhem hardly geτ inτo the hisτory books; yeτ rvhat Archesτraτus says of
τhem rings true, and their specialities are sometimes exacτly τhe same
now aS they were 24οο years ago.
Archestratus had ηο time for fancy dinner-parties or complicated food:
¶ΙΙ το dine at one hospitable table,' he wrote; 'there shall be three or four
friends altogether or at most five, or γου rvould have α tentful of
plundering mercenaries.'In wriτing of food his chief concern, repeated
over and over again ßη different words, was that the true flavour of fresh
produce, chosen ßη the right place at the right time of year, should be
allowed to come through and not be covered υρ with layers of spices and
strong seasonings.\We gave one recipe from Archestratus ßη chapter r,
and ßη chapter Ζ rve quoted him οη the barley of Lesbos. Here, now, is α
typical recipe of his:
Ιη autumn, as the Pleiades go dorvn, γου can cook bonito - and γου can cook
ßτ ßη αηγ way γου please. Ψhy should Ι spell the methods ουt for γου? Υου
could ηοτ spoil ßτ if γου τried. Βυτ if γου wαητ το be τold τhis τοο, friend
Moschus: the very best τναγ for γου tο deal rvith this fish is to use fig leaves

59
 The Classical Cookbook

and fresh oregano (ηοt νòτ much), ηο cheese, ηο nonsense. Just ιvrap ßt υρ
nicely ßη fig leaves fastened above ιvith sιring, ιhen hide ßτ under hοι ashes,
keeping α rvatch οη ιhe time rvhen it ινßΙΙ be baked. Don't overcook it. Geι
ßτ from beauτiful Byzanτium, if γου rvanτ ßτ το be good: and if γου have ßτ
from somewhere near τhere, ßτ ινßΙΙ be respectable. The furιher from the
Dardanelles, τhe rvorse ßτ will be!

Archesιratus was ready, too, to advise οη the choice of bread tο eat

alongside his recipes: 'Take α Thessalian roll, α circling ιvhirl of dough
well kneaded under hand. They call it "crumble" ßη Thessaly; emmer
bread is whaτ oτhers say. Ι also commend α child of durum wheaτ, τhε
bread of Tegea τhaι is baked under ashes. Fair is τhe loaf τhat famous
Athens sells το mortals ßη her market-place; those from τhe clay ovens of
vinous Erythrae, ιvhiτe and blooming with the gentle seasons, are α joy
with dinner.'
Whαι το drink ,wiτh τhe Mediτerranean menu set out ßη τhis chapτer?
Archestratus'ans\ryer to the question would certainly be: if γου have ηο
sτores of old wine, drink τhe best wine available for τasτing οη τhε markeι
οη the day of your meal. Even ßη those days, τhere Vr'ere tοο many rvines
for anyone το be able το |udge fairly among αΙΙ of them. The philosopher
Democriτus (fifτh cenτury ιc) alone believed τhaτ ßτ rryas possible το òουητ
grape varieties. 'He claimed to knorv every variety to be found ßη Greece.
Others have pronounced τhem uncountable and infiniτe,'said ΡΙßηγ,
Archestratus himself (like Aristotlel) preferred the τasτe of Lesbian
rvine, but he also praised the aroma of the Phoenician lyine that came
from Byblos. This v/as not too different, perhaps, from the 'vrine of
Helbon' thaτ Persian emperors drank and thaτ τhe prophet Ezekiel saιv
exported from Tyre. As α modern stand-in for the red wine thaτ
Archestratus might have drunk rve can ιαΚε ιhe remarkable ChAteau
Musar of Lebanon, Oτherwise, for this chapter, it is appropriate to ΙοοΚ
tο Sicily and tο suggest rvines from τνhαι ιvas not οηΙγ α very early site of
Greek colonisaτion buτ also one of τhe earliest homes of Greek
gastronomy. There is τhe hεαιγ red Corvo, τhe ιvidely marketed τable
wine of Archesτraτus'naιive island. Fish dishes, however, usually call for
τηιhßτe ιvine. Here Sicily can offer r.vhite Corvo - or γου might find α
lighτer Sicilian whiτe made from τhe Grecanico grape τhατ, from iτs name)
ought tο have something Greek ßη iιs ancestry. Fine srveet ιvhites, αραττ
from the rvell-knolvn Marsala (αη eighteenth-century invention), come
from τhe small islands off Sicily. Moscaτo di Panτelleria and Malvasia
delle Lipari both bear names that ΙßηΚ them ιvith Byzantine Greece.
Muscat was the favouriτe of many α medieval traveller το Constantinople.
Malvasia, or Malmsey as the variety is Κηοτνη ßη English, is named after
ιhε ιrading porι of Monemvasia.

6ο
 The Markets of the Mediteιyancan

Byeam ßη Cheese and οßι

Bahe bream ατ seas,id.e Carthage: first rinse it ωεΙl. Υου ωßΙΙ see α good big
one at Byzantium too, ωith α body the size of α round shield. Deal ωith ßτ
ωhole, thus: ωhen γου haue taken it and coated it ωell αΙΙ ouer ωith cheese
and οßΙ, hang it υρ ßη α hot òΙψ ouen and then bahe it through. Sprinkle
ωith cumin-nιbbed salt and grey,green οßΙ, ýenching it generously ωith the
diuine liquid.
ARCHESTRATUS Ι3

Sειvεs Ι,-ουR

ι sEA BREAM oR Ροι9r, j.rcΞ§9 jBouT 3 ιε (r.5 kc)

8 οΖ (ΖΖ5 c) pεconrπo ιοιτηΝο cHEEsE

3 τΑΒLΕsJ99χιβΣι2 οLIvE oIL

Ι TEASPOON SALT
Ι TEASPOON GROUND CUMIN

Clean and carefully descale τhe fish, remove the fins and take off τhe head.
Break υρ τhe cheese and ρυτ ßτ ßη α food processor vviτh τhe οßl. (Ιτ can be
pounded ßη α mortar if γου have ηο food processor.) Process for α few
minutes until γου have α smooth, firm paste. Brush α non-stick baking 'Ι'his and oιhcr similar
τray with olive οßΙ or line ßτ vliτh baking parchment and Ιαγ the fish οη τhis. uignettes later ßη this
Spread half τhe cheese mixture over the fish, ensuring thaι the skin is booh are from α Roman
compleτely hidden by τhe cheese. Carefully turn over τhe fish and repeaτ. mo s aic from'Ι' or agno Ια

Heaτ τhe oven το 4Ζ5"F (zzo'Clgas mark 7) and bake ιhe fish for ιο ßη ΙταΙγ.

minuτes. Take ßτ out of the oven, carefully turn ßt over and return for α
furτher ιο το ι5 minutes. Μßχ τhε salt and cumin τogeτher and sprinkle ßι
over τhε crusι. Finish ιviτh α τablespoon of olive οßΙ dribbled over τhe fish.

This is α delicious combinaτion of tastes. The pungenτ sheep's cheese and

delicate flavour of the fish meld very vrell. However) there are practical
difficulτies ßη duplicating Archestraτus' method. Ιτ proves impossible το
generaιe the fierce ιemperatures of α clay oven ßη α domestic setting, and
wiτhout this heaτ τhe dish cannot be precisely recreated. Under τhe
fiercest temperaτures possible ßη α modern oven the cheese melτs and falls
off - and makes αη awful mess of the ovenl After experiments with
various cheeses Ι settled οη Pecorino Romano, which is similar το
Parmesan ßη texτure and is ιhe mosτ sτable under inτense heaτ. The
meτhod that Archesτraτus recommends, if we could follow ßτ, lvould
αΙΙοιη, τhe cheese το 'seτ' as α crusτ around τhe fish, sealing ßη the juices. I

6ι
 The Classical Coohbook

have attempιed to recreate τhis τexture ιvhile baking the fish conven-
τßοηαΙΙγ.
Archestratus specifies sparos, annular bream, α species thaτ τends to be
οη the small side. Greeks and Romans kne,ar well over α dozen different
kinds of bream) many of τhem corresponding better wiτh what the recipe
seems to say about the size of τhe fish. Evidenτly larger bream could be
substituted, but τhey are difficulτ το obtain and τhe smaller are,acτually
ideal for τhis adaptation.
Ιη Norτh America, τhε bream family (Sparidai) is represented by τhε
porgy. Choose α small variety to recreate this recipe.

Rock Eel ωith Mulbeιry Sauce

Α big rock eel ωas to hand: Ι bahed the middle cuts, and Ι'ΙΙ poach ωhat's
left ouer and mahe α mυΙbειιγ sauce.
Soτades Comicus, quoτed by ετΗευαευs z93a-d

Sεινεs I.'ουκ
8 οΖ (ΖΖ5 c) ιιεòκηεηιιεs (οη ιτυιηεRRιΕs IF ενιιιετιτ)
5FLοΖ(2/ι cuVlι5o ιτι) ιιο τνιπε
η
"995.:Ιj]ΞlΙ,
(º!γΡº5ο λßιηßιιτΕ
5 FL οΖ ιτιΝΕ
BοUQUET GARNI oF oREGANo AND RUE
Ζ τηιι εspooπs (6ο c) ττοτιεγ
τετιεsροοπs (3ο τιlι) rIsH SAucE
Ζ
ι TABLESpooπ (r5 mι) vINEGAR
3 DRoPS ASAFoETIDA,r*aßß*r ο* rΖ, ,rηa"οοΝ ASAFoETIDA Po\ryDER
Α LITTLE coRNFLouR (òοιπsτειòυ)

Wash and pick over τhe fruiτ and place ßτ rviτh τhe red wine ßη α saucepan
το heaτ. Poach τhe fish sτeaks ßη τhe u,hiτe wine with the bouquet garni.
Remove τhe fish and keep \ryarm. Add τhe whiτe rvine and τhe bouquet το
thgfruiτ and cook out Γor ιο το ι5 minutes. Add the honey, fish sauce,
vinΙegar and asafoeιida, Pass τhe siuce through α strainer: push τhe ρυΙρ
through, leaving the seeds. Reτurn tο τhε heaτ and τhicken wiτh α litτle
cornflour. Serve the fish steaks with α little sauce poured over one edge.

6Ζ
 Fisheιman ωith α catch
of dolphin-fish
(Coryphaena
hippurus); ωαΙl-
painting from Ahrotd,
the tοωη destrσyed by
the eruption of Thera,
Santorini, ßη about
Ι53ο_Ιòοο ΒC.

ß
ι
.,ß
.j
,,ι
'
.,.,,,, rl
:,,'l .
I
,| , ....;

:,,
1ι:. .]
,.,,,ι
,{
Ι
º

ß,1

] Ι§μ

I
 The Classical Cookbook

The fish referred to here have many names: smoothhound and rough
hound, huss, dogfish, rock salmon, rock eel. Under one name or another
they are readily available from fishmongers. They are ηοτ really eels or
salmon buτ relatives of τhε shark, though smaller and not so dangerous!
Some do grow to around s fι (ι .s m) long: τheir prey is crabs and lobsters.
The flesh is ρßηΚ, firm and delicately flavoured. Ιη Britain rock eel is α
fish-and-chip-shop fish, usually eaten ßη baιter, though ßτ deserves beττer.
Obedienτ το the comedy cook's insτrucτion to make α mulberry sauce Ι
have developed α recipe τhaτ combines elements of τhe sauces prescribed
for fish ßη boτh Greek and Roman ιexts. Mulberries are α τree fruit similar
ßη appearance tο blackberries. They have α very short season and, unless
γου have α mulberry tree) are hard tο find. Ι use blackberries: they serve
vrell unless γου are lucky enough to obtain the real thing.

Platter from Roman

North Afica,
jrd century AD. Α sea
scene: ßη the centre, tωο
fsheιmen struggle to
ρυΙΙ ßη τheir neτ.

64
 The Markek of the Mediterranean

rish ßη Coriander Cnιst

Prepare the fish carefully, put ßη α mortar salt and coiander seed, crush
finely, roII the fish ßη it, put ßη α baking Üish, cσuer, seal, bake ßη
the bτεαd-σιιεη. |Yhen cooked remoue) season ωith υειγ sharp ι,ßηεgατ
and seιue.
Apicius Io, I, 4

Sεκνεs Τινο

Ζ τeιιεsιοοι.ιs (3ο ò) coιInπDER SEEDS

Ι TEASPOON SALT
2 FILLETS oF coD, HADDoCK oR PLAICE
WHITE \μΙΝΕ vINEGAR

Roast ýe coriander seeds ßη α dry frying ραη for α ferηl minuτes. Cool
slightly, τhen pound ιvith τhe sαΙτ ßη α mortar υητßΙ γου have α rvell-broken
mixture. Pat the fish fillets dry with kitchen paper and feel along the back
for and remove αηγ small bones. Roll the fillets ßη τhe mixτure as if it ιryere
breadcrumbs, τhεη place τhem ßη αη oiled casserole and cover ιvith α lid.
Place ßη τhe oven and cook for 15 το Ζο minuτes. Serye immediaτely,
sprinkled ιvith α good ιvhite vline vinegar.

This ancient equivalent of fish ßη breadcrumbs is remarkably good, and

the method is suitable for many kinds of ιvhite fish. Don'ι forgeτ (as Ι
once did) to sprinkle it ιη,ßth vinegar before serving: it is dry and
unpalatable vriτhouτ τhis final τouch.

Merchanι ship from αη

Athenian cup of about
5οο BC,

65
 The Classical Cookbook

Salτ Meaτ Sτeω

Salt meat στ sLices of gammon (fresh meat similarly). SaIt meats are f.rst
boiled by themselUes to τεmσι)ε saltiness. Then αΙΙ goes into α casserole: four
parts ω,ßηε) tωo parts must, one part uinegar, cσriander seed, tΙη)mε, anise,
fennel αΙΙ roasted and put ßη at the beginning. Simmer. |Yhen half done,
add honey and α bit of cumin (some also add pepper), and, puτting the steω
inτo α ωαιm seιιling-uessel, add bits of ωarm bread.
Oxyrlιynchus cookery üοοft (see also ρ, 76)

Srιvεs Fουι
r ιι (45ο G) GlIIgxJgINfjr sMoKED ΗΑΜ
Ι ΡΙΝΤ (rγrjυΡS/Σ9gΙLιγΙΙΤΕ ιτΙΝΕ
ιο FL οΖ (ιγ4 cUPS/28o ML) ιτΗιτΕ GRAPE JUICE
5 FL οΖ (73 cup]ΞΣ9gιL \τIgE ιγιΝΕ vINEGAR
2 TEASPOONS CORIANDER SEEDS
Ι TEASPOON ANISEED
Ι TEASPOON FENNEL SEEDS
6 SλIALL SPRIGS οF τΗγΜΕ
Ι TEASPOON GROUND CUMIN
ι TABLEspooπ (ιο c) ΗοΝΕγ
γ2 TEASPOON COARSELY GROUND BLACK PEPPER
2 THICK SLICES COARSE ΙγΗΟLΕΙΤΗΕΑΤ BREAD

Cuτ τhe meaτ ßητο small chunks, cover rvith rvaτer ßη α ραη and bring to τhe
boil. Discard the,,vater, pour the rvine, grape juice and vinegar over the
meaτ and τετυτη το τhe heaτ. Combine τhe whole spice seeds and
τhe τhγmε, spread οη α baking tray and dry-roasτ τhem for 5 minuτes
ßη τhe oven ατ 4oooF (zoo'C/gas mark 6). Shred τhe leaves from τhe stems
of τhe τhyme and place τhem ßη α morιar along rviτh the seeds. Pound
τhem until they are like breadcrumbs. Add this mixture to the sτeιry and
òοητßηυε το simmer. Cook τhe sτerv for α τοταΙ of 45 minuτes. Torryards τhe
end add the cumin, honey and pepper. Cut the bread inτo chunks and
place τhem ßη τhe oven for 5 minutes το dry them ουτ α little. Add τhe
bread το τhe sτerv: ßt will eventually soak υρ and τhicken the juices.

This isα simple yeι appeτising ste\Λ/, α peasant meal with τhe addiιion of
more spices τhαη ιyould be available το mosι peasanτs, Ιt is recorded ßη α

66
 The Markets of the Mediteryanean

The dinking figure ßη

this 5th-cenτuιy-nc
Greek statuette is α
satyr, follσuιer of
Dionysus, god of the
uine.

Greek papyrus from Egypt but it could equally have been α Roman dish:
τhε ingredients are reminiscent of sauces found ßη Apicius.
Traditionally pork ιvas salted ηοt because ofa flavour preference, but
as the most economic way tο preserve it for the winter: excess saltiness
\Λ/αs then removed by the ßηßtßαΙ boiling specified ßη this recipe. Salted
pork ιvould hang ßη the fireplace ßη many ancient households.
Mosτ of the flavourings listed are seeds, and we are not unfamiliar ιviτh
roasting these, but why roast the herb thyme? The answer is simply τhat
ιvhen thyme is dry-roasted the green leaves are easily removed from the
sτalk. making ιhe herb easier ιο use.

67
 The Classical Coohbook

Delian Sωeets
¼η Hecate's Island,' jn Deliad II,'the Delians sacifice
sajιs Semus
ωhat they call basyniai to lns, goddess of the dαωη. Ιt is ωheat dough,
boiled, ωith honey and the so-callιd kokkora (ωhich are α dned fig and
three ωaLnuts).'
ατυευεευs 645b

Another sωeet: Tahe durum ωheat flour and cooh it ßη hoτ ωaτer so thaτ it
foιms α υειγ hard pasτe, τhen spread ßτ οη α plate. When cold cuτ ßτ υρ
ßη lozenges, and fιy ßη best οßl. Lift out, pour honey ouer, spinhle ωßτh
pepper and seιye.
Apicius 7, τι, 6

The first recipe is sketchy and difficult to interpreτ. \Were the dried Ιig
and the,walnuts ingredienιsinbasyniai, orwere they α separate offering το
the goddess? Ι believe that they \λ/ere separate - so Ι offer τhem το guesτs
beside my Delian Sweets ßη order to remain ΙογαΙ to τhε τεχτ. How rvere
the sweets themselves made? The Greek lvord here translated 'boiled'
could also mean 'fried', which does ηοt help. Βυι the second recipe,
quoted from Apicius, sheds light οη α possible method. This gives
someτhing remarkably like choux ραsτε, τhough lviτhouτ τhe enriching
eggs and faτ. Iη creating α modern version, τherefore, Ι have Κερτ choux
paste ßη mind.

Makεs Αsουτ Fιι,τεεπ

6 FL ο, (% cu:lr7: \μATER
^Þ
Ζ οΖ (ΥΖ cur/6o c) τιαιπ (ειι-τυιτοsτ) FLoUR
ΟLΙνΕ ΟΙL FOR DEEP_FRYING
Ζ τετι εspooμs (6ο c) Ηοτιεν
ΡΟΡΡΥ SEEDS OR FRESHLY GROUND BLACK PEPPER

Bring τhe waτer to τhe boil and add τhe sifτed flour. Βεατ vigorously as if
γου were making choux pasτe. Cook ουτ for α fer,v minuιes and τurn ουτ οη
to α large plate, or α marble slab if γου have one. Allorv το cool
compleτely. Ηεατ τhe olive οßΙ ßη α deep-fryer. Cυτ τhe pasτe inτo cubes: ßτ
will be firm but still α liτtle sτicky. Tesτ τhe οßΙ for τemperaτure,wiτh α litτle
of the mixture: if it rises and colours, the οßΙ is ready. Drop ιhe cubes ßη
the οßΙ, 2 or 3 at α time. Cook for 3 tο 4 minuτes unτil golden-brorvn and
lift out οη tο kitchen paper. Ψhile they are still \ryarm, dribble warmed

68
 The Markets of the Meditelyancan

honey over the fritters and sprinkle them ιvith either ρορργ seeds or
freshly ground pepper.

Pepper was once very common as α seasoning for srveets. Ιt is surprisingly

good wiτh honey. Ιη our ονιη tradition nutmeg has replaced pepper ßη Women flling ωater-
desserτ and srveet cookery, but nutmeg was practically υηΚηοινη to the jugs: Αιhειιßαη cup of
classical Greeks and Romans. abouτ 4οο αι:.

69
 4
Α §ßεDDING Fεesτ
ιΝ ΛΔΑcΕDοΝ
hanks το τhe skill and deτerminaτion of Philip (c. 38Ζ*336 ιc),
and the boundless ambition and energy of his son Alexander
τhe Greaτ, Macedon gre,,v ßη τwo generaτions from α backward
kingdom οη the northern fringes of Greece to α rvorld empire.
Alexander died suddenly, ßη his palace ßη Babylon, ßπ 3Ζ3 sc. More
than almost αηγ other individual, he had changed the course of history.
Whaτ rvas once τhe monoliτhic Persian Empire became, after Alexander,
α group of Macedonian and Greek kingdoms stretching as far east as
Afghanistan and the Indus valley. Ιη Egypt, under its Macedonian
dynasty, the literature of early Greece \Λ/αs systematically collected,
Aleχander the Great, became τhe subjecτ of susτained and serious research, and was τhus
ωhose Eastern τransmiττed tο Rome and later Europe. Ιη Greek-ruled northern India the
conquests brought ηεω Conuersaτions of King Menander wiτh τhe philosopher Nagasena (second
ωealth to Macedonia
cenτury Bc), one of ιhe greaτ classics of ΡαΙß liτeraτure, ,would help το form
and ηηι food fashions
to the Greek ωοτΙd.
τhe philosophy of Buddhism. Mean,while the Greek language and
'Hellenisτic' art and literature of the ne,w kingdoms had α lasting influ-
ence of their orvn, οη the later Near East and οη the nascent culture of
Rome. Greek lvould become τhe language of the New Tesτament) τhe firsτ
language of τhe nerv religion of Chrisτianiτy. Ψiτhouτ Alexander, the
culture of much of the modern world rvould be vastly different.
From τhe ροßητ of vie,w of Greece iτself, Alexander's conquesτs broughτ
immense rvealth, nerv ideas - and nery foods. Aristotle, Alexander's
τuτor, had encouraged him το τake boτanisτs and oτher scienτisτs οη his
long iourneys. The resulτs, ßη τerms of neιvly discovered fruits and
vegeτables, are recorded ßη τhe so-called History of ΡΙαηκ by Aristotle's
successor) τhε scienτisτ Theophrasτus of Eresus. The Greeks who settled
ßη Syria and Εgγρτ experimented vvith new varieties of their own
favouriτe food plants. The cooking skills of the East \yere ever more
sought after ßη wealthy households: at the same time the cooking
τraditions of Greece spread eastrvards.
We can begin το visualise τhe mixτure of Greek, Macedonian and Near
Easτern culτures thaτ,σras taking place ßη the years after Alexander's death
τhrough αη unusual narrative of αbουι 3οο BC that leads us ßηtο αη

7ο
 Α lΥ/edding Feast ßη Macedon

South Italian uase,

painting,4th centuly
εc, A girlacrobaτ
balances οη α τòυοΙυßηg
ωheel spun by α òΙοωη.

aristocratic Macedonian household at the moment of α ιvedding feasτ.

Hippolochus, αη Athenian, was one of the guesτs: his leττer το Lynceus of
Samos, describing the festivities, survives inthe Deipnosophisτs of Aτhen-
aeus. Hippolochus and Lynceus, incidenτally, rvere both studenτs of
Theophrasτus.
'Trventy was τhε number of men inviτed,'Aιhenaeus tells us. §ie musτ
ταΚε ßτ thaτ τhe \I/omen) even at this wedding feasτ, were celebrating
separately! Each guest οη arrival rvas given α silver drinking-cup - which,
τηrheη he had drained ßτ of rvine, he,was supposed to keep. Then, served
οη bronze plates, came flat loaves οη which guesτs could heap morsels of
chicken, duck and pigeon; then α second course, served οη silver plaτes,
rvith geese, hares and kids; and α third, with wood-pigeons, doves and
parτridges.

7Ι
 The Classical Coohbook

Αη Athenian ωedding \We gave the slaves α share of this course,

tοο [Athenaeus now quotes
procession, depicιed οη Hippolochus]; and when we had had enough eating \ve rinsed our hinds.
α perfume-jar ωhich
Lots of ,,ηrreaths of αΙΙ sorts of flowers r.vere brought ßη, and gold circlets for αΙl.
ωas ρετhαρò α ωedding
§ie were already far from sober when ßη rushed flute-girls and singers and
òifτ. Βγ τhe'Marlay some Rhodian harp-girls, Ι seem to think they rvere naked, οηΙγ some have
Paintet', about
been saying τhey had tunics οη. Theydid their act and τνeητ away, Then more
14ο BC.
girls τrooped ßη each carrying α pair ofhalf-pint flasks ofperfume, one silver,
one gold, yoked togeτher rvith α golden strap, ιvhich they proffered to each of
uS.
Next was served something more like α treasure than α dinner! It rvas α
silver dish (with quite α broad gold rim) big enough tο τake α rvhole roasτ
porker, and α very large one too, ιvhich Ιαγ there οη its back ιlisplaying αΙΙ the
good τhings its carcass rvas full of. Baked togeιher inside ßτ rvere τhrushes and
rvarblers, and γοΙκ ofegg poured over them. Barbecued oysters and scallops
were served next, lvith α plate for each. After this ινe had α drink, and each of
us was given α stev,red kid οη α silver dish, wiιh gοΙιΙ spoons.
Αι last the second tables came ßη and fruit and nuts lvere offereιi to αΙΙ ßη
ivory baskets, and αΙΙ sorιs of cakes, Cretan and your very ο\νη Samian, my
dear Lynceus, and Attic, ,vuith the receptacle proper tο each.

The feasτ thaτ Caranus, the bridegroom, had arranged for his friends
was very different from anyιhing that would have been seen ßη Greece ßη
earlier times. The distribution of ιvreaths and perfumes was, admittedly,
α Greek cusτom. Βυτ τhe quantiτies of food seem ναsτ. There ιvas far τοο
much for αηγ one person το eat. Yet ßι was ηοτ αΙΙ wasted. Macedonian
feasτing enabled the guests το display τheir generosity to slaves and
attendants and to take food home for their households. They were even
given baskets to carry off the leftovers. And αΙΙ the plates and utensils,
gold, silver and bronze, were given to the guests to take αν,lαγ. Gift-giving
was τhe meιhod by ιvhich Macedonian kings had asserτed τheir sτaτus and

72
 Α \Yedding Feast ßη Macedon

conducted their diplomacy. This, perhaps more τhαη αηγ oτher feaτure of
Dionysus aττended by α
τhe ιvedding feasτ, ,was α local cusτom, one τhaτ had ηο doubτ suffered PiPe-Playing satyr and
inflaτion τhanks το τhe immense riches τhaτ Macedonians had norv τνοη ßη
dancing maenad,
the Easτ.

The recipes τhατ folloιv are linked ßη οηε ,ý/αγ or anoτher vriτh Macedon
and its conquesτs. One of τhem comes from τhe Greek cookery book of
ιvhich fragments were found among the papyri of Oxyrhynchus, ßη
Egypτ, where so much losτ Greek literature has come το light. For the kid
stew, the main course of τhe feast described by Hippolochus, rve have
substituted roast hare, α fine delicacy for α smaller-scale dinner and one of
Greece's luxuries (for α recipe for roast kid or lamb, see page 36). The few
surviving recipes for ancienτ Greek cakes and pasτries include one of
Cretan origin - Hippolochus actually mentions Creτan cakes - and one
from Alexandria, the nelv Greek metropolis of Egypt that sτill bears the
name of its founder Alexander.

73
 The Classical Cookbook

Successful huntsman
αιd dog. At Athens
hare ωas the typical
game animal.

If τη,e can |udge by Caranus' feast, Macedonians did not Ιοοκ far afield
for wine: he served Mendaean and Thasian vinτages, from τhe
Macedonian mainland and α neighbouring island. But they drank
lavishly. Alexander's courτ was infamous for drunken quarrelling,
sometimes fatal. Alexander, people said, had brought οη his own death
by over-indulgence ßη wine.
One of the best-knorvn rvines of modern Greece comes from Mace-
donia. The dry,red of Naoussa, from the western hills, has α long history:
Naoussa rvas already admired by travellers ßη the eighteenth century.
There are also α red and α rvhiτe Cüτes de Meliτon, from αη esτaτe souτh of
ancienτ Torone. These laττer rvines, α blend of newly planted French and
Greek varieτies, òαηηοτ claim αηγ hisτorical τradiτion - but that would
cerτainly not have worried Caranus or his guests,

74
 Α Vedding Feast ßη Macedon

Roast Η aye
Drenched hare: it is first biefly scalded ßη ωater, then aπanged ßη α ραη.
be roasted ßη οßΙ ßη the ouen, and ωhen nearly done more οßΙ is to be
It is to
added. Add the folloωing sauce. Pound pepper, sauoly, οηßοη, ηιε, celeιy
seed, fish sauce, silphium, ωßηε and α liτtle οßI. Τυηι α feω τimes: Ιιτ ßτ
finish cooking ßη τhis sauce.
Apicius 8,8, τ

Sεkvεs l.'ουι

Ι SADDLE OF HARE
SALT
Ι TEASPOON GROUND BLACK PEPPER
oLIvE oIL
2 SMALL ONIONS
2 TEASPOONS FRESH LOVAGE OR CELERY LEAF
Ι TEASPOON DRIED SAVORY
2 TEASPOONS CHOPPED FRESH OR DRIED RUE
Ι TEASPOON CELERY SEED
ΥΖ ΤεeSρΟΟΠ ASAFOETIDA PO\YDER OR 3 DROPS ASAFOETIDA TINCTURE
ιο FL οΖ (rY+ curs/z8o τ*ι) RED \ßιΝΕ
2 TABLESpoous (3ο ΜL) FISH sAucE

Bring α large saucepan of water tο the boil and either place the hare ßη τhe
ραη or pour the water over it to scald the meat briefly. Transfer τhε meaτ
το α roasτing τßη and season ιvell with salt and pepper and plenty of olive
οßl. Heaτ τhe oven to 375'F (l9o'C/gas mark 5) and roast the saddle for α
τοταΙ of r/z hours.
Meanιvhile prepare τhe sauce. Chop the onions finely and combine
τhem wiτh the other seasonings and the wine, fish sauce and Ζ tablespoons
(Ι5 ml) olive οßl. Remove the hare from the oven after ι hour's cooking
and add the sauce. Reτurn to the oven for another 3ο minuτes, basτing
'§i'hen
frequenτly ιviτh ιhe sauce. τhe meat is cooked, ταΚε ßτ from τhe oven
and keep ßτ warm. Turn τhe sauce into α ραη, bring to the boil and reduce
slighτly. Carve the meaτ and serve α little of the sauce οη the side.

Hare can be found τoday ατ α specialisτ buτcher or α markeτ sτall (rabbiτ

may be used as αη αΙτετηατßνε). Α whole hare will feed υρ to 6 people, and

75
 The Classical Cookbook

ßτ is noτ usually sold ßη joints. The saddle is the best part of the animal:
τhis is whaτ γου should use for the recipe. Ask your supplier to skin, draw
and joinτ τhe hare for γου; save the legs for anoτher occasion. Hare is α
very bloody meaτ and the process of scalding it ßη boiling water is useful
το clean ιhε meaι before roasιing.
The recipe from Apicius, used above, ινßΙΙ probably be preferred by
mosτ readers. For α simpler view of the besτ way το deal with hare v/e can
ΙοοΚ back το τhe instructions of Archestratus: 'There are many \η/αγs,
many rules for τhe preparaτion of hare. This is τhe besτ, τhaτ γου should
bring the roasτ meat ßη and serve το everyone ιvhile they are drinking:
hoτ, simply sprinkled wßτh salt, taking ßτ from ιhe spiι while still α liττle
rare. Do ηοτ \ryorry if γου see the blood seeping from the meat) but eat
greedily. Το me the other recipes are altogether out of place, gluey
sauces) too much cheese, too much οßΙ over, as if one were cooking α cat!'

Liuer Oxyrlιynchus
Cuτ υρ good liuer, marinate ßη οßΙ ωith salt, coiander, tlU)me, silphium,
opos, uinegar; gnll οη α spiτ ατ high temperatuTe; sev¼e.
Oxyr\Unchus cookery booh

Sεινεs Ττνο
8 οΖ (ΖΖ5 c) ιηλτg's ιινει
2 TABLEspooπs (3ο ML) οLιγΕ oIL
2 TABLESpooπs (3ο mι) ιεο wιΝΕ vINEGAR
ι LARGE οa ..RτANDER
"οrηου'-' ""**ro '*ESH
2 TEASPOONS DRIED ΤΗΥΜΕ

GENERοUS QUANTITY οF SALT AND PEPPER

Carefully skin τhe liver and remove αηγ sinews and blood vessels. Slice
τhßηΙγ and leave to marinate ßη the other ingredients for Ζ tο 3 hours or
overnight. Line α grill (broiling) ραη with cooking foil and place τhe liver
slices οη τhis ιηιßτh α little of the marinade. Grill (broil) at α high heat for Ζ
το 3 minuτes οη each side and serve wiτh α liττle of τhe juice.

76
 Α Wedding Feast ßη Macedon

Baked Mackeyel
CooK: 'Do γου hηοω hοω to cook horse mackerel?'
SLAVE: 'Ι ωßΙΙ ωhεη you'ue τοΙd me.'
Cook : 'º'αΚε out the gilk, inse, cut off the spines αΙΙ round, split neaτly and
spread it out flat, ωhφ ß good and sound ωith silphium and couer ωith cheese, salt
and oregano.'
Alexis ι38, quoτed ßη ετυgυειυs 3zzc-d

SεRvεs Ττνο

2 MAcKEREL
Ι/Ζ TEASPOON ASAFOETIDA PO\YDER OR 3 DROPS ASAFOETIDA TINCTURE

2 SPRIGS OF FRESH OREGANO

8 οΖ (ΖΖ5 c) òιιΕνιτ cιrrεsε
SALT

Remove the head from the mackerel and clean the fish. Spliτ each fish αΙΙ
τhe ,way down its belly and open ßt out. Break the spine ßη Ζ or 3 places
wiτh α heavy knife and lift out the bone. Remove as many of τhe liττle
bones as γου can. Spread it flat, flesh uppermost, ßη α greased baking
dish. Sprinkle ιηιßth the asafoetida porvder or tincture. Chop the oregano
roughly and combine with the crumbled cheese. Pack τhis mixτure over
τhe flesh of τhe fish, pressing it down carefully. Heat the oven το 35οΟF
(I8o"C/gas mark 4) and bake τhε fish for 15 το Ζο minuτes unτil golden-
brown and crisp.

Scad or horse-mackerel is ηοι ßη facι α mackerel at αΙl. It is α member of

τheCarangidae family, other members of ,which include bluefish and ρßΙοτ
fish. They αΙΙ live ßη the warm \Λ/αtετs of the Mediterranean; horse-
mackerel alone is also found ßη British waters yet is rarely seen ßη
fishmongers' shops. The fish is distinguished by prominent eyes and α
sτepped lateral fin. Ιt is usually treated ßη the same,way as mackerel, but is
said by αt leasτ one auτhority το be not as good. I prefer to use mackerel for
τhis recipe: it is easily available and ,well-flavoured,

77
 The Classical Coohbook

ΑΙeχαηdτßαη Sωeets
Itria thin sωeetmeats made of sesame and honey.
eτιrιπeεus 646d
Halpocration of Mendes calls the Alexandrian hind of cahe α pankapra.
This is aambled itria boikd ωith honey; and, ωhεη boiled, they are made
υρ inτo balls, ωrapped ßη τhin paryrus το hoΠ τhem τogeτher,
ετυεΝεευs 648b

There are tωο hinds ο/ßιτßα, the bettey hind callιd ryemata [floωed outJ
and the poorey called lagana ['ωαfετ'] .
GALEN, Οη the Properties of Foods ι, 1, ι

Itrτa presents; nibblιs; biscuity shapes.

HESvCHIUS, Dicτionary

These scraps of ancient vrriting give αη example of the jigsa,w puzzle from
u,hich Greek and Roman foods sometimes have to be reconstructed. The
sweeτmeaτs called irna are vaguelydefined, but there is iust sufficientinfor-
mation to develop α recipe. They could apparently be thin 'flowed-out' bis-
cuits (cookies) made of honey and sesame seeds. The honey was evidently
boiled as α first step: it is ηοt so easy to see rvhat processes followed.
The recipe folloιving this one is for α more elaboraτe version of iτna
knorvn as gas/πi. There more detailed instructions specify roasτing τhε
nuts before they are mixed ιvith the honey, so there will be ηο need to add
heat α second time.
Ι have used the gasιns method as α basis for the simpler þηα. Ιη boτh
τhe honey is boiled υηtßΙ it almosι becomes caramel and sets ßη the same
way as τoffee. The boiling time is crucial to the texture of the finished
sweeτ. Both sweets could be either crisp or cher,vy: we can see them as
ancestors ofpralines or nougat.
Ι have enriched the jrπa vlith some nuts, ßη the belief that, despiτe lack
ofevidence, the sιveets ofancient Alexandria rvould have been as diverse
as our confectionery is today. Υου can be more adventurous and add
raisins, chopped dates or ρορργ seeds ifyou like.

Mekεs Αsουτ Τιτιεπτγ PIεcrs

4 οΖ (τ c:p/:"ojllΞΞIε sEEDs
3 οΖ (3/ι cur/85 ò) cπorrιo MIXED NUTS
(ιιmοποs, wηιπυτs, lIεΖειπυτs)
6 οΖ (3/ι cur/r7o c) òιεει ΗοΝΕγ

78
 Α Wedding Feast ßη Macedon

Roasτ τhe sesame seeds and nuτs ßη τhε oven ατ 35ο"F (l8o'C/gas mark 4)
until they take οη α little colour. Put the honey ßη α saucepan and bring το
τhe boil, τhεη skim and conτinue το simmer genτly for 7 minuιes. Add τhe
nuts and sesame seeds to the honey vrhile rvarm and mix well. Grease α
shallow baking tray or dish and spread the mixture ουτ οη ßτ. ΑΙΙοιν το
cool until γου can handle the mixture and then mould into balls the size of
boiled srveeτs. Wrap ßη little pieces of paper and serve wiτh fruiτ and nuτs
at the end of α meal.

Οη the ωαγ home from

τhe synιposium: cup by
the 'Brygos Painter',
abouτ47o aC.

79
 The Classical Cookbook

Honey IIut Cake

Ιη Creτe τhey mahe α liττle cake ωhich τhey call gastris. This is hoω ßτ is
done: sueet almonds, hazelnuts, bitter alιnonds, ρορργ seedò: τοαòt thòm,
ωatching them carefully, and pound ωεΙL ßη α ckan mortar. After mixing
the nuts knead ωith boiled honey, adding plenty of pepper. Ιt turns black
because of τhe ρορργ. Flaττen ουτ ßητο α square. Νσιυ pound some ωhßτε
sesame, ωοτh ωith boiled honey, and stretch tωο |agana, one beloω and τhe
oτher aboue, so τhaτ τhe blach is ßη τhe mßΜΙι, and Üiuide inτo shapes.
Chrysippus ofTyana, quoted by ατυεπαευs 647f

Mekεs Αsουτ F-ιττεεπ Ριεòεs

4 οΖ (τ cu"1]:9jΔglglnlMoNDs
4 οΖ (ι .υ"Ι
"9jlxrBlΞojAzεLNuTs
τ τετιτsιοου (τ5 c) gιττεη ALMoNDs
Ζ τηιιιsροοι.ιs (3ο ò) ρορΡγ sEEDs
6οΖ(τΥΖ cups/τ7o c) sεseιrE SEEDS
7 TABLESpooπs (zro c) òιεηη ΗοΝΕγ
Ι TEASPOON COARSELY GROUND BLACK PEPPER
(τΗιs ßυην ΒΕ REDUcED Ir νου ιvlsn)

Heat τhe oven το 35o'F (I8o'C/gas mark 4). Combine τhe nuτs and ρορργ
seeds and roast them το give τhem colour. Roast the sesame seeds briefly,
αΙΙοιν them to cool, then pound or process them tο α fine texture. Place
3 τablespoons (45 g) honey ßη α small ραη, bring το τhe boil and simmer

Α drinker ωatches us:

rymposium scene 0η αη
Atheniankrater (ωßηε-
mixing bοωΙ) of about
5οο BC.

8ο
 Α Wedding Feast ßη Macedon

genτly for 7 minutes. Add τhe pounded sesame seeds and sτir well. ΑΙΙοιν
το cool sufficienτly το be τouched and turn ουτ οη το α greased τable or
marble slab. Grease your hands and knead υηtßΙ firm but still warm.
Divide into Ζ equal portions and keep one of these rryarm οη top of ιhe
sτονε, Grease α shallolv square baking τταγ or ραη wiτh olive οßΙ, τhen,
using α greased rolling ρßη, roll ουt the cooler porιion of sesame paste ßητο
α τhin sheeτ το fiτ inside τhe τray.
Place αΙΙ τhe roasted nuts ßη α food processor ιviτh τhe pepper and
process for α mßηυτε or ιτνο τßΙΙ γου have α fine texture. ΒοßΙ τhe remaining
4 τablespoons (60 g) honey for 7 minutes ßη ιhε same ν/αγ as before, τhen
add τhe ηυτ mixτure and sτir ιyell. Ψhile sτill hoτ, spread τhis over τhε
sesame layer and level it off. Roll the second layer of sesame ραsτε into α
sheeτ τhaτ covers τhe ηυτs. Ρυτ ßτ ßη place, leave for αη hour το seτ and
ιviιhouτ furτher delay (or ßτ ινßΙΙ geτ too hard) cut ßητο lozenges. Serve ιviτh
fruit at the end of τhe meal, or as α sweeτ ατ αηγ τime.

Biπer almonds are obtainable from Chinese supermarkets. Ιη ýε US they

are banned from sale, buτ peach or apricot pits may be substituτed, ΑΙΙ
these are poisonous rarv, buτ safe after roasting. Iη small amounts they add
αη unusual tang to the recipe. Υου can find Greek mουηταßη τhyme honey
ßη health-food stores and sometimes ßη supermarkeτs. Κηοινη as τhγιηεΙß,
it has α ιryonderful flavour and (though fairly expensive) adds α special
touch tο the srηleet,

Flouy sieues and

s torage re cep ταò le s fr om
τhe bakery.

8ι
 5
Cατο'S F'aRM

or us Greek literature begins ιvith the τ,wο great epic tales of heroes
and τheir adventures. Roman literature begins ßη αη utτerly dif-
ferent ιναγ - with comic plays and α farming handbook.
The first full-lengτh work of prose that happens to survive from Roman
anτiquiτy is α collecτion of notes jotτed down as advice for someone ryho
was planning tο invesτ ßη α farm. The τopics covered seem το be the ones
τhaτ had concerned τhe writer himself: choosing α good business, keeping
ßτ profiτable, managing slave labour.

Each time the master visits his farm, he ινßΙΙ first greet ιhe household spiriι.
Then he should go round τhe properτy - τhaι very day, if he can; ifnoτ ιhaτ
day, the next. As soon as he is clear holv the business stands, what jobs are
finished and whατ is sτill το be done, ηεχτ day he musτ send for τhe
manager .

He musτ aim for best profit: sell οßΙ rvhen ßt will ραγ; sell surplus ιvine and
grain; sell ageing oxen, less-yielding colvs, less-yielding sheep; sell wool,
hides, old carts, old tools, old slaves, sickly slaves, and anything else surplus.
The master has tο be α selling man) ηοt α buying man,
The reader is τold ιvhen and where το build α new farmhouse and ho,w
το equip ßτ for rrrine and olive οßΙ production. And, as α bonus for αΙΙ who
are inτeresτed ßη ancienτ food, there is α fascinating long sεòτßοη of
recipes. These are noτ recipes for main dishes: γου and your cook must
work out your ο\γη choices for dinner, They are recipes for preserving
meat and vegetables, for making cakes and s\ryeets) for medicinal drinks
and for special kinds of ιvine, They may seem to be α miscellaneous list,
buτ τhey have someτhing important ßη common. These are αΙΙ iτems that
could be made οη τhe farm and kepτ for long-τerm use, or indeed sold ατ
τhe nearest markeτ. They give α unique snapshoτ of Roman farm
economy long before Rome ,,vas ιhe ruler of the world. Here is αη
example: 'Ho,w γου should preserve lentils: dissolve silphium ßη vinegar,
soak τhe ΙεητßΙs ßη τhe silphium-vinegar, and sτand them ßη τhe sun. Then
rub τhe lentils ιyiτh οßΙ, let them dry, and τhey will keep quiτe sound,'
This pracιical-minded auτhor was one of τhe besτ-known figures of
early Roman history. Iτ is, ßη facτ, quiτe remarkable that we have such α
close insighτ inτo the way τhaτ αη early sτaτesman's mind worked ιvhen he

8Ζ
 Cato's Fατm

Siloer-gilt dτßηΚßιψ-
horn, modelled as α
stag, ωith inl.aid glass
ryes, From the
Parthian Empire,
Rome's eastσrn
neighbour, rnodern Ι raq
ατιd Ιταιι.

was engaged ßη his οτνη private business. For this,vvas Cato'the cen§or', α
man ofunusual foresight, unusual strictness, and unusual confidence ßη
his οτνη decisions. Το laτer generaτions Cato ιvas the τypical tradiτional
Roman. Α fine military commander ßη Spain, α fine and honest governor
of Sardinia, he had eventually been appointed censor back ßη Rome and,
as such, had expelled some rvell-kno\ryn men from the Roman Senate for
lapses ßη morality: one of them, so it was said, for ηο oιher reason than
τhaτ he had kissed his orvn rvife,,yhile someone else rrras watching, the
someone else being their daughter. Cato thinned the order of 'knighτs'
τοο, Lucius Veturius being expelled because he,was tοο fat to ride α horse.
¹οw can such α body be useful to the State,' Cato demanded, 'when
everyτhing beτ,areen gulleτ and geniτals has been ταΚεη over by sτomach?'
Cατο,wαs also said to have α fierce aversion to τhe Greek culture τhat was
τhen invading Rome and sapping τhe vigour of Roman γουτh. Βυτ ßη spiτe
of such stories, he comes over ßη reality as severely practical.

83

be
 The Classical Coohbook

As governor, he insisτed, he ιvould noτ be atτended by α crowd of

lackeys because it rvas α waste of the State's resources. As farmer, he
would hold οη το his olive οßΙ until the price peaked, and he would keep
'§i'haτever
slaves οηΙγ ιvhile τhey v,zere fiτ το rvork. he τhoughτ of τhe
insidious dangers of Greek culture, Cato advised young Romans to learn
Greek. Some of the rvines for which he gives recipes are imitaτions of
Greek rvines. The cakes ßη his farming handbook have Greek names: they
are α Roman version of Greek patisserie. Ιf these rvines and cakes would
sell ßη lτalian markeτs, Caτo rvould make sure that his o,σrn farm drew
some of the profiτs.
Ψe Κηο,σι very little of Roman meals ßη Cato's ιime. As Rome came tο
dominate ltaly, Sicily, Spain and southern France, the Romans certainly
did learn το like τhe luxuries thaτ were available ßη the old-established
Greek cities ßη those regions. As Rome fought and defeated Carthage, the
Carthaginian books οη agriculture were officially translated into Latin: it
is from one of these that Columella took his recipe for passum (raisin
wine), mentioned earlier. Soon Romans would begin to make military
conquests ßη the East. Greek slaves, including Greek cooks, would flood
τhe ciτy; Greek comedies, adapted inτo Latin, would sweep τhe
Roman sτage; and Greek rvays of life and love ιvould come tο seem more
natural than home-grown customs. Cato stands at the very beginning of
τhese exciτing developmenτs,

Mask of the ωßηε god,

Dionysus to Greehs,
Bacchus to Romans,
ωreathed ωith grapes.
Handle omament of α
Greek or Roman
bronze buchet.
 Cato's Farm

Even ßη Caτo's time Greek wine rryas ßη fashion ßη Roman ltaly. Ψhy else
should he give those complicated recipes for adding sea waτer το τhe musτ
το imiτate the wine of Cos?
Yet we can see from the firm and practical instructions for τhe vintage
and τhe wine trade, elsewhere ßη Caτo's handbook, thaτ τhe rvine of ΙταΙγ
,was already big business. Ττrgο hundred years later the tireless ΡΙßηγ
τried το write τhe history of lτalian vintages. Iη early times, he decided,
. . ηο parιicular variety is famous, but one parιicular year is. ΑΙΙ varieιies
gave of their besτ rvhen L. Opimius ιναs Consul, the very same year ßη ιvhich
τhe Tribune C. Gracchus stirred υρ τhe people το rebellion and rvas assas-
sinaιed. Ιη that year, Rome's six hundred and thirty-third, the weather \I/as
ideally sunny -'ripe', as people say. These Opimian ιvines have lasted about
ττηιο hundred years already, though by ηοιν ιhey have reduced to something
resembling rough honey, evidently ιhe natural state of ,σine ßη iτs old age,
They are ηο longer drinkable by themselves, not even νvhen diluted ,σ,rith
ινατετ: τheir formidable maτurity has ατ lengτh turned το biττerness. They are
'medicines' now, used ßη tiny doses tο improve other wines.
This marvellous year for ltalian wines rvas ι2ι Bc. Ancienτ ιvines did ηοτ
usually last as long as two hundred years! As ΡΙßηγ remarked ßη α later
sεòτßοη of his encyclopaedia: 'Νο investment gains faster than wine υρ το
iτs ιrηrentieth year, or loses faster after that - unless its price rises.'This
may sound like self-contradiction, buτ τhe meaning is clear: rr,rine τhaτ
lasτed longer τhαη t,ý/enty years \ryas α rariτy. Wßτh the simple Roman
dishes of this chapter, drink young ltalian wines.

Garlic Cheese
Firsτ, lighτly digging into τhε ground ωiτh his fingers, he pulls υρ four heads
of garlic with τheir τhick leaues; then he pichs sLim celely-τops and sτurdjι
rue and the thin stems of trembling coiander. ΙYith these collecτed he sits
before the f.re and sends the slaue-girl for α mortaT. He splashes α grass-
groωn bulb ωith ωαtετ, and puts it to the holloω mortar. He seasons ωith
grains of salτ, and, after τhe salt, hard cheese is added; then he mixes ßη τhe
herbs. Wiτh the pestΙe, hλ ight hand ωorhs at the rteºy garlic, τhen he
crushes αΙΙ alihe ßη α mixture. His hand circles. Gradually the ingredients
lose their indiuiduality; out of the many colours emerges one - neither
ωhοΙΙγ gιeen (for the ωhite tempers it), nor shining ωhite (since τinted by so
many herbs). The ωοτΚ goes οη: not jerhily, as before, but more heauily the
pestle makes its sloιu circuits , S ο he sprinhles ßη some drops of Athena' s

85
 The Classical Cookbook

oliue οßΙ, and adds α little shaφ uinegar, and again ωorhs his mixture
together. Then at kngth he runs tωο fingers round the mortar, gathering the
ωhοΙε mixture into α ball, so as to produce the form and name of α finished
moretum. Meanωhile busy Scybale has bahed α loaf. This he takes, after
ωiping his hands . . .

Moretum 88-ιΖο

Νοτ for τhε fainτ-hearτed, τhis fi,ery moreτum (garlic cheese). Ιf we τake τhe
poet's recipe at face value, ßτ may include fifty cloves of garlic: α pretτy
porverful mixτure, but surprisingly good ιηrßth α fresh warm loaf and α few
olives. The farmer has just α small ball of hard cheese ßη his larder yet the
finished garlic cheese is described as firm enough το make α ball iτself.
The garlic is quite juicy when pounded and this determines how much
cheese is to be used to produce α finished moretum. The olive οßΙ and
vinegar sofτen the mixτure slightly buτ do not turn ßτ inτo α spread,

Sεkvεs SIx

2 HEADS (2ο-5 CLoyES) GARLIC

8 οΖ (ΖΖ5 G) pEcoRINo RoMANo cHEEsE

Ι LARGE HANDFUL ΟF CORIANDER LEAVES
2 TEASpooNS òΗοττεο rιrsH ηυτ (οη DRIED IF NEcESSARy)
2 HEAPED TEASPOONS CHOPPED FRESH CELERY LEAF
Ι TEASPOON SALT
ι TABLEspoo¾lrs Μηψgτ wINE vINEGAR
Ι TABLESPooN (Ι5 ML) oLIvE oIL

Peel and roughly chop τhe garlic. Graτe τhe cheese. Roughly chop τhe
herbs. Ιf γου are grinding by hand, start with the garlic and salt; break ßτ
dorvn tο α ρυΙρ, then add the cheese and herbs. Ψhen γου have α smooth
mixτure add ιhe liquids and mix well. Gaτher the mixτure together and
chill. Ιfyou are using α food processor, add αΙΙ the solid ingredients and opposITE Mosaic
process υητßΙ τhε mixτure is smooth ßη τexτure, then add the liquids. Serve
from Pompeii,
ιvith α crusτy loaf as α snack. Probably based οη α
painting, τhiò seems to
The poem Moretum is someτimes attribuτed to Virgil, auτhor of Rome's shoω α scene from
Graeco-Roman comedy
ηατßοηαΙ epic, τhe Aeneid. The exτracτ quoτed here deserves το be α very
famous one: ßτ acτually provides one of τhe national mοττοεs of τhe Uniτed - ßτ mighτ be τhe τiτIe-
Mònandef s
scene of
States, 'Ε pfuibus unum' (.'Οιt of the many, one'), α memorable phrase Synaristosai, qVomen
firsτ used of τhe green herbs and ιvhiτe garlic of α ploughman's lunchl at Lunch',

86
Cato's Fαιm

87
 The Classical Cookbook

Moretum paints α picture of α poor peasant farmer struggling το make

his living. The baττle to survive is depicτed ßη epic sτyle, like α hero's
quesτ. He is making his morning meal ßη the cold and damp of the daιvn.
He sτruggles to rekindle τhe fire ßη his draughty hovel; he sτrains το grind
his meagre supply of ιvheat inτo flour, so τhατ his ιyife can make τheir flaτ
unleavened bread ßη ιhe hearth.
Greeks and Romans used α morτar for grinding and mixing sauces. Ιη
this case the farmer τηrουΙd have used α large, coarsely made boιvl urith α
grainy texτure that helped ιο break down the ingredients. Ιf γου have α
food processor, the effort required to produce the dish is minimal. If, οη
the oτher hand, γου have to grind by hand γου will need α large pesτle and
mortar. Υου can also gain first-hand experience of the suffering τhaτ the
Roman farmer endured as he worked: 'Every so often the acrid smell
assails his flaring nosτrils and τhe farmer curses his meal, scre,"ving υρ his
face like α monkey. Norr,z and τhen he wipes his smarting eyes wiτh τhe
back of his hand, srvearing at τhe blameless fumes.'

Chopping onions or
garlic? Teττacotta
statuette of α slaue ωith
ηιes streaming.

88
 Cato's Farm

Lenτils
Lentils: boil, and ωhen they haue frothed add leek and coiander leaf ,
Coiander seed, pennyroyal, asafoetida root, m,int and ηιε; moisten ωith
u,inegar, add honey, blend ωith fish sauce, uinegar, concentrated must, αΜ
οßΙ, sτir. Adjust as needed. Bind ωith starch, add green οßΙ οη τορ, season
ωiτh pepper and seιιιe.
Apicius 5, Ζ,3

Sειvιs Slx
8 οΖ (ΖΖ5c) òηειυ ιτπτιιs
2 sMALL LjΞ5ι(*ιΞΞjιιτs οπιν)
Ι LARGE HANDFUL OF FRESH CORIANDER
2 TEASPOONS CHOPPED FRESH ΜΙΝΤ OR Ιγ2 TEASPOONS DRIED ΜΙΝΤ
Ι TEASPOON CHOPPED FRESH OR DRIED RUE
GROUND BLACK PEPPER
2 TEASPOONS GROUND CORIANDER
2 GOOD PINCHES ASAFOETIDA POWDER OR
5 DRoPS_lΞlIgΞf IDl f§cTURE
2 TABLESpooπs (3ο mι) ηεο wINE vINEGAR
r τειιεsροοπ (3ο c) ττοπεν

3 τητιτsροοπs (45 ιιι) rrsu sAucn

ι TABLEspooN (r5 ΜιΡΞιτγ¾γ (REDυcED òηιρεrυιòε)
ι TABLEspooπ (r5 ιτι) oLIvE oIL

Soak τhe lenτils ßη cold rvater overnight. Next day rinse them ινεΙΙ ßη fresh
cold rvaτer and place them ßη α saucepan with enough waτer barely το
cover. Bring to the boil, skim if necessary and simmer gently. Chop τhe
leeks and fresh coriander and add to the lentils. Combine τhe mßητ, rue,
r level teaspoon ground black pepper, the ground coriander and
asafoeτida and add along ιvith the liquids. Cook out until the lentils are
tender, Υου can thicken the mixture ινßth cornflour if γου τη,ßsh. Transfer
to α serving dish and sprinkle ιvith olive οßΙ and pepper.

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 The Classical Cookbook

Smoked S ausages (Lucanicae)

Lucanicae similarly: crush pepper, cumin, sauory, rue, parsley, miχed
bψ beτry, fish sauce, and mix ßη ωell-beaten meat) rubbing it ωεΙΙ
herbs,
inτo the miχture. Then, adding fish sauce, ωhole peppercorns, plenty of fat ,
and pine heιnels, sτuff inτo αη inτesτine (pulled as τhin as possible) and
hang ßη the smoke.
Apicius Ζ, 4

Lucanicae were τradiτionally smoked above the fireplace and not

oτherwise cooked. This is ηο longer possible ßη the home, but τη,ε can still
give τhem α smoky flavour before grilling τhem. Ιf γου have αη open
fireplace, they can be suspended from ιhe mantelpiece for α ferη, hours
while γου burn wood. Alτernatively γου can use your barbecue: sprinkle
wood chips over the coals and suspend τhe sausages at leasτ ιΖ ßη (3ο cm)
above τhe fire for αη hour or so.

Sειvιs SIx

ι ιι (45ο c) ιειιγ ροηκ, ιττπòεο (òηουπο)

2 TABLEspooNS (3ο G) ΡιΝΕ KERNELS
2Ο BLACK PEPPERCORNS
Ι TEASPOON CHOPPED FRESH OR DRIED RUE
2 TEASPOONS DRIED SAVORY

Ι HEAPED TEASPOON GROUND CUMIN

Ι TEASPOON GROUND BLACK PEPPER
3ο ιιν grnnlrs (ιτ ηνηιιηιιε)
2 TEASPOONS CHOPPED FRESH PARSLEY

3 τητιεsροοπs (45 ιτι) rlsH sAucE

SAUSAGE SKINS

Combine αΙΙ the filling ingredients and mix well: use α food processor if
available. Ιf γου have fresh skins, they will be preserved ßη salt and will
need το be vgashed. You,will need about 6 χ ιΖ-ßη (3o-cm) lengths. Tie α
knoτ ßη τhe end of each one. Ρυt ανΖ-ßπ (I-cm) ρΙαßη tube ßη α piping bag
and half-fill ιvith the mixτure; do not ρυτ τοο much ßη at α time or ßτ will be
difficulτ to squeeze. Take the open end of τhe skin, ρυΙΙ ßτ over the tube
and push ßτ down repeaτedly unτil τhe majoriτy of τhe skin sits like α collar
half-way dorvn the tube. Grip this vlith your finger and thumb and slowly

9ο
 Cato's Fατm

release τhe skin as γου squeeze the bag. Stop squeezing ιvell before τhe
skin has run ουτ, leaving Ζ-3 ßη (_ò-Ζ.ò cm) of skin to allow for shrinkage.
Ιτ will τake some pracτice before γου gετ this procedure righτ. When γου
have used υρ αΙΙ the meat, twist each length of sausage ßηιο 4 even
segmenτs. If γου are able tο smoke them, drape them over α coaτ-hanger
or similar ßτεm and suspend ßη τhe smoke. Otherwise òυτ ιhem ßητο
individual sausages and grill them under α medium heaτ.

Sausage skins can be bought freshly made from animal gυτ; sγητhειßò
skins are also available. Αη independent butcher, who makes his own
sausages, νγßΙΙ be able το help. Υου ννßΙΙ need τhe chipolaτa-size skin.
There is ηο need for αη elaborate sausage-sιuffing machine: α piping bag
and α 7Ζ-ßη (I-cm) icing tube are quiτe adequaτe.
This is τhe mosτ influential of αΙΙ Roman recipes! The idea ιvas broughτ
back to Rome by soldiers ιryho had served ßη Lucania, ßη the 'heel' of
ΙταΙγ, probably around Cato's time, Peppery, spicy, smoked sausages are
sτill made ßη many parτs of the rvorld, from Palestine ιο Brazil, under
names τhaτ can be traced back tο Lucanica.In Brazil, for example, τhey
are called Ιßημßòα. Recipes change with time, horvever, and ιhe modern
versions (even the ltalian ones) contain few of the original ingredients.

CeIery Ρυτüε
Vegeτable ρυτüε: boil celery ßη ωαtετ ωith soda. Drain and chop finely, Ιη
α mortar crush pepper, louage, ofegano) οηßοη, ωßηε, fish sauce and οßl.
Cook ßη α saucepan and mix ßη the òεΙιιγ.
Apicius 3, ι5,2

Sειvεs Fouk

Greengrocer's shoP . Ι CELERY HEAD

Relief òατυßιιg from Ι MEDIUM ΟΝΙΟΝ
Osιia, Rοηια's harbour
ιοωη at the mouth of 5 FL οΖ (% cuy]Jo λßι) S\γΞº WHITE wιΝΕ
τhe Tiber. Ζ τειιεsροουs (3ο υι) r,lsu SAυCE
ι τηιιτsροου (r5 ιΙι) οιΙνΕ oIL
2 TEASPOONS CHOPPED FRESH LOVAGE OR Ι TEASPOON LOVAGE SEEDS
2 TEASPOONS CHOPPED FRESH OREGANO

γ2 TEASPOoN GRoUND BLACK PEPPER

9Ι
 The Classical Coohbook

Chop τhe celery roughly and rvash it carefully. Chop the οηßοη. Place
both ßη α saucepan wiιh ιvater and bring tο the boil. Cook until τender and
drain. Place ιhe wine, ftsh sauce and οßΙ ßη α saucepan and add the herbs
and pepper. Cook out gently for α fειηι minutes. PurÝe the celery ßη α food
processor or pass ßτ τhrough α meιal sieve. Add tο the sauce; heat togeτher
and serve.

This is excellent as α vegetable accompaniment for many of the meaτ and

fish dishes ßη ιhis book and can also be made ιvith oτher vegetables. Ι have
τried ßτ wiτh leek, cabbage and spinach wiτh success. Ψhen making ßτ
wiτh celery, ifyou do ηοτ have access το fresh lovage γου can substitute
ι τeaspoon lovage seeds: these can be found ßη Indian supermarkets.
Celery leaf, which r,vould normally ινοτΚ as α replacemenτ for lovage,
ιvould be Ιοsι ßη ιhis recipe.

Cheesecake
Libum to be made as folloωs: Ζ lb cheese ωεΙΙ crushed ßη α, mortar; ωhen ßι
is ωεΙΙ crushed, add ßη ι lb bread-ωheat flour or, if γου ωαητ ßτ το be
lighτer, jusτ half α pound, το be πιßχεd ωell ωith the cheese, Add one egg
and mßχ αΙΙ together ωεΙI. Make α loaf of this, ωith leaues under it, and
cook sloωly ßη α hοι fire under α bιich.
cRτο, Or Agnculιure 75

Libum means 'cake'. Ψhατ kind of cake? It is often talked of by Roman

poeτs, bυτ ιvhaτ τhey say does ηοτ alrvays maτch Caτo's recipe. Libumwas
someτimes α sacrificial cake such as was offered tο household spirits ßη the
early years of Roman hisτory; ßτ rvas sometimes α farmhouse cake, served
hoτ; ßτ was someτimes α delicate honeyed cake that rvas served αt the very
end of αη elaborate Roman dinner. The ροεt Oyid (η: Bc-AD ι 8), rvriιing
of Roman religious fesτivals, τells us some tantalising details. He talks of α
libuminfιsed wßτh clear honey- and he traces the origin of ιhese cakes αΙΙ
τhe ιναγ back το mythology, and το the discovery of honey by the god
Bacchus. Perhaps τhese parιicular cakes are included ßη Caιo's farming
book for religious reasons - to appease the gods, or to ensure the farm's
ferτiliτy. Libare, afτer αΙΙ, mεαητ'το offer το τhe gods'.
ΑΙΙ τhe ancienτ wriτers associaτe ΙßüυΖι lvith honey - αΙΙ excepτ Caτo, and
he is the οηΙγ one ιvho αòtυαΙΙγ gives α recipe. His libum lvorks perfecιly

92
 Cato's Farm

ιvell vrithout honey. Cato's libumIs α delicious savoury cheesecake, very

successful ιvhen served hot. The cheese that is used can be quite salty and
maτure (Ι used feτa) and the resulτing τεχτυτε) ιviτh golden-brown crusτ
and sofτ centre, is similar to τhaτ of α modern baked cheesecake.
If, οη τhe oτher hand, rrye τake ßτ τhaτ τhe proper τhing was το add honey,
α soft unsalted cheese must be chosen: the combination of salty cheese
and honey is unappeτising. Therefore, t,wo recipes are given here. These
cheesecakes, either s,,veet or savoury, can be baked under α tεstυη,ι, οτ
baking cover: see Barley Rolls (page 5Ζ) for α full explanation.

Sωeet Cheesecake
Sειvrs Fουι

4οΖ(ι òυι/τΖοτ) τιειπ (ειι-τυRΡοSΕ) FLouR

8 or (rºj¸§g.fljHEESE
Ι EGG, ΒΕΑΤΕΝ
ΒΑΥ LEAVES

4οΖ (ΥΖ cup/rzo G) CLEAR ΗοΝΕΥ

Sifτ τhe flour into α bowl. Beat the cheese until ßτ is sofτ,and stir ßτ inτo τhe
flour along rvith the egg. Form α soft dough and divide into 4. Mould each
one inτo α bun and place them οη α greased baking τray ιviτh α fresh bay
leaf underneaτh. Heaτ τhε oven το 4z5'F (zzo'C/gas mark 7). Cover τhe
cakes rvith your alternative cover and bake for Ζ5 to 3ο minutes until
golden-brorvn. Score the cakes and pour rvarmed honey over them. ΑΙΙοιν
to stand for ro minutes before serving.

S αυουτγ Cheesecake
Srιvεs Fουι
τ ιι (45ο c) εετη curιsn
4οΖ (ι òυτ/ιΖοò) τιππ (ειι-τυRΡοsΕ) FLouR
Ι EGG
2-3 ΒΑΥ LEAVES

93
 The Classical Cookbook

This is ideally made ßη α food processor. Break υρ the feτa and place ßη τhε
bovrl. Process for 3ο seconds υητßΙ the.mixture is smooτh. Add the sifτed
flour and τhe egg and process for α few seconds until γου have α soft
dough. Mould inτo α loaf and shape ßητο α slighτly flaττened circle. Score
τhε τορ ιvith 3 lines thaτ divide the loaf into 6. Heat the oven το 425oF
(zzo"C/gas mark 7). Place Ζ-3 fresh bay leaves under the loaf, cover vriτh
your alτernaτive cover and bake for Ζ5 το 3ο minuτes. Serve vchile sτill
\ryarm aS αη accompaniment to α first course or to α Savoury course.

Layered Cheesecake
Placenta to be mαdι thus: Ζ lb bτead-ωheat flour to make the base; 4 lb
flour and Ζ lb semolina το make the lψers , Τυτη τhe semolina ßητο ωater.
When it is really soft, put ßτ ßη α clean mortar and dyain ωεΙΙ; then hnead it
ωith your hands, and ωhen it is ωεΙΙ ωοτhεd add the 4 lb flour gradually
and mahe into sheets (tracta),, a¾ange them ßη α basket to dτy. ΙYhen thry
are dηι , realyange them neatly . Ι η mahing each sheet , ωhen γου haue
hneaded them, press them ωith α cloth soaked ßη οßΙ, ωßρε τhem round and
damp them. When they are made, heat υρ your cooking fire and your bich.
Then moisten the Ζ lb flour and hnead ý; from this γου mahe α τhin base.
Ρυτ ßη ωατετ ι4 lb sheep's cheese, noτ bitτer, quiτe fresh; Iet it sτeep,
changing the ωater three times; take it out and squeeze it gradually dιγ
ωiτh τhe hands; ωhen properly dιγ put it ßη α mortar. Vhen αΙΙ τhe cheese
þ properly dried out, ßη α clean moytar hnead it ωith the hands, breahing it
dοωη as much as possible. Then tahe α clean flouy sieue and press the
cheese τhrough τhe sieue inτo τhe mortar. Then add 4Ι/Ζ Ib good honey and
mix it ωεΙΙ ωith the cheese, Then put the base οη α clean tabk ωhich giues
Aτhenian dinking-cup
α foot of space, ωith oiled bay leaues under it, and make the placenta.
ßη the form of α ram's
head; α dinhing-parτy First place α single sheet συετ the ωhole base, then, one by one, spread the
is depicted οη the neck- sheets ωith the cheese and honey mixture from the mortar and add them to
ψrjsfros Paintet', rfte placenta, spreading them ßη such α ωαγ that γου eaentuaΙU use αΙΙ the
about 48ο ΒC,
cheese and honey, and οη τhe τορ ρυτ one more sheeτ by iτself . Then draω
υρ τhe edges of τhe base, hauing preuiously sτohed υρ τhe fire. Then place
rie placenτa, couered ωßth τhe hot tile, and put hot coals around and aboue
ßτ. Be sure το cooh ßτ ωεΙΙ and sΙσωb. Open it to chech οη it tωο or τhree
times. \Vhen it is coohed, τεmσυε it and coat ßη honey. This mahes α
ι -gallon placenτa.
òετο, Οη Agiculture 76

94
 Cato's Farm

This remarkable cake also comes from Caτo's farming book. The name ls
Greek (and ßτ had nothing to do ιryiτh τhe modern meaning of placenτa,
invenτed by α seventeenth-century scientist). Iη Greek the ιryord could
ofτen mean α flaτ cake rryiτh α pastry base; goaτ's milk cheese and honey
were among typical ingredients. Α Greek comedy included α brisk
exchange betrveen α wordy gourmet and α dorrgn-to-earth eater:
'The sτreams of τhe tατνηγ bee, mixed rviτh τhe cloττed river of bleaτing she-
goaτs, placed υροη α flαι receptacle ofτhe virgin daughter ofZeus, delighτing
ßη τen ýousand delicate veils - or shall Ι simply say cake?'
º'm for cake.'
Romanplacεnta,|1ke Libum,was not οηΙγ α delicacy for humans but also α
sacrificial cake offered οη temple altars. The Roman poet Horace τells of α
τemple slave rvho ran away because he rrgas sick of honeyed placenta and
rvanted some good ρΙαßη bread.
Caτo's Laιin placenra is α single, very specific and very complicaτed
recipe. Ιτ is likely that Cato rvas confused by the recipe he was copying.
The raτio of ingredients doesn't alrvays work: the Ζ lb of soaked semolina
ττßΙΙ not absorb 4lb of flour to make α dough for the internal layers; and
τhe base dough, rvhen rolled out, τνßΙΙ be several feet across! The
τhickness of τhe outer covering is crucial: if made to Cato's recipe, ßτ musτ
have been fairly thick or the cake rvould have been too large to bake. Το
make α dinner-party placenta ιve had beτter ignore the ratios he gives and
simply follow the meτhod.
The follo,wing recipe, τhen, is α small delicaτe version of Caτo's cake
τhaτ could have graced α Roman banqueτ.

Sειvεs Sιx
2 οΖ (γ3 cUP/6o G) SEMoLINA
6 οΖ (ι|/Ζ curs/r7o c) ιιππ (ηιι-ιυιτοsε) FLoUR
ιΖ οΖ (34ο c) ιιòοττι oR FULL.FAT cREAM cHEESE

3 TABLE§PooNs (9ο òΙ ριυs r üη'Ζ, cun/roo ò) CLEAR ΗοΝΕΥ

ΒΑΥ LEAVES

Place τhe semolina ßη α boιvl wiτh enough cold waτer jusτ το cover ßτ.
Allovr το sτand for ι hour. Sift 4 οΖ (3/ι cvplιzo g) flour into α bowl and
form α dough with about Ζ tablespoons (3ο ml) cold ιvater. Knead,,vell
and αΙΙοτη, to rest. Strain the semolina and remove as much of τhe rrvater as
possible; place ßη α bolvl and knead ßπ Ζ οΖ (% cup/6o g) flour. Form α
dough and leave to rest. Beat the cheese, add 3 tablespoons (90 g) honey
and leave to one side. Divide the semolina dough into 6 equal pieces. Roll

95
 The Classical Cookbook

S τeps ßη folding τhe

pastry Jbr τhe placenιa.

( ß,ß\

Α
\ Ι,,jil,iii,,,,.z
\.,tι9Ι"Ζ ι\ /

fu*_

out each one ßητο α circle roughly 8 ßη (Ζο cm) across. Take α cake tin or
ring of τhaτ size and cuτ each circle inτo α uniform shape. Carefully Ιαγ
τhem οη α lighτly floured τable ιο resτ. Take τhe flour and rvaτer dough and
roll ßτ ουτ ινßτh plenτy of flour inτo α circle abouτ 18 ßη (45 cm) across.
About half-ιvay τhrough sιviτch το using τhe back of your hands το ρυΙΙ τhe
dough ουι. Ιτ should resemble sτrudel pasτe ßη τhickness.
Νοιν γου can begin ιο build the cake. Grease α large baking ιray wiιh
olive οßΙ and place 3 or 4large fresh bay leaves οη it. Carefully lift the large
flour-dough base οη to τhe baking τray and leτ ßτ drape over τhe edge.
Place one layer of τhe semolina pastry οη the base and ρυι α tablespoon
of the honey mixτure οη τhßs: spread ßτ ουτ το cover the whole area.
Repeat until γου have used υρ the honey and cheese; finish ι.vith α layer of
pastry. Your pasτry base should have ατ leasτ 5 ßη (ι3 cm) of dough each
side ofthe stack ofhoney layers. Standing before the cake, pick υρ τhe far
edge ofτhe base and ρυΙΙ ßτ toιvards γου and place ßτ across τhε τορ layer.
Move your hand down to the righτ and ρυΙΙ another parτ of the edge
to,wards the cenτre; τhßs ινßΙΙ create α fold ιηlhich γου can repeat αΙΙ round
the cake. The final edge needs to be τucked ßη. Gather the pasτry ατ τhε ιορ
and τrvisτ ßτ ofξ leaving α small knob. Cover rviτh your αΙτετηατßνε cover
and bake ßη α pre-heaied oven ατ 4z5'F (zzo«'C/gas mark 7) for 45 minuτes
to 1 hour until golden-broιvn and crisp around the edge, Allorry to cool
slightly and place ßη α large dish wiý α Ιßρ. Pour the rest of the ιvarmed
honey over the cake and alloιry ßτ tο soak ßη for ro minutes. Serve rvarm.

96
 6
Τυε \X/εaLTH οF rmpIRE
ατο, old-fashioned puriτan τhough he seemed το many laτer
Romans, marks α continuing trend. Ιη the days of empire, even α
moderately ιη,εΙΙ-οff Roman liked to talk of his country farm. He
v,,ould hinτ ατ τhe ιvonderfully fresh produce thaτ τhe farm manager and
his wife had sent dorl,,n to Rome that very day, α treat for τhe masτer and
his dinner guesιs. The saτirical poeτ Juvenal (born ηο 67) pushes the
fashion to the edge ofridicule:
Lisτen tο the menu: ηο market stuff here. Α fine plump kid, the most tender
of ιhe herd, from my farm ατ ΤßνοΙß, so babyish ßτ has more milk ßη ßτs veins
τhan blood; ιvild asparagus gathered by the manager's wife afτer her
òρßηηßηg; big warm eggs rvrapped ßη straw; and their mothers[!]; and grapes
preserved halfa year but just as good as rvhen they were fresh; and Signine
pears and Syrian pears and apples fresh-scented from ιheir harvest baskets,
rivals of the Picenιine and nothing for γου tιι fear, cured by ιhe auιumn chill
ofany dangerous roughness ßη their juice.
How different from classical Athensl There the boast rvas of produce one
had found οη the markeτ, and of τhe haggling over τhe price.
Ψe have moved forward ßη time trvo hundred years. Rome, once α
country torvn ßη central ΙταΙγ, is now the centre of α ,σrorld sτατε.
Traditionally guided by arisτocraιs, eventually broken aparτ by τhe
unbounded ambiιions of Julius Caesar (ιοο-44 ιc) and oτhers, Rome
has crumbled into anarchy. Caesar's adopted son, Ocτavian (63 nc-
AD ι4), has under ιhe name of Augustus been accepted aspnncεps, the
'first man'of the republic; his authority has passed to his ovrn sιepson and
adopted son, Tiberius (4Ζ ιò-.ιο 37), and republic has somehow τurned
ßηtο empire.
Romans τaxed τhe whole Mediτerranean world, and could afford το
buy their luxuries from an},ιvhere ßη the empire - and beyond. The spices
of India and Indonesia crossed the ocean, bound for Rome, and Roman
gold went eastwards to ραγ for them.
Rome had grown fearfulli, rich - but still retained the porver το laugh ατ
herself. Juvenal ,was οηΙγ one of the great satirists of that first hundred
years of empire. Another, apparently friend and courτier of Nero (αυ 3Ζ-
68) himseli rvas the novelist Petronius. His Saryrucon drerv α portrait of α

97
 The Classical Cookbook

vrhole world, the nerv rich and the ιvork-shy poor, the slave, the lecturer,
τhe prosτiτuτe and τhe ναsτ landowner. Or so ßτ seems. ΑΙΙ τοο liττle of τhe
Saτyicon survives, buτ the centrepiece of rvhat remains is α lavish dinner,
'Trimalchio's Feast', α mockery of the ιηrealth and pretension of imperial
ΙταΙγ. The narraτor, Encolpius, is αη educaτed vagabond who has man-
aged ιο get himself αη invitation:

Noιrr some really high-class appetisers came ßη. \{e had αΙΙ got οη our couches
by this time - οηΙγ our host was still missing. Trimalchio rvas going to take τhe
place of honovr himself . Laιesτ fashion? Αηlιναγ, οη the τrolley ιhere was α
Corinthian bronze donkey ινßth panniers οη its back, green olives ßη one,
black ßη the oτher. Over the τορ of the donkey rvere two τrays. Along ιhe edge
of them ßt said; 'Property of Trimalchio' and 'τ pounds silver'. These two
dishes were joined together by liπle bridges soldered οη, and they contained
dormice glazed ßη honey and rolled ßη ρορργ seeds, There ,σrere sizzling
sausages) too, οη α silver grill * and, under the grill, damsons and pom-
egranate seeds.

As ßη α second-raτe restaurant, the effort went ßηtο display: the food rvas
shoιvy and expensive (Roman cuisine, thanks to this episode, will be
forever associated with dormice glazed ßη honey and rolled ßη ρορργ
seeds), but not especially good. Encolpius and his disrepuτable friends
crept α\Λ/αγ at midnight, leaving Trimalchio sτill drinking.
For beττer or worse 'Trimalchio's Feast' is the fullest description of α
Roman dinner-party that we can now read. Luckily there is plenty of
oτher evidence from which we can build υρ α picture of τhε usual routine.
As ßη Greece, many houses had α special dining room, the πiclinium,
Three couches, each large enough for three diners, were arranged ßη α
U-shape surrounding α cenτral table, Α house,with α big enough garden
might well have α garden dining area, τοο, shaded by vines and creepers,
wiτh three sτone couches sloping gently upwards tο the middle - to be
made comforτable u,iτh cushions and pillovrs. The open side of the square
rvas for rvaiters to come and go.
Roman women and children had never dined separately from the
menfolk as ßη Greek families, Ιη τhe old days, it was said, τhey saτ
demurely αι τhe fοοτ of their husband's or faτher's couch; by the τime of οτ,τ,οsιτε Α üιsy
τhe empire τhey had become used to reclining. Servanτs τοοΚ off guesτs' banquet scene: ωαΙΙ-
sandals as τhεγ reclined, and brought wατετ το rvash their hands. Α painτing from Ρ ornp eii.
Α slaue remoues α
sequence of dishes began with the gustatio, appetisers οτ hors d'oeιιures,
guest' s sandals, and α
followed by α sweet aperitif (see the first recipe ßη this chapter). These of
fiend ffirs α cup
appetisers mighι be more varied and more costly than the main course, ωßηε. Another guest,
τhough ηοι so bulky. Ψe Κηο,,ν of α religious dinner, aττended by Julius ωhο has eaten οτ dlank
Caesar, at which sixteen hors d'oeuures arvaited the priestly celebrants. too much alreadry, is
They ranged from sea-urchin and clams to venison and wild boar. helped αωαγ.

98
 Ιß

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ß:" ,

', η':,l*:,
' 'lf*ι

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ι.*.';'Γ,.
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 The Classical Coohbook

The main courses were accompanied by bread and wine. Servanτs

must have been forever coming and going, bringing ne\v courses)
clearing away, supplying more perfumed vrater for finger-rinsing: for
diners aτe wiτh τheir hands, wiτh τhe occasional help of α knife. Music and
dance, performed by slaves, mighι well accompany the drinking, which
τended tο òοητßηυε long after τhε meal iτself was over. Α ηαρΚßη, which
Ιαγ ßη fronτ of the diners as they reclined, might serve as α knapsack to
ταΚε home τhe liττle gifτs of food or rvine ιviτh ,,vhich α host rvould regale
his friends as they departed.
Ψe have ηοτ quoτed α long list of main courses - read Petronius'
Saτyicon for plenty of examples - but the impression may remain thατ α
Roman dinner was αη expensive affair. Ιτ seems righτ το end, τherefore,
ινßτh α letter ßη which ΡΙßηγ ιhe Younger (born ò. AD 62; nephew of the
encyclopaedist) teases α friend with α menu of the dinner-party thατ he
missed.
Dear Septicius Clarus: Υου promise, but γου don't turn υρ to dinner, I'm
afraid! ΑΙΙ ready and waiting \I/ere α lettuce (each), three snails, t\λιο eggs,
porridge, v,ιiιhmulsum and snorv (yes, Ι must count ßη the snow, right α,σιαγ,
because it melted οη the plate), olives, beetroot, gourds, bulbs and α
τhousanιl other things ηο less enviable. Υου could have listened to comic
actors or α poetry reader or α lyrist, or, such is my generosity, αΙΙ three. But
γου chose tο go to someone else's, and what did γου geι? Oysters, sorvs'
wιlmbs, sea-urchins, and dancing-girls from Cadiz!

Βγ τhe early empire - α hundred and fifτy years afτer the famous Opimian
vintage * ιhe wines of ltaly were α serious study. l,{ames like Caecuban
and Falernian \lr'ere famous ßη poetry. Βυt ιvine snobbery led rich
gourmeιs like Lucullus (ιι7-66 ιc) tο prize the expensive, boiled-down,
s\η/eet export ,,vines of Greece above their οινη. The custom grerv of
serving several kinds of wine ßη sequence at α single party. ΡΙßηγ rvrites:
Greek ιvine,",las so prized thaι one would serve just one cup each at α dinner.
¶s α boy,' Varro tells us, 'Lucullus never attended α banquet at his father's
1ýßεΙΙ, οη his
house at which more than α single cup of Greek wine was served.
ο\η/ηreturn from service ßη Asia Minor, Lucullus distributed more than α
hundred ιhousand iars of Greek ιvine as gifts!' Caesar, at his triumphal
dinner as dictator, provided αη amphora of F'alernian and α small jar of Chian
το eachιable; but at the feast ßη his third consulship it was Falernian, Chian,
Lesbian, Mamertine. That was the first ιime, apparently, thaτ four kinds of
rvine rvere served.

'Ι'm giving γου real Opimian,'Trimalchio boasιed improbably ατ his

dinner table. 'Ι didn'τ serve such good stuff yesτerday, and my guesτs
then,σrere much better class.'

ΙΟο
 The |Yealth ο[ Empirc

Spiced Wine
ΛIaking Conditum Paradoxum. ιò Πb] honey are ριπ ßη α bronze jar
ωhich already conτains Ζ pinτs ωßηε, so thaτ γου boil doωn τhε ωßηε as γου
cook the honey . This tο be heated ouer α sΙοιυ fτe οΙ dιγ ωοοd, stiþng Ζυßτh
α sτich as ßτ cooks: if it begins to boiL ouer it is sτopped ωiτh α splash of
ωßιιε; ßη αηγ case it υιßΙΙ simmer dοωη ιuhen the heat is tahen aºL,ay, αιιd,
ωhεη cooled, re-ignited. º'hßs πιυst be repeated α second and α third tßπιε;
τhen τhe ιηßχτιιγε is fnally ι,emoued from the byazier and, οη τΙιε fοΙΙοτιßηg
day, skimmed. Next 4 οΖ ready-grouιιd pepper, j scrupLes masτic, ι dram
each bary leaf and saffron, 5 yoasted date stοιιεs, αιιd the dates themselι,es
sofιened ßη ωßηε το α smooτh purÝe. When αΙΙ this is ready, pour οη ιΒ pints
smooth υ:ßιιò. Ι f the fiιιished product is bitter , coal ωßΙΙ coffect it,
Λpicius ι, τ

The Romans τradiτionally served α honeyed lvine as αη aperitif ιvith τhe

first course at dinner. It ιταs Κηο,,νη as mu|,sum and rvas simply α mixture
of honey and wine ßη α ratio dependent οη personal taste. The honey rvas
boiled so τhατ ßι could be skimmed, but Ι find that this is less necessary
wiτh modern honey. For mυΙsυιη add 4 οΖ (νΖ òυρΙιΖο g) clear honey to α
boττle of medium-dr_v ιvhiιe wine: warm the honey slightly so thαt it will
dissolve ßη the wine. Chill before serving.
The Apτcιιls recipe, horvever, is for something finer: α special spiced
,wine or condiτum, distant ancestor of modern aperitifs such as Martini.
The recipe seems much τοο sweet. but the intended quantiτy of honey is
noτ clear ßη τhe manuscripts. Α Greek recipe for con Üitum suggests α much
smaller proporιion: 'Making condituιn: ,,rlashed, dried, finely ground

Ιη ιhε Rοιηαηωεst,
ωιιοdeη lιaιyels ωere
τhò τιeυ, ωαγ of sιοτßιιg
αιιd transporιing ωßηε.
Model ο.[ ιι Ιαdòτι zuine
ship Jbund ατ
Ncumagen ßη lloman
Gοmαιιν.
Deτail of the 'Fresco of
Mysteies'from α
the
υßΙΙα near Ροιιιρεßß.
Women gather around
α table; α slaue bings α
tray (of cahes?), Their
trance - lßΚ e fac e s τ emind
the υßεωετ that they are
ραττßòßρατßηg ßη α
religious ceremony.
Historians dispute its
signifi canc e endle
peppercorns, 8 scruples. Aττic honey, ι pint. old whiτe \Λ/ßηε, 4 or 5
ρßητs.' This is my excuse for reducing the quantity of honey considerably
ßη τhe following recipe, though ßη other ways ßt is based οη Apiιius.
Masτic is α resin rvhich has been exported from τhe Greek island of
Chios for ατ Ιεαsτ τrvo τhousand years. Iτ has α very strong and disτincτive
flavour, familiar to many Greeks because traditionally they have chewed
ßτ το clean τhe teeth and freshen τhe breath, Masτikha, α spiriτ similar
το ουΖο but flavoured ,wiτh mastic, is ,widely markeτed ßη Greece. If
γου wαητ το include masτic ßτ can be boughτ from τradiτional herbalisτs
such as Baldwin's ßη the υΚ (see page Ζ4 for the address) or from Greek
ss Ιjι .
delicatessens.
Ιο2
 The \Y/ealτh of Empire

MRkεs SIx Gιessεs

ι BoTTLE (7ο òι) ιτεοτυ-οηγ ιτΗιτΕ wINE

6 οΖ (3/ι cup/r7o ò) òιιηι ΗοΝΕγ
γ2 TEASPooN GRoUND BLACK PEPPER
Ι ΒΑΥ LEAF
PINCH SAFFRON POWDER OR STRANDS OF SAFFRON
PINCH MASTIc (oPTIoNAL)
Ι FRESH DATE, ΤΗΕ SToNE RoASTED FoR Ιο MINUTES
AND ΤΗΕ FLESH SOAKED ΙΝ Α LITTLE WINE

Ρυτ 5 fl οΖ (2/ι òνρ/ι5ο ml) of the rvine ßη α saucepan with τhe honey and
bring it to τhe boil. Skim if necessary. Repeat and remove from τhe heaτ.
Add the seasonings το the ιyine while ßτ is hoτ: this speeds υρ τhe
flavouring process. when it is cold, add the rest of the vrini and alliw το
stand overnight. Το serve, strain through α fine sieve or muslin.

Chicken Salad (SaIa Catτabia)

Anoτher, Apician sala cattabia.. put ßη α mortar celery seed, died
pennyroyal, died mint, ginger, coriander leaf , seeded raisins, honqι,
uinegar, οßΙ and ωßηe. Cnιsh. Put ßη α ραη bits of Picentine bread, Iayered
ωith chichen meat, kid's sωeetbreads, Vestine cheese, pine kernels,
cucumbers, dried onions chopped fine. Pour τhe liquid ouer. Ατ τhe lasτ
moment scatter Sηοω οη top and seιye.
Apicius 4, τ, Ζ

There is αη inτeresτing combinaτion of flavours and τexτures ßη τhis

ancient salad, which is ideal as α first course. Ι think of ßt as one of the
mosτ successful dishes ßπ Apicius. Lamb's srryeeτbreads are parτicularly
suiτable for the contrasτ of texture. The ancient method is α liitle vague: Ι
setτled οη α completely lined mould, as for αη apple charlotτ. ο, ,υþrn..
pudding, and turn ßτ out before serving.
Vestine cheese ιηrαs α smoked goat's milk cheese marketed by τhe
Vesτini, α mountain people of Abruzzo ßη central ltaly, and it,σas one of
|om9's delicacies. Μγ choice of Pecorino Romano, α sheep's cheese very
like Parmesan, is α personal one: it is dry wiτh α pungenτ flavour τhατ

Ιο3
 The Classical Cookbook

conτrasτs ιpell vriτh τhe oτher, milder, ingredienτs of τhe salad. Υου could
use α mature Cheddar, or even fresh Parmesan.
Picentine bread, from the same region οΓ ΙtαΙγ, ιvas made ßη α special
ιναγ. The recipe involves leaving soaked semolina to ferment for nine
days before baking. and τhe earτhenware poτs ßη ιvhich the dough was
placed broke ßη the oven ßη the course of baking. 'fhe bread, ιvhich ιvas
rvhiιe and very lighτ ßη τexτure, ιναs always eaten soaked ßη milk or rvine.
Substitute α white, sliced, grain-enriched loaf. Υου τι,ßΙΙ need α z-pinτ
(5-cup/ι .Ζ-Ιßττι,) pudding basin or similar bowl to make the salad.

Sεινεs F'ouk

8 sιIcεs G*η§Ξχ"§"Ξ.jι"ιτΕ BREAD

2 CHICKEN BREASTS, cooKED AND DICED
4οΖ(ιΖο G) LAMB'S SwEETBREADs, cooKED AND DIcED
3 οΖ (85 ο) *r"9ι§9 rrEEsE, GRATED
"9I1I9
Ι MEDIUM οΝΙοΝ, FINELY DICED
4 τιτιιsιοοπs (6ο c) ηΝε KERNELs
% cUcUiVrιεn, rEELED AND FINELy SLICED

Dressing

r ιπ/Ζ.5 c*r.*Er"§g:jrNgβ FINELv DIcED

Ι LARGE HANDFUL OF FRESH CORIANDER
Ζ τeτιεsροοπs (6ο c) nAtSINS
Ι TEASPOON CHOPPED FRESH OR γ2 TEASPOON DRIED ΜΙΝΤ
Ι TEASPOON CHOPPED FRESH OR DRIED PENNYROYAL
(IF Νοτ AyAτLABLE, INCREASE τΗε,ιτιπτ)
Ι LEVEL TEASPOON CELERY SEEDS
3 TABLEspooπs (45 ιιι) ιεο ιτιΝΕ vINEGAR
5 FL οΖ
βjyl59glΔrD τ.νιΝΕ
r τιτιεsροοπ (3ο c) αοπεν
3 TABLεsj99xl (,φ λß!) oLIvE oIL
SALT AND PEPPER
SPRIGS ΟF PARSLEY

Remove τhe crusι from the bread and òυι each slice inτo 3 oblong pieces.
Line α u-pinτ (5-cup/ι.5-1iιre) pudding basin ιη,ßth the bread as for

Ιο4
 The Wealth of Εmριτε

summer pudding and cuτ α circle of bread το ρυτ ßη τhe botτom. Prepare
the salad ingredients. Place α quarter of the chicken meat ßη τhe bοιτοm of
the dish. Folloιv τhis rvith αη equal amounτ of τhe sweetbreads, cheese,
οηßοη and pine kernels; add α layer of cucumber. Repeat υηtßΙ γου have
used υρ αΙΙ the ingredients.
Το prepare the dressing γου will need α pestle and mortar. Pound τhε
ginger, coriander and raisins to α ρυΙρ - this ινßΙΙ take some time. Add the
remaining herbs and celery seeds and mix well. Flush τhe morτar ουτ rviτh
the vinegar and transfer tο another boιvl. Add the wine, honey, οßΙ
and seasoning. Pour this dressing over the salad and finish wiτh α layer
of cucumber. Coyer wiτh α saucer) place α ιveighτ οη τορ and chill
thoroughly. When ready to serve) release the bread from the edge of the
dish v,,iτh α paleττe knife and τurn ßτ ουτ οη το α plaτe. Decoraτe wiτh
cucumber slices and sprigs of parsley.

Stuffed Gourd
Stuffed goard hors d'oeuvre. Carefully cut oblong shapes from the sides
of the gourds, hοΙΙοω them out, put ßη coΠ ωater. Make the folloωing
stuJfing for them: cnιsh pepper, louage, oregano, moisτen ωßιh Jish sauce,
cιush coohed brains, beat ταω egg and add to mahe α smooth mixture:
blιnd ωith fish sauce. Fill the aforesaid gourds, not fully coohed, ωiτh
this stuffing, close them ωith the cut-out pieces, boil, dyain ωhen coohed,
slice, fιγ. Mahe αη oenogarum thus: cιush pepper, louage, moisτen
ωith ωßηε and fish sauce, bknd ωith raisin ωßηε, put α ΙßττΚ οßΙ inτo
the saucepan and Ιει it boil When it has boiLed, bind ωiτh sτarch,
pour the oenogarum ouer τhe fied gourds, season ωßτh pepper
and seι«ue.
Apicius 4, 5,3

Gourd is not easily available to us: marrow, squash and pumpkin, quiτe
unknown to the Romans as they come from Cenτral and South America,
rrgill serve as subsτiτuτes. Marrorv and squash are seasonal vegeτables,
available from July to October, and should be chosen with care. Look for
young ones) ηο more than ιΖ ßη (3ο cm) long, rvith tender skin. As α firsτ
course this recipe is also successful with courgettes (zucchini), The
stuffing is made with lamb's brains but minced (ground) lamb, or even
beef, vrill do as rvell.

Ιο5
 The Classical Coohbook

Sεnvεs Srx as α Sτ.ηιτεR; ΤΗηεε or, Fουι Rs η Μειπ Couιsr

SMALL MARRoιy oR LARGE YELLorry SQUASH oR
4 coulcεf:39gg!9HINr)
OLIYE OIL FOR FRYING

Stuffing
8 οΖ (ΖΖ5 G) LελΔι's gιlτNs οη λ{ιπòεο (òιουπο) ιητιτι
Ι EGG
2 TEASPOONS CHOPPED FRESH LOVAGE OR CELERY LEAF
2 HEAPED TEASPOONS CHOPPED FRESH OR
ιγ2 TEASPooNS DRIED oREGANo
υ τετιεsτοοπs (3ο ιτι) r,lsn sAucE
% τεesτοοπ GRoUND BLAcK pEppER

Sauce

5 FL οΖ (alψ,rs9Il¸ED ιγιΝΕ
2 TABLEspooπs (3ο mι) rlsrr sAucE
5 FL οΖ (7r cur/r5o Μι) RAISIN WINE
, rηr,-"r.99"ιβ9ιr)jLινΕ οιL
Ι TEASPOON CHOPPED FRESH LOVAGE OR CELERY LEAF
PLENTY OF GROUND BLACK PEPPER
Α LITTLE coRNFLouR (coRNsTARca) το τΗιòκευ

Cuτ αη oblong ßη τhe marrow, squash or courgeτtes, jusτ as described ßη

the ancient recipe above, and hollow ουt the flesh (keep the oblong cuτ-
ουτ). Push α spoon beyond τhε edges of τhε hole το make α large òανßτγ,
buτ do noτ break τhe skin. If γου are using α marro\r or squash and have α
large enough saucepan, plunge the vegeτable ßη boiling ιvaτer for
ro minuτes and refresh ßη cold rrraτer. If α large enough ραη is ηοι
available, ρυτ τhe mαττοιν or squash ßη α deep-sided ovenproof dish, pour
ßη boiling \Λ/ατετ τßΙΙ ßτ is half-covered, then cover wiτh foil, bake ßη α pre-
heaτed oven ατ 35ο'F (l9o"C/gas mark 4) for Ζο mßηυτεs and refresh ßη
cold waτer. There is ηο need το cook courgeττes ατ τhis sτage.
The lamb's brains should be soaked ßη cold τηrαteτ to remove αηγ blood,
trimmed of αηγ fibres or bone and roughly chopped, Combine αΙΙ the
ingredients for the stuffing ßη α food processor and mix well. Sτuff
ιhe marrow or squash, pressing τhe mixτure ßηιο τhe hollorryed-ouτ ends,
Replace τhe oblong cuτ-out and τie it securelv ιηriτh kiτchen sτring. Reτurn

ro6
 The \Yealτh of Empire

the vegetable to the saucepan, cover with rvater and simmer for r hour;
alternatively place ßη α deep ovenproof dish ιvith enough water tο come
half-way υρ τhe sides of the vegetable, cover rvith foil and bake ßη τhε oven
ατ 4oo'F (zoo'C/gas mark 6) for α similar time. Courgettes will τake ηο
more than 3ο minutes.
rWhen cooked, drain and allow to stand while
γου combine the
ingredients for the sauce. Bring them tο the boil, simmer and reduce α
little lvhile γου fry the stuffed vegetable. Remove the string and carefully
cut into 7+-ßη (z-cm) slices. Heat olive οßΙ ßη α frying-pan, place the slices
ßη τhe hοτ οßΙ and seal each side for Ζ το 3 minuτes. For α sτarτer arrange 2
slices οη α plaτe and spoon α little of the sauce over the meat.

Peacoch from α Roman

ω αΙΙ-ρ ainting, Ρ e ac ο ck
meat, andpeahen's
eggs, ωere expensiue
delicacies.

Ιο7
 The Classical Coohbook

Parthian Chicken
Parthian chicken, Open the chicken at the reay and spreadeagle. Crush
peppey, louage, α liττle òαταωαγ, moisτen ωiτh fish sauce, blend ωiτh ωine.
Αιταηgε the chicken ßη α Cuman dish and put the sauce ouer it. Dissolue
strong asafoetida ßη ωατm ωater; ρουτ συετ the chichen as γου cooh. Serue
seasoned ωiτh pepper.
Apicius 6,9, Ζ

Sεkvεs Fουι
4 PIECES cHICKEN (BREAST oR LEG)
GROUND BLACK PEPPER
6 τι οΖ (aggYy"IlηED wINE
2 TABLESpooπs (3ο mι) rIsιl SAucE
% τεηsροοκ ASAFοETIDA powDER oR
5 DRοPι αΞατ9ΞfΡ1 fgcTURE
2 TEASPOONS CHOPPED FRESH LOVAGE OR CELERY LEAF
2 TEASPOONS CARAWAY SEEDS

Place τhε chicken ßη α casserole dish and sprinkle ßτ liberally with pepper.
Combine the,wine, fish sauce and asafoetida, add the lovage and caraway
seeds and pour over the chicken. Cover and bake ßη α pre-heated oven at
375'F (ι9o"C/gas mark 5) for ι hour. Half-way τhrough the cooking τime
remove the lid to brorvn the chicken. Serve with α little of the sauce
poured over the meat.

This is α simple dish, and very unusual ßη α Roman context, for it

conτains ηο sweeτener. Ιt is interesting thaτ ßτ is named afτer Parτhia,
Rome's rival ßη τhe Middle Easτ, and ηοταbΙε τhaτ asafoeτida is τhe
dominant flavour. This may confirm that the recipe was Parιhian ßη
origin - or ατ Ιεαsτ ßτ may explain how ßτ gοτ iτs name - for asafoeτida came
tο Rome from the Parthian Empire. Cararvay, οη the other hand, is of
cenτral European origin. Ιt was certainly τhe Romans who added τhis το
τhe dish.
Green cararvay, rather than cararvay seed, was probably intended.
However, caraway is difficult το obτain fresh unless γου grow ßτ ßη α
greenhouse. Ι use the seed and find that it rvorks very well.

ιο8
 The ΙΥεαΙτh of Empire

Shoulder of ΡοτΚ ωith

Sωeet Wine Cakes
Shoulder of porh ωiτh musτ cahes. ΒοßΙ τhe cured ροτΚ ωith tωo pounds of
barley and Ζ5 dried figs. Vhen ßτ has boiled, τake off the meat, singe
iτs faτ οη α red-hoτ cnddΙι and dip ßη honey. Βεττετ, ρυτ ßτ ßη α bread-σuen
and coat ßτ ωiτh honey. W'hen ßτ has broωned, put ßη α saucepan raisin
ωßηε, pepper, α bunch of ηιε, ωßηε; blend. \Yhen bknded, pour half of this
pepper sauce συετ the ροτΚ and the otheτ half σuer biτe-sized pieces of musτ
cakes, When they haue steeped, pour ouer the pork αηγ that ωas not soaked
υρ by the cakes.
Apicius 7, 9, 3
Vine ßη αη amphora Must cahes to be madp thus: tωο gallons of bread-ωheaτ fl.our το be
helps το fll
mixing
τhe
ι
moisτened ωiτh musτ; ad,d το τhis anise, cumin, Ζ lb lard, lb cheese, and
bσωl. Scene from α
ωine-jar by Smßhτοò, graτe ßη τhe bark of α bay τωig; ωhen γου haue shaped them, put bqι
abouτ 5ο5 υc. leaues under them υhßΙι γου cooh them.
cι,το, Οη Agriculture ιΖτ

This is αη excellent dish for α special dinner: Ι have ofτen prepared ßτ for
Roman banquets. The srryeet ιηrßηε cakes needed some thoughτ. Fresh
must begins tο ferment almost as soon as ßτ is pressed but does not prove
αη effecιive leaven, Ι believe that, though ηο proving time is given, Caτo's
cook expecτs ýese cakes το rise. The grape juice τhaτ can be bought τoday
ßη supermarkets is inactive and of ηο use here. I have experimented with
τ.νßηε ινßτh beττer resulτs, bυτ α really light and absorbenτ τεχτυτε is ηοτ
obτainable τoday wiτhouτ α ΙßττΙε yeasτ.

Sειvεs Sιx
Sωeet \Yine Cahes
8 οΖ (Ζ cuεs/zz5 c) ριετυ (ιιι-τυRΡοsΕ) FLouR
Ζ οΖ (Ζ TABLESPooNs/üo c) τιsτηγ ιειD (SUCH es cookεrN)
Ζ οΖ (6ο G) prcon'§g :9::IIψHEEsE, GRATED
Ι TEASPOON GROUND CUMIN
Ι TEASPOON ANISEED

3-4 TABLEsl99xrβΣ_60 ML) ηεο wιπι

ΒΑΥ LEAVES
PINCH ΟF FRESH YEAST OR γ2 TEASPOON DRIED YEAST

Ιο9
 *\

Prepaing dinner- Το make the sweet wine cakes, sift the flour and rub ßη the lard. Add the
Slaues are gutting α cheese, cumin and aniseed. Bring τhe wine, wiτh one bay leaf, το body
faωn; α head of garlic temperature and dissolve the yeast ßη it. Remove the bay leaf. Add τhe
is among the supplies
rvarm ryine to the flour. Form α soft dough and knead well. Divide into 6
aωaiting use. Roman
ωall-painting, ιst portions and mould each ßηtο α bun shape. Place οη α greased baking tray
cennιry AD. ιvith α bay leaf beneath each one. Cover with α cloth and leave to rest and
rise ßη α warm place for r7z hours. Bake ßη α pre-heated oven at 375'F
(I9o'C/gas mark 5) for Ζ5 to 3ο minutes until risen and golden.

Gammon
τΥΖιι (675 ò) τιεòε oF cliιιr*oN oR SMoKED ΗΑΜ
8 οΖ (ΖΥΖ cups/zz5 c) prnιL BARLEY
ΙΟ DRIED FIGS

Ι CELERY STALK
2 ΒΑΥ LEAVES
ΙΟ PEPPERCORNS
8 οΖ (r cuvlzz5 ò) Ηοπεν

Ι Ιο
 The Wealth of Empire

Sauce
ιο FL οΖ (ιγ4 cUPS/z8o ML) RED ιγιΝΕ
ιο FL οΖ (r'zjjyl*99Ir)jAISIN WINE
2 TEASPOONS DRIED RUE ΙΝ Α MUSLIN BAG OR
Α GOOD SPRIG OF FRESH RUE
ΥΖ TEASPooN GRoUND BLACK PEPPER

Leave τhe meaτ soaking ßη cold r,vater overnight. Discard the ,waτer and
place τhε meaτ ßη α large saucepan, cover vrith fresh cold rvater and add
τhe barley, figs, celery, bay leaves, peppercorns and 4 οΖ (νΖ òιιρΙιΖο g)
honey. Bring το τhe boil, skim and simmer for ι hour. Pre-heat the oven
το 4oo'F (zoo'C/gas mark 6). Remove the meat from the saucepan and
τεταßη τhe liquor, Cool τhε meaτ slighτly before coaτing τhe faτ ιviτh honey.
Place ßη τhe oven Γor 3ο minuιes.
Meanwhile prepare the sauce. Place the rvine, raisin wine and 5 fl οΖ
(% cup/I5o ml) of τhe cooking liquor ßη α ραη rviτh τhε rue and pepper.
Bring το τhe boil and simmer το reduce slightly. Το serve, sτrain τhe
barley and figs from the reserved cooking liquor and arrange τhem
around τhe meat οη α large serving plate. Break the sweet τηrßηε cakes
ßη half and, οη another plate, pour half the sauce over them. Pour the rest
of τhe sauce over the meat) then arrange the cakes οη the serving plaτe
along wiτh αηγ sauce τhaτ ιhey have noτ absorbed. Carve τhe mεατ ατ
τhe τable.

Stuffed Kidneys
GriΠed Κßdιιεγs are made as folloωs: They are cut dοωη the middle to
spread τhem out, and seasoned ωith ground pepper, pine kernels and uery
finely chopped coÞander and ground fennel seed. Then the hidneys are
closed υρ, seωn together, ωrapped ßη caul, parboiled ßη οßΙ and fish sauce,
and then bahed ßη α crock or οη α gnll.
Apicius 7,8

This is anoτher one of my favourite dishes, excellenτ as α firsτ or main

course. At α food tasting of mine one of the 'guinea-pigs', α conserva-
τßνε eaτer, actually thanked me for curing him of α lifelong haτred of
kidnevs!
 The Classical Cookbook

Sειvιs Fουι
Leßιιι'S KIDNEγS
8
Ιο FΕΝΝΕL SEEDS, RοηSΙΞο.9"Ι λߧºΕS ΙΝ Α MoDERATE ονΕΝ

4 οΖ (2/ι cup/roo ò) ρτπε KERNELS

Ι GENEROUS HANDFUL ΟF FRESH CORIANDER
Ι LEVEL TEASPOON GROUND BLACK PEPPER
2 TABLESPooNS (3ο ML) oLIvE oIL
Ζ τιτιεsτοοπs (3ο mι) rIsH sAucε
ι pIG'S òευι (οιτιοπηι)

Skin the kidneys, split ßη half and remove αηγ fibres. Iη α mortar, pound
the fennel seeds to α coarse polπder, Add the pine kernels to the mortar
with τhε coriander. Cοητßηυε το pound the mixτure υητßΙ ßτ is of α uniform
texture. Add the pepper. Place α spoonful of the mixture ßη the centre of
each kidney and close them υρ. Ιf γου can οbταßη pig's caul from α
butcher, use it to rvrap each kidney to prevent the stuffing from coming
ουτ, Oτherιryise sετνν υρ wiτh α 1ßττΙε òοττοη τhread or secure rviτh α òοòΚταß
stick. Combine the οßΙ and fish sauce ßη α frying-pan and heat. Seal ιhe
kidneys for Ζ minutes οη each side, then transfer them and the sauce tο α
small baking dish and finish ßη α pre-heaτed oven ατ 35o"F (I8o'C/gas
mark 4) for α furýer 15 minuτes, Serve as α firsτ course or as α lighτ snack.

Α child slaue asleep ßη

the ωßηe cellar:
tειταòοttα from south
Italy, abouτ jzo εc.
 The Wealth of Empιre

Honeyed Mushyooms
Place the chopped stalhs ßη α ηεω baking-dish, adding pepper, louage and
α little honey. Blend ωith fish sauce and, spaingly, οßl.
Apicius 7, τ3,6

Sιιvεs Fouk
r τηιιεsροοπ (r5 ßντι) οιινΕ oIL
τ τε,τιεsροοι.ι (τ5 λßι) rlsu SAucE
ι τηιιιsροοπ (3ο c) ποπτν
2 TEASPOONS CHOPPED FRESH LOVAGE OR CELERY LEAF
γ2 TEASPOON GROUND BLACK PEPPER
8 οΖ (ΖΖ5 c) ιιηòι οΡΕΝ MUSHRooMs, THIcKLv sLIcED

Combine the οßΙ, fish sauce and honey ßη α ραη and bring to the boil. Add
τhe lovage and pepper and the sliced mushrooms. Cook ουτ briskly ßη
order το reduce τhe liquids so τhατ, r,vhen γου serve, τhe fish sauce and
natural water will have been boiled away and the honey and οßΙ give α
glaze to the mushrooms.

These mushrooms are easily prepared as αη accompaniment το many of

the main course dishes ßη τhe book.
Mushrooms were α prized delicacy ßη ancient times - but there rvere
dangers involved ßη eaτing τhem. Νοτ everybody knery how το disτinguish
τhe poisonous kinds from τhose τhaτ rvere good το eaτ. Greek and Roman
medical writers therefore suggest many antidotes tο mushroom
poisoning: ßιιοgßòαιιγ, to uS) these antidotes often incιuded thò
ingredienτs ,,viτh which mushrooms rvere cooked. Perhaps τhe danger
,was
ραττ of the pleasure for the dedicated
gourmet, as wiτh the Japanese
ταsτεfor poisonous sushi. The Roman emperor Claudius (ιο ιc-eo 54),
who began τhε conquesτ of Briτain (see chapter 7), died ßη agony afτer
τucking inτo α dish of bοΙòτß,bυττhßò, everyone said, was noτ τhe faulτ of
the mushrooms: his rvife had added poison to the dish.
The ancient recipe given above is also for üoleri. These were not
necessarily τhe kind τhaτ is ηοττ called boleτus (cDpe); τhey were more
probably Agaicus caesaius, close to our common champignon
mushrooms. Ιη αηγ case they rvere evidentιy regarded as α deιicacy, since
τhe τrouble rvas ταΚeη το serve τhe sτalks separaτely. Ι find τhατ large open
mushrooms are besτ for τhis recipe, τhough γου can cerτainly use dried
cüpes.

ΙΙ3
 7
οπ HaυRIAN's §ßηιι
ome's world empire stretched from the banks of the Euphrates το
the ryestern shores of Lusitania (Portugal), from the Libyan
deserτ το τhe marshy banks of τhe Ιοτη,ετ Rhine. The Roman army
had conquered most of this huge territory, and the army rvas novg τhe
empire's guarantee against unrest and invasion. Αη army of something
like half α million men was α miracle of organisation. The infrastrucτure
τhατ supporτed ßτ had α greaτ influence οη life τhroughouτ ιhe Roman
provinces, αη influence that ßη many v/ays can still be τraced.
Paved Roman roads arrorved from capital το provincial τorvn and
onwards το τhε frontier fortresses. Μαηγ routes were studded with official
staging posts: ατ first ηο more than inns where messengers could change
horses, τhese ofτen grew ßητο cenτres of local τrade. Sτandard army
raτions, and sιandard officers'luxuries, travelled hundreds of miles, by
cart and river barge, to reach disτanτ units. Taxes were dispaτched
inrvards, army ραγ and reτiremenτ bonuses were sεητ outlvards, swelling
α monetary economy: at last α standard maximum price, empire-rvide,
could be fixed for αΙΙ τhe necessities of army life.
There rvere fe,w inns ßη classical Greece, if Greek texts are anything to
go by. Βγ conτrast) inns are parτ of the story of Roman life, The inns of
Italy come το life ßη α narrative sketch by ιhe poet Horace (65-8 rc): 'We
made sτraighτ for Benevenτo, ,'lvhere αη ατtεητßνε hosτ almosτ burnτ his ßηη
dolvn ,while spiτ-roasting some lean thrushes for us! Α stray spark from
dying embers ßη his old kiτchen flerv υρ and seτ τhe ceiling alighτ. Hungry
guests and nervous slaves were ßη competition, rescuing the dinner and
putting out the fire.'
Then there is α scrap ofconversation, found by archaeologists where ßτ
was written as αη advertisement οη αη ßηη τηrαΙΙ to catch the traveller's eve;

ºnnkeeper, hovl much do Ι orve γου?'

'There was ιhe ιvine, t\vopence halfpenny, bread, α penny; relish, trvo-
pence.'
'That's right.'
'The girl, eighτpence.'
'Righτ.'
'Ηαγ for your mule, trvopence.'
'That mule ,will be the ruin of me.'

ΙΙ4
The firsτ aττempt to incorporaτe disτant Briτain among Rome's provinces Fine Roman siluerulare
lvas made by Julius Caesar. His trvo raids, ßη 55 and 54 Bc, achieved from τhe Mildenhall
Treasure, found ßη
noτhing. The fourth emperor, Claudius, however, succeeded where Suffolk ßη τhe ι 94os,
Caesar had failed. The emperor himself spent οηΙγ α fortnighτ ßη τhe cold probably buried abouτ
rveτ province, but τhe invasion he ordered ßη ηο 43 had resulted, wiτhin ,ιυ j6o. Reliefs shoιu
sixτy years, ßη the conquest of αΙΙ of south Briιain as far as the Solrvay satyrs and maenads,
Firτh and ιhε River Tyne. Indeed, Roman troops penetraτed ατ τimes far attendants of Bacchus;
ßητο Scotland. there are ακο Christian
motifs οη some pieces.
Three or sometimes four Roman legions were staτioned here. Far from
τhe τraditional rvine-producing districτs of Europe, Romans ßη Briτain
demanded τηrßηe to drink, lentils to eat, r,valnuts, figs and olives to cherv.
ΑΙΙ these rvere imported, and experiments rvere certainly made ιviτh
planτing vines and rvalnuts, Roman soldiers and civilians expected
familiar flavours ßη their food, the celery and carrot, the fennel and

tΙ5
 The Classical Cookbook

coriander, the pears, peaches and mulberries of the warm south. Their
demands have made α lasting difference to the food and drink of Britain,
for αΙΙ these and many oιher fruits, vegetables and herbs ryere introduced
το τhe island ßη Roman τimes and ßη mosτ cases have grown here ever
since.
'§i'e
know τhis from archaeology, ηοτ from liτeraτure. The Romans
wτοτε very little that survives about their most northerly province. Βυτ
ιvritings of Romans ßη Britain have ßη the last f'ew years come quiτe
unexpecτedly το lighτ. Ατ one of τhe forτs οη τhε norτhern border -
Vindolanda, ßη the remote valley of the south Tyne, close to rvhere
Hadrian's WαΙΙ ιryould soon be built - α collecτion of leττers, official and
private) written ßη ßηΚ οη thin sheets of alder rvood and discarded around
AD ιοο, has been excavated and painstakingly deciphered. One is αη
invitation to α lady's birthday party (see page ι ι 8). Another seems to be α
day-book recording food,supplies issued to soldiers: 'June Ζ4. Barley, rz
gallonsι beer.6 gallonsι,σline,37Ζ gallonsι vinegar. Ζ pinιsι muia.
ι7Ζ pints; pork faτ, ι5 pints.'The influence, then, \ryas not αΙΙ one way:
somebody αt Vindolanda required twice as much beer, the strange
malτed brelv of Gaul and Briτain, as τradiτional wine!

Roman provinces had their orvn specialities ßη food and wine, some of
them well known across the empire. The island of Crete, for example,
v,ras ßη Roman times τhe place for medicinal herbs. Fish sauce came from
the Mediterranean coasts of Spain and Gaul.
The wines of Greece and ltaly were both famous, but the rvines of
Gaul, τhe Rhineland and Spain were beginning το develop α τερυτατßοη.
ΡΙßηγ surveys the ,wines of Narbonensis (Provence and Languedoc),
describing rvhat are evidently ancestors to the aperitifs of today:
'Beτlveen Pyrenees and Alps is Marseille, rviτh r-vine of tr-vo styles: one
of τhem, called "sappy", is made parτicularly rich for mixing rviτh oτhers.
The reputation of BÝziers is confined ιο Gaul. Οη the other wines of
Narbonensis Ι will say nothing: ιhey have set υρ α factory to produce
τhem, altering the flavour,,vith smoke, and (Ι wish it were noτ so) wiτh
herbs and noxious drugs. One merchant even falsifies the flavour and
colour rvith aloes.'
Wiτh α menu based οη τhis chapτer, good τradiτional-sτyle French or
Spanish wines will go very,well. The fortifled,wines of the Mediτerranean
shores - Malaga, Maury, Rivesaltes - probably preserve something of the
ancient style (though Romans did not literally forιify their ιvines). There
are long-established dessert white wines from here too, Valencia, Muscat
de Frontignan and others.

ιι6
 Οη Hadrian's Wall

Soft-boiled Eggs
Fοτ sofrboiled eggs: pepper, Iouage, steeped pine henιels. Moisten ωith
honey, υßηεgατ, blend ωith fish sauce.
Apicius 7, ι7, 3

Sεkvεs Fουιι

4οΖ(2/ι CUp/rzo c) ριχτ KERNELS, SOAKED oVERNIGHT

ΙΝ Α LITTLE \γΗΙΤΕ \ryINE
Ι TEASPOON CHOPPED FRESH LOVAGE OR CELERY LEAF
r τηιιιsροοπ (r5 ιτι) rlsH SAucE
ι TABLEspoou (ιο c) ΗοΝΕγ
ι TABLESpooπ (r5 υι) τγΗιτΕ wINE vINEGAR
yr arnspooπ cιοι.'μο ηι,ηcΚ PEPPER

4 EGGS, SoFT-BoILED

Sτrain τhe pine kernels and pound or process them to α smooτh paste. Add
τhe lovage, fish sauce, honey, vinegar and pepper and continue το pound
or process until γου have α smooth mixτure - at leasτ, Ι usually serve ßτ
very smooth, but ßt is just as good if the texture remains rather crunchy.
Finish τhe dislι as if γου rvere making egg mayonnaise and garnish ιviτh
cucumber, dressed as ßη the folloιving recipe.

As αη aside, here is another example of how ancient cuisine has το be

reconstructed from α iigsaw puzzle of evidence. Ηοιν did classical Greek
cooks slice eggs? How τvere sorbs, the southern European relatives of τhe
rowan berry, made edible? The sτory of τhe origin of love, τold ατ Plaτo's
Syπιposium (chapτer Ζ), happens tο give τhe ansrver to both questions: ¶τ
τhατ,' Arisτophanes said, 'τhe Creator proceeded to cuτ τhe spherical
beings ßη half, jusτ like someone cutting sorbs ßη half ready for pickling,
or slicing eggs ιvith hairs.'

IL7
 The Classical Cookbooh

º' he birτ hd αγ ßηυ

found at VindoLanda.
ß τ ατß οη
Cucumber Dyessing
Letιer of about AD ιοο
from Claudia Seuera to Cucumber: pepper, pennyrqιa| honey or raisin ωßηε, fish sauce and
Lepidina, ωife of τhe uinegar. S ometimes also asafoetida.
commander Cerialis.
Apicius 3,6, 3
¼η ι ι September,
sister, ωhen Ι celebrate
my birthday, Ι inuite Sιιvεs SIx
γου ωατmΙγ to come Ιο
us: γου ωßΙΙ make the γ2 CUCUiVIBER, PEELED AND THINLY SLICED
day more eπjryable for Ι TEASPοoN CHoPPED FRESH oR DRIED PENNYRoYAL (οι ßιηΙπτ)
me if γου are here . Μγ
greetings Ζ τeτιεsτοουs (3ο ιτι) ιeΙSΙΝ 1γΙΝΕ
to γουτ
CeÞalis. Aelius and the Ι TABLESPOON (Ι5 ML) FISH SAUCE
ΙιttΙε boy send theirs.'
The letter ωαs,ωτßιιeη Ι TABLESPoοN (Ι5 ML) RED \γΙΝΕ VINEGAR
blι α seruant, but 2 DROPS ASAFOETIDA TINCTURE OR Ι PINCH ASAFOETIDA POIYDER
Seaera adds ßη her οωη
hand: 'I'm expecιing
γου, sister. Keep ωεΙΙ, Arrange the cucumber ßη α dish; combine the other ingredients and pour
dear heart, as Ι hope Ι over. Cover the dish with plastic ιvrap and refrigerate for α couple of
ωßΙΙ too; goodbye,' hours to marinate.

Ι Ι8
 οη Hadnan's ΙΥ/αΙΙ

White Sausages
Sausages: husk gιains of emmer, boil together ωith τhe liqui"d ßη ωhich
inτesτines haue cooked and ωiτh finely-chopped ωhite of leeh. When boiled,
remoue from the heat. Mince fat and bits of meat and mix αΙΙ togetheτ.
Crush pepper, l.ouage, 3 eggs; mix αΙΙ this, ßη the mortar, uith pine kernels
and ωhole peppeTcorns. Moisτen ωith fish sauce . Stuff intesτines. ΒοßΙ and
gnΠ bnefly or just boil: sειιιε.
Apicius Ζ,, 5,3

Sειvrs Sιx
ι LEEK (ιγΗττΕ
ºτ¾χº),j§ΕLγ cHoppED
2 TABLESpooπs (3ο c) òιηòκεο ιγΗΕΑτ
τΖ οΖ (34ο c) iιrιπcro (òιουπυ) BELLv poRK
2 TEAspooNs oR cELERy LEAF
""οr"-r»ΞΕa,,,οη*Ε
2 EGGS

Ζ τεηιεsιοοπs (3ο ò) πΝε KERNELs

Ζ τετιτsροουs (3ο ιιι) rIsH sAucE
Ι TEASPOON BLACK PEPPERCORNS
ΥΖ TEASPOON GROUND BLACK PEPPER
SAUSAGE SKINS

Ρυτ 5 fl οΖ (2/Ζ òιιρΙ ι5ο ml) ,,vater ßη α ραη ιηιßth the finely chopped white of
leek. Bring το τhe boil and simmer briefly. Sprinkle the cracked wheaτ
ßητο τhe waτer and cook out for 5 minutes. Strain and turn out ßητο α bo,,vl
and αΙΙοιν το cool. Combine αΙΙ the ingredients ßη α food processor and mix
ιη,eΙl. Sτuff τhe sausages (for advice see Smoked Sausages οη page 9ο) and
τlvisτ τhe individual lengths into α spiral. Place the sausages ßη α ραη of
cold rvaτer, bring ßτ sloιvly το τhe boil and simmer for Ζο minuτes. They
will ατ τhis sτage be whiτe and can be eaτen either hot or cold. Ιf γου wish,
γου can grill (broil) them briefly to give τhem colour.

Vhiτe sausages were τraditionally served ιviιh α grain or pulse (legume)

pottage. Ι find the recipe for Vitellian Peas, ιryhich follo,,.vs, excellent as αη
accompanimenι.

ΙΙ9
 The Classical Cookbook

Vitellian Peas
Viτellian peas (or broad (faua) beanÞ. ΒοßΙ and sτir τhe peas τßΙΙ smooτh.
Crush pepper, lσuage, glngey, and to the seasonings add hard-boiled yolhs
of egg, 3 οΖ honey, fish sauce, ωßιιε and uinegar. Put αΙΙ this ßη α saucepan
ωith the crushed seasonings. Add οßΙ and leaue to boil. Add to tΙιε peas,
and stir again iJ' still fiιm. Add Ιιοηεγ and selτLe .
Λpicius 5,3, 5

Sεnvr,s Ι,-ουη

8 οΖ (ΖΖ5 c) ueιιowrAT oR οTHER DRιED pEAs oR

r ιη (45ο G)
¸Ξ"jlgl9flAvl) ιεεπs
3/qιΝ (Ζ CM) FRESH RooT GINGER
2 TEASPOONS CHOPPED FRESH LOVAGE OR CELERY LEAF
ΥΖ TEASPooN GROUND BLACK PEPPER
3 cj9lΡjgsj9rKs
3 τειιιsτοοπs òιτηR ΗοΝΕγ
(9ο c)
Ζ τειιτsροοπs (3ο ßντι) rlsH SAυCE

5 FL οΖ (7*gΡ/jΣιιη¸ιτΕ \γιΝΕ
3 FL οΖ (γ3 CUP/8o ML) ιγΗΙΤΕ ιγΙΝΕ VINEGAR
ι TABLEspoou (r5 ιτι) oLIvE oIL

Soak τhe peas overnighτ ßη cold ιvater. The next day sτrain, place ßη α ραη
and cover ινßth fresh cold ιvaιer. Bring to the boil and simmer fοτ ι-τνΖ
hours unτil τender, adding exιra boiling waτer if necessary. Ψhen
cooked, drain and beaτ unτil smooιh. Alιernatively, allow to cool, τhen
blend ßη α food processor. Leave το one side. Ιfusing broad beans, cook
τhem ßη boiling salτed rvaιer for 4-6 minuτes or until τender, τhεη drain
and purÝe.
Υου ,σιßΙΙ
need α pestle and mortar to make the sauce. Peel and chop the
ginger and pound ιryiτh τhε lovage and pepper. Add the cooked egg yolks
and conτinue pounding υητßΙ γου have α smooτh pasτe. Add τhe honey
and fish sauce and sτir τßΙΙ smooth. Flush out τhe mortar \vith the,-vine and
vinegar and transfer to α saucepan. Add the οßΙ, bring to the boil and
simmer gεητΙγ for α felv minuτes. Add τhe òοητεητs of τhe saucepan ιο ιhe
peas (or beans) and reheat. Ι find ιhe peas now sιveeτ enough, so Ι οmßτ
τhε final addition of honey given ßη the original recipe,
 οη ΗαdÞατι's Wall

ΡοτΚ ωßτh Apple

Minuτal Matianum, Put οßΙ,,fish sauce and stock into α saucepan: chop
Ieek, coiander, small meaτballs. Dice α coohed sΙιουΙdετ of pork yωiτh τhe
crackling leJi οη). Cooh αΙΙ together, Half ωα,ν thτοιιgh cooking, add cored
diced Matian φρΙεs. While coohing, pound togetheτ peppeτ, òυιηßη, fresh
coiander οτ coιiander seed, mint, αsαfοεtßιΙα rolt: pour οη uinegar, hοιιεγ,
fish sauce , α little concentrιιted must, and soma of the cooking liquor: adjusτ
the flauour ωith α little uinegar. Bing to the boiL. When it boils crumble
pasτιy το bind τhe sauce. Spnnkle pepper and seιve.
Apicius 4,3, 1

Sεkvεs Fιτυη

r ιτ (45ο c) ιοπτ» ιεεπ ronk

3 τιοιεsροοπs (9ο c) òιεεR ΗοΝΕγ
Ι ΒΑΥ LEAF
5 PEPPERCoRNS
Ι CELERY STALK
8 οΖ (225 c) ιυτ.ιòεο (òηουπο) ιιιτ
, SΙlrrΞ99.
"Ξξ"Ν
Ι LARGE LEEK
Ι LARGE HANDFUL ΟF FRESH CORIANDER
r ιι (45ο G) sMALL slyEET AppLEs
ιο FL οΖ Ιrγ. c*rΙ"εo ,*) *ΗrτΕ ιτιΝΕ
5 FL οΖ (% cUPjεILry}IgιwINE γINEGAR
Ζ τηιιτsροοπs (3ο ιτι) oLIvE οιι
5FLoz (7:jγηΞ9ιr) F,SH SAUCE
2 TEASPOONS GROUND CUMIN
2 TEASPOONS GROUND CORIANDER
Ι TEASPOON ASAFOETIDA POΙryDER OR
5 DRoPS_lΞI9Ξf IDΑ TI§CTURE
2 TEASPooNs CHoPPED FRESH οι rYz τεesροοΝS DRIED ΜΙΝΤ
coRNFLoUR (CoRNSTARcH) Το THICKEN
FRESHLY GROUND BLACK PEPPER
 The Classical Cookbook

Place τhe pork ßη α ραη of \I/aτer rviτh r τablespoon (3ο g) honey, τhe bay
leaf, peppercorns and celery sτalk. Bring το the boil and simmer for
r hour. Leave to cool ßη the rvaτer. Form the beef inτo small balls τνßτh α
liττle beaτen egg το bind τhem.
Slice the leek, chop the fresh coriander and peel, core and segment the
apples. Ιη α large saucepan ρυτ the rvine, ιο fl οΖ (τν+ cups/z8o ml)
cooking liquor from the pork, the vinegar, οßΙ, fish sauce and the
remaining Ζ τablespoons (6ο g) honey. Dice the pork and add τhis το τhe
The Chaourse
ροτ wiτh τhe meaτballs. Bring to τhe boil and add the leek, coriander and
Treasýre, probabllι α
slices of apple. Simmer for abouτ 3ο minutes υητßΙ τhe meaτ is fully
ωεαΙtΙιγ family's
complete silUeτ s ειιßòε, cooked. Add the cumin, ground coriander, asafoetida and mint rrrhen
buried ßη Roman Gaul almosτ cooked and τhicken,wiτh α liττle cornflour, Finish wiτh α generous
about AD 26ο. seasoning of black pepper.
 οη HadÞan's ναΙΙ

Did τhe Laτin name for τhis dish come from Gaius Ματßυs, friend of the
Emperor Augustus, because it,μras invented ßη his kitchen or described ßη
his household book? Or did ßτ come from α fine varieτy of apples,
developed by Matius and called 'Matian'after him? These apples gre\v
besτ around α cerτain village ßη norιhern ΙταΙγ οη τhε souτhern fooτhills of
the Alps of Veneto.
Pork and apple have traditionally been served together ßη Briιain for
cenτuries: τhis is α fitting recipe for us to revive. The herbs and spices
were αΙΙ available ßη Roman Britain, ,σlhether gτοτý/η here or imporτed.
Even τhe fish sauce, gατ,ιιml wαs made ßη Britain: αη archaeological siτe
near London is unmistakably α Roman gατιιm f,acτory.

Sτufftd Chicken
Sτuffed chichen. Draω the chicken from the neck. Crush pepper, lσuage,
ginger, chσpped meat, boiled emmer; mιsh boiled brain, breah eggs ßη and
ωοτΚ ßητο α smooth mixture. Blend ωith fish sauce and add α little οßΙ,
ωhole peppercorns, ρΙεηυ of pine kernels. Make υρ into α sτuffing and sτuff
τhe chicken (or sucking-pig), so that α little τοοm is lιfτ. Υου can do τhε
same ωith α òφοη. CοοΚ, discarding the bones.
Apicius 6,9, τ4

Sειvιs Fουι
ι ιΝ (2.5jºΙΞΞΞ ι99: GINGEπ,
ιΖ οΖ (34ο ò) ιτιπòεη (òηουχ») LAMB, oR 6 οΖ (ι7ο ò) ivrrπcεo
(òηουπο) ιειτη ,ιποt οΖ (r7o ò) cooKEn LlιτB's BRAINs
6 οΖ (τ7ο ο) òιεòκεη ιγΗΕ1.::995Ξιι9τ 2ο MINUTES AND DnAINED
2 TEASPOONS CHOPPED FRESH LΟνΑGΕ OR CELERY LEAF
Ι LEVEL TEASPOON GROUND BLACK PEPPER
rτειιεsροοπ (r5 υι) οιιγΕ oIL
4 τηιιιsτοοπs (6ο ò) ιτχτ KERNELs
2FLoz (γ4 cUP/6o ML) FιSH SAUCE
Ι TEASPOON BLACK PEPPERCORN§
2 EGGS

ι FRESH CHICKEN, ιγΕιGΗιΝG ΑΒουτ 2 ιι (9οο c)

Ι23
 The Classical Cookbook

Peel and chop the ginger. Place the cooked brains and/or minced lamb ßη
α food processor along wiτh τhe cracked ,wheaτ, and αΙΙ the other spices,
herbs and liquids. Μßχ well; add ιhε eggs and process again. Ιf γου are
using α boned chicken, spread out the skin οη α chopping board,
arranging the leg and wing pieces ßη τheir correct place. Spread the
mixture over the breast area and also inτo the leg and,wing cavities. Bring
τhε skin over the sτuffing and fold τhe edges ßη ατ each end. Turn the
chicken over and rearrange τhe skin ßη α chicken shape. Secure the skin
flap ιviτh α couple of sτiτches of kiτchen sτring. Ιf γου are using α ιvhole
chicken, simply stuff the òανßτγ ßη the normal ,way. Αt τhis stage γου can
eiτher roasτ τhe bird rηziτh α liττle olive οßΙ and salt and pepper; or, if γου
have α boned bird, γου can boil ßτ, as α galanτine is normally cooked.
'§i'rap
the galantine ßη muslin το hold iτs shape and cook foτ ινΖ hours ßη
water to ιvhich γου have added α bay leaf and α stick of celery.

There is ηο sauce for τhis dish, vvhich is very unusual for α recipe from
Apicius. Follow the recipe for τhe sauce τhατ accompanies Stuffed Gourd
οη page ιο5 if γου ιvould like to serve ßτ rrrith α sauce,
Ιτ is not clear ßη τhε αηòßεητ recipe wheτher οηΙγ α capon would be
boned before stuffing, or vrheτher τhaτ applies to chicken as rvell. The
inτricacies of completely boning α chicken may not be to your taste: γου
can ask your butcher το do ßτ for γου (or folloιv τhe instructions ßη α good
cookery book such as Mrs Beeτon's) or γου can treat this simply as α
recipe for chicken vrith stuffing and οmßτ τhe boning altogether - it ιγßΙΙ be
α great success either way.

Α ΒΕ ΛΛν 5 \7 \ Ν CßNA

Γ VL ινΛΛ φ Ριò(ΕΛΛ

Insciption from α Ρ Ε R ΝΑΛt\ t Αο Ν Ε/ν\

Roman ßηη, giuing its
permanent menu:

νΕΝΑ ^R το RE.f
¹υηιsmεη, ωε haUe
for dinner chicken, fish,
ham, peacock.'

Ι24
 οη Hadrian's Wall

Patina of Pears
Ραιßηα of pears . ΒοßΙ and core pears ) crush ωiτh pepper, cumin, honey,
raisin ωßηε, fish sauce and α little οßl. Add eggs to make the patina, seasolu
ωßιh pepper, and seιιιe.
Apicius 4,2, 35

Sιιvιs Fουι
r% ιg (675 c) τιηιι{ pgeιs
ιο FL οΖ (r7ι cups/z8o ιτι) ιnIsrπ ryrπε
Ζ τιτιιsροοπs (6ο c) òιεεR ΗοΝΕγ
Ι TEASPOON GROUND CUMIN
Ι TABLFSPooN (ι5 ML) oLIvE oIL
ι TABLEspooπ (τ5 mι) FIsH sAucE

3 EGGS
7Ζ TEASPOON GROUND BLACK PEPPER

Peel and core the pears and chop them roughly. Cook τhem τßΙΙ sofτ ßη τhe
raisin ιvine and honey. Pass the whole mixture τhrough α sieve or process
ßτ τßΙΙ smooth. Add the cumin, οßΙ, fish sauce and eggs and process again
τßΙΙ smooth. Pour ßηtο α greased casserole dish and bake ßη α pre-heated
oven ατ 375'F (I9o"C/gas mark 5) for Ζο minutes or until ßt seτs. Serve
warm rvith α sprinkling of freshly ground black pepper.

Α paτina, ßη Roman cuisine, is α dish that is either seτ rviτh eggs or

includes eggs as αη ingredienτ. Ιτ could be srryeet or savoury, and τhe
appearance could vary jusτ as much as the flavour. Ιτ r,vas originally
named after the typical serving dish, α patina or patella.
This firsι patina (there are more ßη chapter 8) is α fruit-based egg
cusτard flavoured with cumin. Αη odd combination, γου may τhink, buτ
ßτ works verywell and has been one of my more popular dishes ατ dinner-
parties.

Ι25
 8

SuppER Ατ τΗΕ ΒeτΗs

he big òßτγ, τοο, had iτs cookshops, iτs bars and iτs τaverns.
Juvenal made fun of τhe old men,who sτill frequented τhe all-nighτ
bars ατ Rome's harbour τοτνη, Ostia, as if they v/ere youngsτers:

The Phoenician hosτ, greasy ,σiτh respecτful hair-oil, runs τo ,σrelcome his
guest's approach and calls him 'Master!', ,σιhγ not 'King! ' Here's the rryaitress
running to him lvith her skirt hiτched υρ, already uncorking α bottle. Send το
Osιia for him, Caesar, ΙοοΚ ßη the big tavern there: γου'ΙΙ find him lying
alongside some bral,,rler, ßη among sailors and thieves and runa,,vays, rvith
hangmen and coffin-makers and α sodden priest of Cybele, his cymbals
sτrangely silent. Ιη τhe tavern αΙΙ are equally free, αΙΙ drink from α common
cup, the couch is barred to ηο man, ιhe table is ηο closer to one than ßτ is to
another.

Ψe begin το sense τhe realiτy of ancienτ city life as rve read α letτer by τhe
philosopher Seneca (c. eo 4-65), complaining of vlhat he had to listen το
just outside his apartment windo,w: 'pancake-sellers and α sausage-
vendor and α confecτioner and αΙΙ ιhe proprietors ofrestauranτS, selling
τheir rvares ,wiτh miscellaneous shouτs, each ßη his disτincτive accenτ'.
rWhat τηrαs the daily routine of those ιvho lived ßη imperial Rome?
Romans τended ιο eaτ liτtle during the firsτ part of τhe day: α breakfasτ,
ienτaculum, was α snack that many did not trouble το take ατ αΙΙ, and οηΙγ
τhe greedy ,,vanted α big lunch, prandium. Ψorkers ηο doubt found α
lunch ßη α τavern or cookshop. Those who survived through patronage
(as did many ßη Rome) aτtended οη some rich or poιverful figure, ηο
doubτ hoping that τhere rvould be someτhing for τhemselves when he
paused for α bite to eaτ.
The laτe afτernoon and evening were the τime for relaxaτion. There rlιas
ηο better preparation for α big evening meal, ιhe one big meal of τhe day,
τhan α couple of hours ατ τhe baιhs. Ιτ was α favouriτe occupaτion τhat was
well provided for. Grand public and smaller privaτe baths clusτered αΙΙ
over Rome, fashionable meeτing places, ideal locations for informal
business discussions. The riτual vras iτself sooτhing, τhe sequence of
exercise, sτeam baτh, ιvarm baτh, cold baτh.
Encolpius of the Satyicon first caught sight of his fuτure hosτ,
Trimalchio, ßη the exercise room at the baths, where the gτεατ man lý/as

ιΖ6
 Supper ατ the Baths

,ß,

\-"\
:

W ,,Φ', ß
.ιι
Φ}Ρ
ry

;,#
1ß\,

Q,l
ι ß.,1ιß'
-rl
";ߧ
'$': z,,.iΡ,h
' ,l
Ι

ι ,1:ψ'
.|,ß
ψ
.llfli

ß:).ß,'],"ß

-\;ßι "

Μß
,ι

l*lr
Ψ h#

showing off his wealth: 'Trvo eunuchs were standing about among the Mosaicfrom Roman
ball-players, one of them holding α silver chamber-pot. Trimalchio Italy. Fishbones, crab
claωs, fruit stones,
snapped his fingers, and the eunuch held out the ροt as his masιer rvent
snailshells. . .the
οη playing, After emptying his bladder Trimalchio called for rvater for
remains of α banquet,
his hands, and rinsed his fingers, drying them ßη α slave-boy's hair.' permanent|y dòpicted
The lasτ of our vigneττes of the ancienτ world presenτs α less osτen- οη α dining-roomfloor.
ιαιßουs scene) α conversaτion ατ the Baths of Tigellinus (donated ιο the
òßτγ of Rome, apparently, by Nero's fearsome minister). As ιve shall see,
aττached το τhe baths were bars and restaurants: α party could easily
spend α whole evening there. The extract is taken from αη unusual
manuscripτ, α bilingual phrase-book, Daily Conuersation, originally ßη-
τended for Greeks learning Latin and Romans learning Greek.

Ι27
 The Classical Cookbook

The imaginary speaker is heading α party of friends, Unlike

Trimalchio he has ηο slaves of his orvn, buι he has come το τhe baτhs for
αη evening of enjoyment and he begins by choosing αη attendant: 'Follow
us. Yes, γου. Look afιer our things carefully, and find us α place. Ι'ΙΙ just
speak tο the perfumier - hello, Julius, give me incense and myrrh for
τwenτy. Νο, ηο, besτ qualiτy. l{οτν, boy, undo my shoes. Take my
cloτhes. ΟßΙ me. ΑΙΙ right, leτ's go ßη.'
Afτer exercise and bathing the friends move οη to the resιaurant. Α
ραττγ as large as twenty can order α wide varieτy of starters and main
courses (and the author of the phrase book works ßη as many variations as
he can):

¸ good bath, sir?'

'º'hßs is my party. Μßχ ινßηε for us and let's recline. For starters give us
beetroot or gourd: add some fish sauce to that. Give us radishes, and α knife:
and some lettuce and cucumber, rviτh vinegar and fish sauce dressing. Bring
us α trotter, α black pudding and α sιlrv's rvomb. Ψe'll αΙΙ have white bread,
The sauce rvants more οßΙ ßη it. Scale the pilchards before γου put them οη the
table. \We'll have pork shoulder and ham and some mustard. Isn't the fish
grilled yeι?
ºτJοιν, then, some slices of venison, wild boar, chicken, hare. Give
everybody α portion of cabbage, Slice τhε boiled meat. ],{οτν serve the drinks.
'§ie've αΙΙ had α drink. Bring the turile-doves and the pheasant: bring the
udder, and add some alec, Let's eat: it's just right. Give us the roast sucking-
pig, Thaι's very hot. You'd better carve ßτ, Bring honey ßη α jug. Bring α
fatτed goose, and some pickles.
'º'αΚε round some waιer to rinse people's hands. Bring us yιιghurt, if γου
have αηγ, with hone1,, and some halva. Cut it into slices and rve can share ßt
ουt.
"Γhαt rvas α good meal. Give the lvaiters and the servants someιhing to εαι
and drink, and also the cook, because he has served us ινεΙl. Come οη, let's go
outforaιvalk. . .'

The recipes τhaι follo,σl, like many of those ßη earlier chapters, are taken
from τhe Roman cookery book Apiciu.s. This unique compilation is
believed το daτe from τhe very end of τhe Roman Empire, perhaps abouτ
AD 4οο. Daτing such α τεχτ is α very difficulτ mαττετ. Apicius was τhe name
of α legendary gourmet of four hundred years earlier, under Augustus:
the book rve knorv is clearly named after him, but is αηγ of ßt actually his?
The 'rvorks of Apicius'were α bedside book, ßt is said, for α rich dilettante
ßη αο rzo: did he fall asleep over ιheApiclus τhaτ ιve Κηοιν? Probably not.
Alτhough ßτ demands many expensive ingredients, Apic,ius as rve knorv ßι
is α severely pracιical book. Ιt is ,σlritten ßη lorηler-class Latin, 'vulgar
Lατßη', ηοτ for rich men το read ßη bed buτ for cooks το use.

ιΖ8
 FßηαΙΙγ we may wonder whατ rvines rvere served ατ τhe baτhs of Roman silueιιιLare
Tigellinus and to accompany the recipes of Apicius. The hisιory of ινßηε ßη ωhichωas buÞed,
laτer Rome has sτill το be wriττen, buτ ßτ seems τhατ alτhough much r-vine alongside α rare coin of
rvas imported from Spain, Gaul and Greece, Italians remained proud of
Mark Αηιοηγ, ßη the
graue of νmò υηhηοωη
their οτηιη vintages. admirer of the mαΖ,òτßòh
ΑΙΙ τhrough τhe empire ηο auτhor dared tο say ßη so many words τhατ Roman òtαtòsmαη of
Italian rvines rr,rere better than Greek, The rvestern Roman Empire fell. the lst century η{;.
The last emperor, Romulus Augustulus, rvas deposed ßη eo 476, The
Italian sτaτesman Cassiodorus, minister tο α Gothic king, rvas ατ lasτ bold
enough (ßη α leττer το his agenτ, rvriττen about .q.o 5οο) to speak τhe τruτh:
'The Count of the Patrimony reports that the royal wine cellars are almosτ
bare of Acinaτicum. Go ιο τhe esτaτe-owners of Verona and offer τhem α
price τhaτ τhey will hasτen το αòòερτ. Ιτ is α wine of which ΙταΙγ may be
proud. Clever Greece may boast iτs various producτs, ßτs v,rines mixed
wiτh spices or flavoured lyiτh sea waτer, but ßη αΙΙ iιs elaboraτions ßτ has
noιhing like τhis.'
Verona is 'Ιtaly's most acιive ιvine ccntre' according to Βυττοη
Anderson's Wine Atlas of Italy. Nowadays its rη,ines range from τhε dry
whiτe Soave and dry red Valpolicella to the headier Recioτo (α sweeτ red
passito made from sun-dried grapes) and Amarone of Valpolicella. The
lasι is α most unusual wine: α red from sun-dried grapes which is
po,werful, dry, even slightly bitter. Perhaps this venerable v,rine retains
someτhing of τhe sτyle τhατ so impressed Cassiodorus.

Ι29
 The Classical Cookbooh

Seafood Rzssoles ωith α

Cumin Sauce
Seafood issoles are made ωith cigales and lobsters, ωith cuττIefish, uiτh
squid, ωith langousτes. Υου flauour the issole ωiτh pepper, fish sauce,
cumin, asafoet ida rooτ.
Apicius Ζ, ι
Cumin sauce for σysters and sheψsh: pepper, lσuage, parsley, dried mint,
fairly generous cumin, honey, uinegar, fi,sh sauce.
Apicius ι, Ζ9 [ι, 15, Ζ]

These rissoles are delicious made with Pacific prawns) scampi, or fresh
lobsτer meaτ and craιvfish τails, αΙΙ of ,which are available frozen from αηγ
fishmonger. The rissoles are apparently made wiιhouτ αηγ binding
ingredient, such as egg. They tend to break υρ rvhen cooked ßη the sauce:
τhaτ is ιvhy Ι add α liττle egg το hold τhem together and (as γου ινßΙΙ probably
be using frozen shellfish) α small quantity of breadcrumbs το soak υρ the
excess fluid. The rissoles are ideal as α firsτ course or as α lighτ lunch.

Sειvrs Fουι
8 οΖ (ΖΖ5 G) pAcIFIc pRAlyNS, ScAMpI oR LoBSTER ΜΕΑτ
(οτχει s.o.rgojn"
"Ξjψsτιτυτεο)
ΥΖ ττesροου ASAFoETIDA PoιyDER oR
4 DRo PS_A SggΞP lj§cTURE
% ττesτοοπ GRoUND BLAcK pEppER
Ι LEVEL TEASPOON GROUND CUΙViIN
Ι EGG
Ζ τειιιsροοπs(3ο ιτι) rIsH SAUcE
ι TABLESpooπ (ro c) BREADcRUMBS
FLOUR FOR DUSTING

Sauce

5 FL οΖ (% cυΡ/Ξ9 λι!ηßΞιττ_wιΝΕ vINEGAR

5 FL οΖ (1lyYIsoIlL,βyITE ιγιΝΕ
Ζ τετιεsροοπs òιεεR ΗοΝΕγ
(6ο c)
2 TABLESpooπs (3ο mι) rIsrr SAUCE

Ι3ο
 Supper at τhε Baτhs

Ι LEVEL TEASPOON GROUND CUMIN

Ι ΒΑΥ LEAF
Ι TEASPOON CHOPPED FRESH OR γ2 TEASPOON DRIED ΜΙΝΤ
Ι HANDFUL οF FRESH PARSLEY, CHoPPED
Ι TEASPOON CHOPPED FRESH LOVAGE OR CELERY LEAF
GROUND BLACK PEPPER

Defrost τhe shellfish thoroughly, drain and ρατ dry well ινßτh kitchen
paper. Pound it dorvn ßη α morιar or process it το α coarse mince. Add τhe
asafoeτida, pepper, cumin, egg, fish sauce and breadcrumbs and mix
ιvell. Turn ουt οη το α floured board and form inτo abouτ rz balls. Roll ßη
exτra flour and leave to chill ßη the refrigeraτor while γου prepare τhe
Sauce.
Combine the sauce ingredients ßη α frying-pan, bring το τhe boil and
simmer briefly. Add τhe rissoles and poach them genτly for abouτ ro
minutes, turning them occasionally. Serve immediately, accompanied by
the sauce.

Τωο sea perch, tωο

bass andfourpraωns,
sketched οιι α 4th-
cenτuTy - BC'f sh-plaτe'
from southeιn Italy,

Ι3Ι
 The Classical Cookbook

Patina of Sole
Patina zomoteganon Arτange ατιγ chosen fish, uncoohed, ßη α ραη. Add
.
οßΙ, fish sauce, uine, α
bouquet of leek and coÞander. WhiΙe it coohs crush
pepper, rub ßη α bouquet of louage and oregano, add the juices from τhe
cooked fish, beat ßη ταω eggs, blend, Bnpty into the ραη, αΙΙοω to bind.
When seτ, season ωiτh pepper and serue.
Apicius 4,2, 27

This simple dish can be made with αηγ fish of your choice. Ι find ßι
particularly good wiτh whiτe fish such as sole or plaice.

Sειvεs Two
2 FILLETS OF SOLE
τeιιτsροοπ (r5 ιτι) οιινΕ oIL
τ

2 TABLEspooπs (3ο ιτι) rIsrr SAucE

5 FL οΖ (2h òυιΙι5ο ιτι) wΗττε wruε

Ι BoUQUET οΨ ryESH CORIANDER
"η*γ9Ι:ΞΞ5
Υυ TEASPooN GRoUND BLACK PEPPER
Ι TEASPOON CHOPPED FRESH LOVAGE OR CELERY LEAF
Ι TEASPOON CHOPPED FRESH OREGANO
2 EGGS

Place the fillets ßη

α baking dish and pour οη the οßΙ, fish sauce and wine.
Add τhe bouqueτ garni and bake ßη α pre-heaτed oven ατ 375'F (l9o'C/gas
mark 5) for 15 minuιes. Remove; drain off τhe cooking liquor and
reserve. Ιη α mortar pound the pepper, lovage, oregano and τhe cooked
bouquet. Flush out the mixture ιviτh the cooking liquor and mix ßη the
eggs. Pour τhis over τhε fish and reτurn το τhe oven υητßΙ ßτ has seτ. Serve
immediaτely sprinkled with freshly ground black pepper.

Ι32
 Supper ατ τhe Baτhs

Roast Duck ωith Η azelnuts

Alteιnatiue sauce for birds: pepper, paτsley, louage, dried m,int, saffloωer,
moisten ωith ωßηε, add yoasted hazelnuts or alrnonds, α little honey, blend
ωith ωßηε and uinegar and fish sauce. Add οßΙ to this mixture ßη the
saucepan, heat, stiτ ωith fresh celery and calamint. Mahe incisions [ßη the
bßτdÞ and pour τhe sauce ouer them.
Apicius 6, 5, Ζ

Ιη this dish α mixture half-ιvay between α sauce and α nut crumb coaτs τhe
meat and creates α r.vonderfully crunchy texture outside ιvhile remaining
fluid underneath. The bird can be, as indicated, αη open choice. The
recipe has α modern Christmassy feel which can be enhanced by τhe use
ofa duck, goose or even α pheasant- but Ι use chicken with equal success.
Τινο unusual herbs are called for ßη the ancient recipe. Safflorryer is
ofτen known as fake saffron: τhe porvder sold τoday as 'saffron'is more
τhan likely adulterated with safflower. Under its real name safflorver is
best Κηοτνη to us as α recently developed cooking οßl. Calamint, still used
ßη souτhern Europe as α culinary herb, is hard το find elserr,rhere; τhe
closely related catmint is rather commoner and it is this τhaτ Ι have used
(τhe Laτin name Νερετα may, ßτ seems) be applied το eiτher).

Sεkvεs FouR
6οΖ(ινΖ cups/r7o c) ττεΖτιπυτs
2 TEASPOONS CHOPPED FRESH Οη rYU TEASPOONS DRIED ΙVIINT

2 TEASPOONS CHOPPED FRESH LOYAGE OR CELERY LEAF

2 TEASPOONS CHOPPED FRESH PARSLEY
TEASPOON CHOPPED FRESH CATMINT OR CALAMINT
(Ir υοτ AvAILABLE, INcREAsE τττε ιτιυτ)
2 TABLEspoous (6ο c) òιεεη ΗοΝΕγ
ιο FL οΖ (ιγ4 cUPS/28o ML) RED ιγιΝΕ
, rο"rr."99"ι(39ιr) oLIvE oIL
2 TABLEspooπs (3ο ιτι) ητο wINE vINEGAR
5 FL οΖ (7.9υΡºΞ9ι!ΙFιSΗ SAUCE
Ι TEASPOON GROUND BLACK PEPPER
PINCH SAFFRON PO\YDER OR STRANDS
3 LB (I.5 KG) Dj951:ΞΞ5ΞxjR οTHER BIRD
SALT

Ι33
 The Classical Cookbook

Game ßη its natural Roasτ τhe hazelnuτs for r ο minuτes ßη τhe oven ατ 35ο.F ( ι 8o.C/gas mark4).
habitat, depicted οη α Pound or process τhem το α fine crumb. Add them to α saucepan ιviτh αΙΙ τhe
mosaic fτοm laιe
oιher ingredients for the sauce and bring sΙοινΙγ to the boil. Place τhe bird ßη
Roman Syι,ia. Iη the
α roasτing ραη and season,well with salt and pepper. Cut into the breasτ and
central uignette α hare
leg and open the incisions before pouring the sauce over ιhe bird. Roasτ ßη
feasts οη grapes.
the normal τταγ ßη α pre-heated oven αt 4oo"F (zoo"C/gas mark 6) for αbουτ
ι 7Ζ hours. Ψhile cooking, repeaιedly baste the bßτιΙ to ensure that ιhe skin
is well covered ßη the nut mixture. As the rvine reduces slightly the sauce
ιτßΙΙ form α crusι over τhe breast, ιyhich needs to be mainτained once ßτ has
formed.

Patina of Aspayagus
Alτernaτiue ραιßπα of asparagus. Put asparagus ιßρs ßη α morιar, pound,
αΜ ω,ßηε, òßευε. Pound pepper, lnuage, fresh coiander, òαυοιγ, οηßοη,
ωine, fish sauce, οßl. Put purÝe and spices ßη α greased shalloω ραη, and,,
if γου ωish, break eggs ouer it ωhile cooking, so τhat ßτ seτs. Spinkle
ground pepper.
Apicius 4, Ζ,6

This is anoτher savoury egg cusτard, τypical of Roman cuisine, τhaτ

deserves to be rediscovered. Roman gardeners and gourmets rvere the

Ι34
 Supper ατ τhe Baτhs

first to develop the thick-stemmed, delicately-flavoured asparagus ιvith

which we are familiar. But early Greeks, and the country people of the
Roman Empire, already knew and appreciaτed asparagi-a group of ιvild
planτs, closely related to the cultivated varieτy, ,whose thinner, greener,
young shoots are almost as succulent. Ψild asparagus, if γου òαη get ßτ,
would give αη excellenτ flavour to this paτina.

Sεινεs Fουι
2 BUNCHES ASPARAGUS oR 4 CANS GREEN ASPARAGUS TIPS

Ι SMALL οΝΙοΝ, FιNELY DICED

5 FL οΖ (ºψΡ/Ξ9ιι) wIITE \γιΝΕ
Ι TABLFSPooN (ι5 ML) oLIvE oIL
Ζ τειιεsροοπs (3ο ιτι) rlsH SAUcE
Ι HANDFUL OF CHOPPED FRESH CORIANDER
Ι TEASPOON CHOPPED FRESH OR DRIED SAVORY
Ι TEASPOON CHOPPED FRESH LOVAGE OR CELERY LEAF
% τεηsροοπ GRοUND BLAcK pEppER

4 EGGS

Fresh asparagus musτ first be trimmed and sτeamed. Cuτ τhem do,wn το
abouτ 6 ßη (ι5 cm) ßη lengτh and peel the rooτ end. Bind τhem inτo α
bundle and stand them ßη α deep saucepan,σrith boiling ιvater half-ιvay υρ
τhe sτalks. Cover r,vith α lid and simmer for about 5-8 minutes υητßΙ τhe
root ends are tender, then refresh ßη cold,water. Canned asparagus needs
simply to be drained.
Norrl sαυτÝ τhe οηßοη υητßΙ tender and allow to cool. Place the asparagus
and τhe οηßοη ßη α food processor and purÝe; alternaτively, pound τhem
down to α smooτh mixture. Add the wine, οßΙ, fish sauce, coriander,
savory, lovage and pepper, Pour the mixture into α greased shallorv
ovenproof dish and break the eggs οη top. Bake ßη α pre-heated oven at
375'F (l9o'C/gas mark 5) for ιο minutes. Serve sprinkled ιvith freshly
ground black pepper.

Ι35
 The Classical Cookbook

Patina Apiciana
Υου make Patina Apiciana as fοΙΙσωs. Pieces of cooked ωοmb, of fish, of
chicken meat, ωarblers οτ coohed thιush breasts and ωhateuer eke is of top
quality. Chop αΙΙ this thoroughly, except the ωarblers. Μßχ ταω eggs ωith
οßI. Crush pepper, louage, moisten ωith fish sauce , ωßηε , raisin ωßηε , and
sετ το ωατm ßη α saucepan, and bind ωiτh sτarch, afτer γου haue addιd αΙΙ
τhe chopped meaτs and leτ ßτ come το τhe boil. When ßτ is cooked, remoue
ωith its juices, ωith α spoon, and reayyange ,ßη α seιving Üish ßη lqιers,
some ωßth peppercorns, some ωith pine kernels. Place under each layer as α
base α sheet of pasta, and put οη each sheet one ladlιful of the meaτ
mßχτυτε. Finally pierce one sheeτ ωiτh α reed and place τhis one οη τορ.
Season ωiτh pepper. Before γου put αΙΙ τhese meaτs ωiτh τhe sauce ßητο τhe
saucepan γου should haue bound them ωith the eggs. The hind of bronze
dish γου need is shoun beloω [τhe illusτration does noτ survive].
Apicius 4,2, ι4

Sιkvls Slx
ιο FL οΖ (r'ljy§!φIlryHITE \τιΝΕ
ιο FL οΖ mι) nnIsrπ ryrπε
(rYq cups/z8o

3 τετιεsροοπs (45 ßι,τι) rlsH SAUCE

2 TABLESpooUs (3ο ιτι) οιτντ οτι,
PLUS Α LITTLE EXTRA FOR BR.USHING
2 TEASPOONS CHOPPED FRESH LOVAGE OR CELERY LEAF
% τεηsροου GRoUND BLACK pEppER

Α LITTLE CoRNFLOUR (CoRNSTARCH)

4οΖ(τΖο G] Jg95ΞprjllI-ED pRAwNs
4 οΖ (τ Ζο G]j99lΞ3jΞ§§EN BREAsT
4 οΖ (rr9jp§Ξpjy9l(ED ΗΑΜ
4 οΖ (ιΖο G) SMoKED SAυSAGE (SUcH AS THoSE οΝ τεòε 9ο), sLIcED
4 τητιεsτοουs (6ο c) υυε KERNELS
Ι TEASPOON BLACK PEPPERCORNS
2 EGGS
6-8 sιτεετs oF pLAIN LASAGNE pASTA

Combine the wine, raisin wine, fish sauce, οßΙ, lovage and ground pepper
ßη α saucepan and bring το τhe boil. Thicken wiτh α liττle cornflour and

Ι36
 Supper ατ τhε Baths

cook out briefly. Ensure that the prawns are defrosted and well drained,
add τhem το τhe sauce with ιhe meats and reheat. Add τhe pine kernels
and peppercorns. Beat the eggs ιogeτher and stir them inτo τhe mixτure
off τhe heat. Sloιvly bring back tο heaι. Have ready your ραsτα
ι.ηιhßΙε
sheeτs, cooked if necessary, and α greased baking dish. Beginning,with α
layer of mεατ, fill τhe dish,arith αΙτετηατε layers of meat and lasagne ßη τhe
normal way, finishing ινßτh α sheeτ of pasta. Brush ιhis lighτly wiτh olive
οßΙ and coverwith foil before reheating ßη α pre-heaτed oven ατ 4oo'F
1zoo'C/gas mark 6ι for Ζο minuιes.

This recipe is remarkably similar to lasagne ßη structure. The pasta sheets

or lagana, α Greek term) are the same type as those used ßη the Layered
Cheesecake (page 94), rη,hich were made from flour (or semolina) and
waτer. Ι am ßη ηο doubτ τhaτ τhis is τhe precursor of the τradiτional lτalian
lasagne. Durum rvheat, ηοτν used for pasta, ιvas already ιvidely grorvn ßη
the ancient ,,llorld.
Thaτ ιvonderful phrase 'whaτever else is of top qualiτy', used ßη τhe
original recipe, gives γου free rein to choose your own filling. Don't be
τied by my choice, though it ιναs certainly acceptable to mix fish and meat
τogether. ΡΙαßη pasta sheets can be used or γου can make your own by
mixing α flour and rvater dough and rolling them ουι το τhε shape of the
dish γου use. ΑΙΙοτν ιhem το rest for αη hour or so before assembling. \We
are ηοτ told to cook the dish again before serving, but Ι always bring ßτ
back το heaτ ßη τhe oven.

Kitchenωork: Roman
relief caruing οη α
tomb, from Frascati.

Ι37
 The Classical Cookbook

Ματγοω ογ Squash Alexandria-style

Gourd Alexandnan fashion. Drain boiled gourd, season ωith salt, ατταηgε
ßη α dιsh. Crush pepper, cumin, coriand.er seed, fresh mint, asafoeτida τοοτ.
Moisten ωßth uinegar. Add caryota date, pine hernel; crush. Blend ωith
honqι, uinegar, fish sauce, concentιated must and οßΙ, and ρουτ the ωhole
ouer τhe gourd. ΙYhen ßτ has boiled, season ωßτh peppet and seιye.
Apicius 3, 4, 3

Sεινεs SIx
Ι SMALL YoUNG MARRow oR YELLo\y SQUASH
SALT
4 FRESH DΑΤΞ:.l91Ι(ΞDjΧ Ι LITTLE ιτΙΝΕ
2 TABLEspooπs (3ο G) Ρ]χΞ5ΞιιΞι:ιψΑκΕD ιΝ Α LITTLE wINE
2 LEVEL TEASPOONS GROUND CUMIN
2 LEVEL TEASPOONS GROUND CORIANDER
/υ TEASPooN GRoUND BLACK PEPPER
2 TEASPOONS CHOPPED FRESH OR Ιγ2 TEASPOONS DRIED ΜΙΝΤ
γ2 TEASPooN ASAFoETIDA PowDER oR 5 DRoPS ASAFOETIDA TINCTURE
2 TABLEspooπs (6ο G) ΗοΝΕγ
ι TABLEspooπ (r5 ßιιι) οετηυτυιτ (ιεoucED RED GRArE 1υιòε)
3 τιιιεsροοπs (45 ßντι) r,lsH sAucE
¹"rrº99ιχ (39§¸LIvE oIL
"
3 TABLEspoous (45 ιτι) RED \ßιΝΕ vINEGAR

Slice the marro\ry or squash and steam or boil unτil αΙ denτe - sτill firm.
Arrange τhe slices ßη α baking dish and sprinkle wiτh α liττle salτ.
Υου will need α pesτle and mortar for the sauce. Take τhe sτones from
the dates and put the flesh ßη the mortar wiτh τhe pine kernels. Mash them
down to α paste. Transfer to α boιvl and add the cumin, coriander,
pepper, mint and asafoeτida and mix rryell. Scrape down τhe mash and add
τhe honey, defruτum, οßΙ, fish sauce and vinegar. Sτir inτo α smooτh
emulsion and pour over the marrow or squash. Cover ιvith α lid or foil
and reheat thoroughly ßη α pre-heaτed oven ατ 35ο'F (ι 8o"C/gas mark 4).
Serve sprinkled ιviτh freshly ground pepper.
As ßη τhe recipe οη page ιο5, we can substitute marrow or squash for
the gourds that the Romans grew. This rich sauce complemenτs τheir
mild flavour very rvell.

Ι38
 Supper ατ τhε Baths

ΙΙυτ Omelette
Upside-doωn paτina as α sωεετ. Roasτ pine hernels and shelled broken
nuts; crush ωith honey, pepper, fish sauce, milh, eggs, α little ωßηε and οßΙ,
turn οη to α round flaτ dish.
Apicius 4,2, ι6

Sειvεs Fουι

Ζ οΖ (ΥΖ υιιιτη ALMoNDS

cup/6o ò)
ΖοΖ(ΥΖ cup/6o G)
η9ιΞι }γι!ιψS oR HAZELNUTS
Ζ τηιιεsτοοι.ιs (3ο ò) ιιυε KERNELS
r τηιιεsροοπ òιεεR ΗοΝΕγ
(3ο ò)
2 TABLEspoous (6ο ΜL) \ßΗιτΕ wINE
2 TABLESPooπs (6ο ιυι) ιτιικ
ι TABLESpooπ (r5 ßυι) FISH SAUcE oR SALT το TASTE
Vignette from α Greek
6 EGGS uase. Α slaue clears υρ
GROUND BLACK PEPPER after the feast,

ι TABLEspoou (r5 ιτι) oLIvE oIL

Combine and roasτ τhem ßη τhe oven at 35o"F (l8o'C/gas mark

αΙΙ τhe nuτs
4) for ιο
minuτes. Pound or grind them dorvn to α uniform texture
resembling coarse breadcrumbs. Place ßη α bονιΙ and add τhe honey,
wine, milk, fish sauce and τhe eggs and beat smooth. Season with plenty
of black pepper. Heat the olive οßΙ ßη α non-stick frying-pan and pour ßη
τhe mixτure, Cook as for α basic omelette and grill (broil) for ι or Ζ
minuτes το seτ τhe top. Cut into quarters and serve immediaτely.

Νο cooking insτrucτions are given ßη the ancient text, but it is quite clear
τhατ τhis'upside-do,vvnpatina'is nothing less than α svr'eeτ omeleτιe. The
fish sauce is τhere ιο add τhe necessary touch ofsalt, and it can be replaced
ιviτh salτ.

Ι39
 Α l.{ote οη Greek and Latin Sources
of Recipes
ome of these texts can be found ßη English τrans-
lation: we give deτails of τranslaτions, and of the
Greek and Laτin τexτs rrye have used, ßη the guide tο
further reading τhaτ folloιys this noτe.
There were many Greek books about food. Almost the
οηΙγ ones τhaτ sτill survive το be read today are τhose
rvritten by physicians, Then, even more than norv, α
sensible diet rvas considered by many το be α guaranτee of
health. Fortunately the authors of diet books sometimes
troubled to give τhe fυΙΙ list of ingredienτs for α recom-
mended dish. Attached ιο recipes above, therefore, the
names of Oribasius and Galen occur. Galen rrvas α famous
and successful Greek doctor rvho pracτised and lecτured
ßη Rome abouτ eo ιΖο. Oribasius lived ßη the fourth
century αο; he vr'as personal physician to the last pagan
Roman emperor, Julian 'τhe Aposιaτe' - and one of τhe
main characters ßη Gore Vidal's historical πove| Julian.
Although rve have noτ taken αηγ recipes from it, α much
earlier Greek τεχτ, known simply as Regimen, dating from
abouτ 4οο rc, is full of fascinaτing informaτion οη τhe
classical Greek dieτ. Ιτ is sometimes said to be the rvork
of Hippocrates, the legendary founder of medical
science. It can be read ßη English. Galen's rvritings οη food
are sτßΙΙ ηοτ available ßη τταηsΙατßοη, but ßτ is possible το read
some of Oribasius' rvork ßη English at last.
The true doyen of food rvriters is Archestraτus, α Sicilian
Greek ofabouτ 35ο oc (see chapτer 3). Archesτraτus'lighτ
poem The Life of Ι.ιιχυτ, α sequence of lively rules οη
Ι4ο
\vhere το ΙοοΚ for good fish and hοτη, το cook ßτ, rvas already
α rarity ßη ancient times and is now sadly lost forever; but α
later scholar of food history, Athenaeus, αη Egyptian
Greek οfαbουτ RU Ζοο, quoτed several exτracts from τhe
poem ιvhich rye have been glad to use. There is now α
compleτe English tταηsΙατßοη of the surviving bits of The
Life of Luxury.
Ψe have just mentioned Aτhenaeus' work. His Deip-
nosophisτs, α τreasury ofrare texts from earlier times, is also
the source rve used for recipes from other lost Greek food
books. There is α compleτe English τranslaιion.
Gourmet cookery,was probably taken το Rome by Greek
cooks. Greeks rvho rvrote cookery books ßη Rome included
Chrysippus of Τγαηα and Paxamus, said by some to be the
inventor of τhe biscuit (cookie). Their work is knoιvn οηΙγ
ßη scraps, by way of Athenaeus and α medieval Greek
farming manual,Geoponica. Apart from these there are the
recipes of Caτo (see chapter 5) and other writers οη
farming.
The cookery of the laτer Roman Empire, uniting boτh
Greek and Roman traditions, ,σ,ras codified ßη τhe one
complete surviving cookery manuscript from the ancient
,σrorld, the ιvell-known Apicius. Those who rvant to see the
full range ofthese recipes can find them easily (see beloιv),
because, ßη general, previously published books οη
Roman cookery have simply been adaptaτions of Apiciιzs.
Our aim ßη this book has been to give α ιvider νßετη, of Greek
and Roman food.
 Further Reading
ere are τhe τeχτs οη classical food τhat can be read
ßη English τranslaτion. Ιη this lisτ, LCL means the
Loeb Classical Library, ιvhich gives τhe original
texτ parallel τη,ßτh αη English τranslation. This useful series
is kept permanently ßη prinτ ατ α standard price per
volume. It is published by Harvard University Press,
Cambridge, Mass. (and used to be co-published by
Heinemann, London).
Apiιius. The besτ τranslation is Apicius: the RomanCoohery
Βοοhιτ. Β. Flower and Ε. Rosenbaum (London, ι96ι),
but it is out of prinτ, Still available is John Edwards, Zfte
Roman Cookery Apicius (London, ι985).
of
ΑRòττεsτRατυs. Life of Luxuιy
See Archesτraτus: τhe τr.
Ψilkins and S. ΗßΙΙ (Toτnes, ι994).
Ατπει.ßαευs. See Aτhenaeus: The Deipnosophisrs τr. C. Β.
(LCL, ι9Ζ7-4ι).
Gulick. 7 vols
Cητο. See Caro: OnFarming tr. Α. Dalby (Toτnes, ι998).
Hτppoιocrιus. See νοl. Ζ of the LCL Aτhenaeus.
Λ[oτetum. Sòe fuIoretum: the ploughman's lunch, α ροòm
asfibed Virgil ed. Ε. J. Kenney (Bristol, ι986)
το
Onιsasιus. ι
See Dieting for αη Emperor: books and 4 of
Oribasius' fuIedical Compilaτions tr. Μ. Grant (Leiden,
Ι99º)
ΡετRοπιυs. See The Saτyicon ττ. Ψ. Arror,vsmiτh (Αηη
Arbor, ι959), or τr. J. Ρ. Sullivan (London, ι965).
Ρπτιοχεπυs. See 'The Banqueτ of Philoxenus' ττ. Α.
Dalby ßη Petits Propos Culina,ires ηο. Ζ6 (ιq8Ζ).
Ριτπγ. See ΡΙßηγ: Naτural Hisτory τr, Η. Rackham and
Ψ. Η. S. Jones, especially vols 4-6 (LCL, ι95ο-Ζ) and
the revised νοl. 7 (ι98ο).
Regimen αηd Regimen ßη Acuτe Diseases, both traditionally
attributed to Hippocrates. See Hippocraτes τr. Ψ. Η. S.
Jones, vols Ζ and 4 (LCL, ι9η).
There is plenty of information abouτ τhe food and ιvine of
modern Greece ßη Rena Salaman's Gτeek Food (znd edn,
London, ι993), Aglaia Kremezi's The Foods of Greece §ew
York, r 993) and Mθes Lambeπ-Gü cs's Πe Wines of Greece
(London, ι99ο). The history of Greek food is τold ßη
Andrerry Dalby's Siτen Feasτs: α hisτory of food and gasτron-
omy ßη Gτeece (London, ι996). The same auτhor's Empire
of Plιasuτes: α geogτaphy of Roman luxury (Loιdon, 2οοο)
maps τhe foods, rvines and luxuries of Roman literature.
Other books οη Roman food and τηrßηe are ßη French:
Jacques Andrü's L'Alimentation et Ια Cuisine d Rome (znd
edn, Paris, ι98ι) and AndrÝ Tchernia's Le νßη de l'Italie
Romaine (Rome, ι986). Emily Gorvers' The LoadedTable
J. (Oxford, ι993) brings out the complicaτions of Roman
poeτs' references το food. As α survey of τhe daily life of
Rome nothing has replaced JÝrüme Carcopino's D αßΙγ Life
ßη Ancienτ Rome (London, ι956, and reprinτed). Modern
Italian food and ,,vine are surveyed by Elizabeτh David ßη
her classic ltalian Food (revised edn, London, ι979) and
by Burτon Anderson ßπ The |Y/ine Atlas of ltaly (London,
Ι99ο).
ΑΙαη Davidson's Mediteιyanean Seafood (revised edn,
London, ι98ι) is the besτ source of informaτion ßη English
οη the fish of ltalian and Greek waτers.
Lindsay Allason-Jones is the author of \Vomen ßη Roman
BÞτain (London, ι 989), which is full of information οη τhε
daily life of this obscure Roman province. Finally those
,who τηταητ το κηοlν αΙΙ there is το knorv abouτ Roman fish
sauce will find it ßη R. Ι. Curtis' Garum and Salsamenτa:
production and commerce ßη materia medica (Leiden, ι99ι).
§ie are grateful to the authors of τhe books lisτed, which
lye have ourselves found helpful at various points ßη the
present rvork.
Ι4Ι
 Quotations and References
ΙπτηοουcτΙοΝ The philosophy of music and cookery:
Regimen (attributed to Hippocrates) r, r8.
Rεòηεετιπò Αυcιεπτ FooD The comedy
cook:
Plautus, Pseudolus 8ιο-Ζ5. The cook who shares his master's
taste: Martial, Epigrams ι3,22ο. F-ish sauce: Martial, Epigrams
ι3, ιο2; recipes, Geoponica Ζο, 46. The fate of silphium: ΡΙßηγ,
Natural History 19,39.Raisin ινßηε: Martial, Epigrams ι3, ιο6;
ΡΙßηγ, Nalιιral History ι4, 8ο-5; Columella, Οη Agiculιure τΖ,
39.
ΤΗΕ HoMEcoMING oF ODvSSEuS Calypso and Odys-
seus: Odyssqy 5, ι 94-2οι . Alcinous' orchard: Odyssqι 7 ,
'Never ate α fish': Eubulus ιι8 (Epitome of Athenaeus z5c).
Maron's ιvine: Odyssey 9,2ο4-ι ι; ΡΙßηγ, Narωral History ι4, 54.
Pancakes ßη Greek poetry: Magnes and Cratinus quoted by
Aτhenaeus 646e, Ηßρροηαχ quoted by Aτhenaeus 645c. Circe's
hykeon: Odyssryι ro, Ζ33-6. Byzantine scholar οη ÝγÝεοπ: Arch-
bishop Eustathius of Thessalonica, Commentary οη Homer 87ο,
65, compare Pluτarch, SyrnposiumQuesτions 7, I. Carτhaginian
porridge: Cαιο , Οη Agiculture 85 , Alphiton: Dieuches, quoted ßη
Oribasius, Medical Collections 4, 6.
ΤΗΕ BANQUET oF ΡtΙτιοχεπυS Philoxenus, Banqueτ,.
extracts from longer quotaτions given by Athenaeus at 685d, I46f
and 64zf. 'Modern scholars': the exception is D. F. Sutton ßη her
Ditlιyrambographi Graeci (Hl\desheim, 1989), ,,vho, like us, takes
Philoxenus of Cythera ιο be τhe author. Agathon's symposium:
Plato, Syιnposium τ76ε; 2I2c-e. Xenophon, Symposium. The
story of Aristotle's deathbed: Aulus Gellius, Auic Nighk η, 5
(ιvith acknoιvledgements to J. C. Rolfe's translation ßη the Loeb
Classical Library). The later author ιvho liked the wine of Eresus
,,vas Galen, Οη the Therapeutic Method ιΖ,
4. Archestraτus οη
horaion: Archestratus 38. The curaιive qualities ofcabbage and α
recipe for oxymeli vlith salt: ΡΙßηγ, Natural Hλtory Ζο, 8r 1 Ζ3, 6ο
(from the Greek author Dieuches); Cato, Οη Agiculture ι57,7.
The Cornish recipe for barley breadι Cornish Recipes Ancient and
Modern, compiled by Edith Martin for the Corn,,vall Federation
of '§iomen's Insτitutes, 5th edn, ι93ο.
Trrr Μeηκετs oF
τΗΕ ΜΕοιτειιΑΝΕΑΝ Five
months' iourney: Periplus of the Mediteτyanean attribuιed to
Scylax. The gifτs of Dionysus: Hermippus 63 quoτed ßη τhe
Epiτome of Aτhenaeus 27e. The Ια,"ν of Thasos: 1G χιι suppl. 347.
The Roman scholar rvho rvrote superciliously of Archesιraιus'
appetiιes is Aτhenaeus at rr6f. Οη bonito and οη ιvheat
bread: Archestraτus ι3, 4. Οη Democritus and grape varieιies:
ΡΙßηγ, Narural History 14, Ζο. Οη 'Γyrian exports,. Ezekiel Ζ7,
Ι7-33.
Α ΙryEDDING FEAST ιΝ MACEDoN Hippolochιs, Leττer
to l4mceus: extractsfrom τhe longer quotation given by Athen-
aeus αι ιυ8α. Oxyrhynchus cookery book: see Opsartytiha und
Venuandtes ed. F. Bilabel (Heidelberg, ι9Ζο). Archestratus οη
hare: Archestratus 57.
CATo'S Feιτι.τ Οη visiτing τhε farm, selling surplus sτock,
and preserving lentils: Cato, Οη Agiculture 2, ι ; 2, 7ζ r 16. Caτo's
|ι2-2ι . remark οη Lucius Veturius: Plutarch, Cato Major 9, 6 (vdth
acknolvledgemenιs tο Α. Ε. Astin's translation \η his Cαtο the
Censor, Oxford, ιgz8). Οη the Opimian vintage and οη invest-
ment ßη lvine: ΡΙßηγ, Natural History ι4, 55ß ι4, 57. Greek recipe
for plakous: Antiphanes quoted by Athenaeus 449c.
ΤΗι ΙνεειτΗ οF EMΡIRE Farm-fresh dinner menu: Juve-
ηαΙ, Sallres τι, 56-76. Trimalchio's feast: Petronius, Satyicon
3 ι ; 34. The priestly dinner: Metellus Pius quoted by Macrobius,
Saturnalia 3, ι3, ιο-ι2. The meal thaτ Sepιicius Clarus missed:
ΡΙßηγ the Younger, Letters ι, ι5, ι-4. Fashions ßη wine: ΡΙßηγ,
' Natural Histoly ι4, 95-7.Greek recipe for conditum: Geoponica
8, 3ι (attributed, implausibly, to Democritus). Vesιine cheese
and Picentine bread: ΡΙßηγ, Natural History ι1,24ι; ι8, ro6.
ΟΝ HADRIAN'S lιryALL Horace ατ Benevenιo: Horace,
Satires τ,5. The ßηη advertisement CI L 9, Ζ689 ('penny'in the
translation stands Γor the Roman copper coin as). 'fhe day-book:
ηο. ι9ο ßη ΑΙαη Βοτη,mαη and J. D. Thomas, º'hε Vindolanda
|Y/iting:Γablets (London, ι994'); acetum is here translated
'vinegar', ηοt 'sour τηrßηε for soldiers', because of the small
quantiιy. Foods introduced to Britain: see J. Grieg, 'Plant foods
ßη τhe pasτ' inJournal of Planτ Foods νοl'.5 (Ig83), ρρ. ι79-2ι4.
The flavoured ιvines of Provence: ΡΙßηγ, Natural History τ4,68.
Slicing eggs: Plato, Syπposium τ9οd.
SUppεn ιτ τΗΕ BATHS The all-nighτ bars: Juvenal, Sarires
8, ι58-8ο. Street sounds and smells: Seneca, Letters 56, Ζ.
'Γrimalchio αt the baths: Petronius, Satyicon Ζ7. The baths of
Tigellinus: compare Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of º'γαηα 4,
4Ζ. The conversation: KathemeÞne Homilia attributed to ΡοΙΙυχ
(ed. Α. Boucherie [Paris, ι87Ζ]: 'yoghurt'and 'halva'are αρ-
proximate equivalents οηΙγ for colostrum and gelonianun). The
,,rlines of Verona: Cassiodorus, Vaiae ιΖ,
4.
Ι42
 Index
Page numbers ßη ßταΙßò refeτ το illusτrations,

Achilles 36 Cαιο ι9,3ι-2,4ι,5ο-ι,54-5,8Ζ- Enτerτainment ι2,ι2,29,44-6,7ι, Inns rr4-r5, ι24,ι26

Alcibiades 46 4, 92_5, 97, ιο9 72, ιοο Istanbul see Byzanτium
A/zc, fish paste Ζο, rz8 Celery r,9I-z, ι ι5; Celery Purüe 9ι
Alexander τhe Greaτ ιο,7ο, 7ο,73 Cheese ι9, 25-6, 32,38, 54-5, 57, Falernian ιτßηε ιοο Juvenal 97, ιΖ6
Alexandria 73,78, ι38 6ι, ιο3-4; Cheese and Sesame Farming ι9,82-4,97
Alexis 49, 77 S\Ir'eetmcats 44, 54; Garlic Farryn rro Kid ιΖ, 36_7, 7ι-2,97, Roasτ Kid
Almonds Ζ4, 46, 57, 8ι, ι39 ,_ Cheese 85 Fennel 3Ζ, ιι5 or Limb 36
Aperitifs r r6; see a|so Mulsum, Cheesecake44,9z;LayeredCheese- Figleaves59*6o Kidneys ιιι-ιΖ; Stuffed Kidneys
Conliam 94
cake Figs 8, 57, 68
υ ιι ι
Apicius ι4, ι6, 2ι, 22, 37, ιΖ8, ι4ο Chesrnuτs57 Fish9,16,56-65,64,7º,I3I,I32; Kiτchens ι7-ι9,ι37
aπd passim Chicken ?7,34-9, ιο3, ιο8, ι_23, FishinCorianderCrusτ65 Kore,Persephüne)',3
Apples r3, Ζ8, 97, ιΖι-3; Pork with 136;Chicken Salad ιο3; Chicken Fish sauce, garum, Ιßqυιιmεη ι4-ι5, Κοιταbοò 46, 47
Apple ιΖι Sτuffed vviτh,Olives,34,; P_9rτhian r9-u r, r16, τ23, ι28 Kykeσn,'Magic potion'28,4o_I
Archesτraιus 9- ιο, 33-4, 52, 58-62, Chicken ιο8; Stuffed Chicken Flavourings ι4-Ζ5
76, ι4ο ι23 Flour 4ο, 8r, 88 Lamb ιΖ, 36-7; Roasι Kid or Lamb
Arisτophanes 44-5, ιι7 Qhickpeas 46 Fruit ro, ιι,28*3ο,72 36
Arisτoτle 46-7, 7ο ChildrenIι,28,98 Furniτure ιι-τ2,28-g,42,45,98, LeaÜvesselsI8
Army food ι ι4, ι ι6 Chios 46,48, roo, ιου ι39 Lenτils ΖΖ, 8Ζ, 89
Asafoetida, hing Ζι-Ζ, ιο8 Christianiιy ιο,7ο Lenτils 89
Asparagus 97, ι34-5; Ραιßηα of Chrysippus 8ο, ι4ο Galen 38-9,48, 5ο, ι4ο Lesbos 46,48, 5Ζ,6ο, roo
Asparagus ι34 Circez8,4o-I Garlic 86-8, 88, ιιο; Garlic Cheese Libum9z,
Athenaeus 68, 7ι, 8ο, ι4ο Claudius ι ι3, ι ι5 85 Lßηυαηlιη see Fish sauce
Aιhens 44-6, 56-8 Columella 24,25-6,84 Gαηιm see Fish sauce Liver Oxyrhynchus 76
Augusιus 97 Comedy 9, 87 Gasrni 78, 8ο Lobsιer ι3ο
Cοηdßιυm ιοι Ζ Gaul, France ιο, 2ι, 24, ιτü Lovage Ζß-3
Baking cover (τεsιυιη) τ8-τ9,5Ζ Cooks9-Ir, ι3-ι9,58 Geopσnica ι4ο, ι42 (cf. ιοι-Ζ) Lυιαλßιαε9ü-ι
Barley ro-r r, 4Ζ, 5Ζ-3; Barley Rolls Corfu Ζ8, 57 Gifιs ι9,7ι-3, ιοο Lucullus roo
' 42,52 Coriander ι5,24,65 Goaι Ζ5; see also Kid Lynceus 7r
Baths ιο, ιΖ6-8 Cos 85 Goose 8, 36, 7ι, ι28, η3
Βαγ leaves and berries Ζ4 Crete Ζ4, 72-3, |,ι6 Gourds ιο5, ι38; Stuffed Gourd ro5 Macedonia ιο, 56, 7ο-4
Beans ιΖο Cucumber r 8; Cucumber Dressing Grapes Ζ8, 97; Grape juice see Musτ Mackerel 77; Bλked Mackerel 77
Ι
Beer r 16 Ι r8 ΜαΚο 33
Birds ι ι, ι6, 4Ζ, 7ι-Ζ, ιΖ8 Cumin 3υ, ι3ο; Cumin Sauce r3o ΗαΙνα rz8, ι4Ζ Malmsey 6ο
Birthday parιies ιο, rr6, rr8 Hare 7ι, 73, 74, 75-6, r34; Roast Markets 56-8, 82
Blackberries 6Ζ-4 Damsons 98 Hare 75 Marrorrr üτ Squash Alexandria-sτyle
Boars Ζ9 ρεfτtυγι Ζ4-5 ΗαΖεΙηυτs τ33, ι39 ι38
Βοηßιο 59*6ο Delian Sryeeιs 68 Hellenistic culture 7ο Marseille ιο
Brains Ζ6 Demeιer.z,3,40,52-3 Heracles41,57 Marτial ι8, Ζ4
Bread ro-I r, 5Ζ-3,6ο,7ι,88, ιο3-4 Democriτus 6ο Herbs ι4-ι6, ι9,22-4 Masdc roz
Bream, porgy üι-Ζ; Bream ßη Desserιs ιΖ,46,7Ζ,ιΖ8 Hesperidesl3,4l Μεαι ιι-ι2, ι9,28-9,66-7, ιΖ8;
Cheese and ΟßΙ 6ι Dinner parτies, Greek rr, ιι-τΖ, Hippocraτes ι4ο, ι42 (cf. 13) Salτ Μεατ Siew 66'
Βτßιαßη ιο, ι ι3-ι6 28*9, 3ι , 42-,7, 57, 59; Macedo- Hippolochus 7ι Medicinal use of foods 22, 4ο, 5ο-ι
ΒγΖαηιßυm 48, 49, 6ο ηßαη 7ο-4; Roman 4, 97-ιοο, Ηßρροηαχ 39 Menus, Greek ιι-ιΖ, Ζ8-ξ, [Ζ-6;
99,ιι8,ιΖ6-8 Homer,lfiadz7,36,4o;Oιtysseyg, Macedonian7l-z;Roman97-
Cabbage 5ο-ι; Cabbage ιhe Αιhε- Dionysus, Bacchus 4ο, 57, 67, 73, 27-3ι ιοο, ι24, ι27
ηßαη Ψαγ 5ο _ ,84,.ιι5, Honey ι4,38-9,48,5ο,8ο-ι, ιι3, Mesopoτamia 13
Caesar 97-ιοο, r ι5 Dolphin-fish 63 ιΖ8; Honey-glazed Shrimps 48; Mnesiτheus 5o-r
Cakes ι9, 43-4, 72-3,8ο, 84, 9Ζ-6, Dormice 98 Honey Νυt Cake 8ο; Honey νßη- Moreιum 85-7
Ιο9 Duck 8, 36, ι33; Roasι Duck with egar 5ο; Honeyed Mushrooms Mulberries6z-4, ιι5
Calaminτ Ζ4, ι33 Hazelnuts r33 lι3;Honeyedwine3o;Pancakes ΜυΚιιm ι4,Ζ4, ιοι
Caranus ιο,7Ζ-4 ινßth Honey and Sesame Seeds 38 Muriι ιι6
Caraιvay ro8 Eels 4υ Hospitality Ζ8 Muscat 6ο
Carroτ r ι5 Eggs 46, 9º, ιι7; Sofτ-boiled Eggs Ηνητλι9Ζ9,74, ι j4 Mushrooms ιι3; Honeyed Mush-
Carthage 56-7, 6ι, 84 Ι Ι7 rooms ι ι3
Cassiodorus rz9 Egypτ ι3,67 India Ζι,97 Musτ, grape juice ι4, ι8, 24-5

Ι43
 The Classical Cookbook

Musιard ι5, ιΖ8 Pigeon 36 Scad 77 Thyme 67, 8ι

Myccnac Ζ7 Pisτachio ηυτs ro Seafood 4Ζ,48-9, ι3ο; Seafood Torone 33-4, 74
Placenτa, Layered Cheesecake 94 Rissoles ι3ο Trade and transporτ.51, 56-9, 65,
Nero Ζι, 97, ιΖ7 ΡΙατο ι3, 44-6, ιι7 Semus 68 lor, r 14-I6
Nutmeg 69 ΡΙαυτυs ι5,ι6 Seneca ιΖ6 Trimalchio's Feasι 98 ιοο, ι26-7
Nuτs 8ο, ι39; Honey Νυτ Cake 8ο; ΡΙßηγ ιhe Elder Ζ ι , Ζ4, 5ο-ι, 6ο, 85, Sesame 38-9, 44, 54-5; Cheese and Troy Ζ7, 4ο
Νυτ Omeleττe ι39 Ιοο Sesame Srveeιmeats 44, 54; Ραη- Τυηα ιο, ιι, 33-1, 42, 49;
ΡΙßηγ the Younger roo cakes ιvith Honey and Sesame Toronaean Shark or Τυηα 33;
Odysseus 9, Ζ8, Ζ8-3ι Polenτa ιο Seeds 38 Τυηα Sτeak 49
Oenogarum ιο5*7 ΡοΙΙυχ, Daily Conuersation ιΖ7-8 Shark 33-4; Toronaean Shark or
Olives and olive οßΙ
3ι-Ζ, 34-5, J5, Pomegranaιes Ζ8, 97 Τυηα 33 Uτensils r7,r8, η ι91 23,5ι, ι ι5,
8Ζ-4; Olive Relish 3ι; Chicken Pompeii 8, zj, ιοΖ Shellfish ι ι, 7Ζ, 98-roo, r3o Ι22, Ι29
Sιuffed ιvith Olives 34 Ρορργ seeds 97 Shops 49, 9r
Opimian vintage 85, roo Porgy 6ι-Ζ Shrimps 42, 48-9; Honey-glazed Vegeτables rI, l15, ιΖ8
Oregano 49 ι2ι, ι28; Pork
Pork 66 7, 72, |ο9, Shrimps 48 Verona ι Ζ9
Oribasius 5ο, ι4ο wiιh Apple ιΖι; Shoulder of Sicily, Syracuse 43, 56,8 Vesτine cheese ιο3
Osτia rz6 Pork ιο9 Silphium ιο, Ζι-Ζ, ΖΖ, 8Ζ Vindolanda rr6, rr8
Ovens ι7,ι8 Porridge ιο, ι9,4ο Slaves rI-rz, Ζ8-9, jo, 45 6,45, Vinegar ι4, 5ο, ιι6, ι4Ζ; lloney
Ovid 9Ζ Pramnian wine 4ο 58, 7Ζ, 8Ζ, 88, 98 ιοο, rr.z, Vinegar 5ο
Oιyrlrynchus C oohery Β ooh 66, 7 3, 7 6 Pralvns r3o ιΖ7-8, lj9 Virgil 86
Snow roo Viτellian Peas ιΖο
Pancakes 3ο, 38; Pancakes ,σιßth
Quail 36 Socraιes 44 6
Honey and Sesame Seeds 38 Sole ι3Ζ; Patina of Sole ι3Ζ §ialnuτs 46, 68, ι39
Parιhia 83, ιο8 Raisins 57 ; raisin ινßηε, passum Ζ4, 8 4 Sorbs r r7 §iaτer r3, 3ι, 42 3, Β , 69
Passιrrπ see Raisin wine Recipes and their interpreιaτion r3- Sorades 6Ζ Ψeddings |ο,7ο 3,72
Ραtßηα Apiciana ι36; Paτina of As- Ι6,37 Sources ofinformation 8, ι4ο-2 Ψheaτz, ιο-ιτ,.5.]
paragus ι 34; Ραιßηα ofPears r Ζ5; Resτaurants ιΖ1, ιΖ6-9 Sow's ιη,οmb r6, roo, rz8 Vine ro,zr, ro9, rrz; Byzantine48,
Patina of Sole ι 3Ζ Rhodes 48 Spain ι ι6 6ο; Egyptian ι3; Gallic (French)
Patronage ιΖ6 Riτuals 14 , 54, 57, roz Spices ι4-ι6, ι9-Ζ4; Spiced §iine r r6, rz8; German ror ; Greekz6,
Paxamus r4o Rock eel, dogfish, huss 6Ζ-4; Rock ΙοΙ 28 3ι, 4ο, 46_8, 57-8, 6ο, 74,
Peaches ιο, rr5 Eel wiτh Mulberry Sauce 6Ζ Squash ιο5 7, ι38 roo, ιΖ8; Iτalian 48, 6ο, 8Ζ-5,
Peacocks ιο, ro7 Roman Empire ιο, 97, ι ι4 ι6 Squid 4Ζ, ι3ο ιοο, ι29; Phoenician, Lebanese
Pears Ζ8, 97, ιι5, ι25, rz5; Patina of Rome ιο, ι9,8Ζ-4,97-ιοο, ιΖ6-9 Sτreeτ food ι9 6ο; Spanish ιι6, ιΖ8; Spiced
Pears ιυ5 Rue Ζ3 Sugar ΖΖ Vine ror; Sweeτ Ψine Cakes
Peas r υο Sιveeτbreads Ζ6 Ιο9
Pepper 35,68-9 Sacrifice 14, 57 Sweeτs r9, 43-4,52-3,68-9, z8-g; \Vomen and ιheir role, Greek r r, Ζ8,
Perfume ιι, 7Ζ, ιΖ8 Sala Cauabia ιο3 Alexandrian Sweets 78 3ο, 43, 44, 17, 58-9, 69, 7Ι;
Persia ιο,33, 56, 7ο Salad dressing ιο3 Symposium and revelry 9, ι_ò, 4,ι-6, Roman ι9,98, ιι6, rr8
Petronius ιο, 97, ιοο; see also Tri- SαΙι ι9-Ζι, 67; Salt Meat Stew 66 14-7 , 58 ,9, 79_8ο, 94 Ψreaιhs, garlands ιι, 4Ζ,46,7Ζ
malchio's Feast Samos 48
Philoxenus 42-4,46,55 Saucepan 18 Thasos 46, 57, 74 Xenophon 46
Phoenicia 56-6ο Sausages ι9, 9ο-ι, ιι9; Smoked Theophrastus 48, 7ο-ι
Picentine bread ιο3-4 Sausages 9ο; Ψhite Sausages r ι9 Thessalv 6ο Yoghurτ ι28, ι42

Illustration Acknowledgements
The publishers,,vould like ιο τhαηΚ the following for supplying illusιraιions: Tyne ι8; Scala Istituιo Fotografico Editoriale SpA, Florence (Museo
The Trustees ofthe British Museum, London, pages ι, 3, ι2, ι4, ι5, 35,43, Nazionale, Naples) Ζ3, 87, 99, (Pompeii) ιοΖ; Idryma Theras (Thera
44,,ι5, 5ι, 53, 57, 58, 59, 69, 7ο, 72, 73, 71, 84, 88, 94, ι τ5, ι ι8, ιΖΖ; The Foundation) 63; Vatican Museums 6ι, 77, 93, ιο5, ι ι6, ι 2ο ) ι21, ι25, ι 27,
J. ΡαυΙ Geτty Museum, Malibu Ζ, 6, ι3, ι7, 2ι,27,29,3ο, 3ι, 33, 39, 47, ι33; Marτin νοη ΙWagner Museum, Universiτdτ \Wýrzburg (phoτo: Κ.
54, 64, 67, 83, ιο7, ι ιο, I2g, I 3I, I 34; Ashmolean Museum, Oxford r I, 7r, Oehrlein) 79. The line drawing οη page 47 is after F. Lissarrague, LIπ Flol
ι39; Bibliothdque Nationale, Paris ΖΖ; Mansell Collecτion, London (Museo d'images, Adam Biro, Paris, ι987, page 7ο (Antikensammlungen, Munich);
Nazionale, Rome) Ζ5; Museum of Anτiquiτies, Universiτy of Newcasτle υροη the oιhers are by Sue Bird.

Ι44
- òσιιtßηιιιÞτσπι Ιτσιιt flap

Andreιv Dalby is the Librarian of the

London Goodenough Trust for Overseas
Graduates. He has ιντßττeη for numerous
food history and classics journals and is the
author of α book οη food ßη ancient Greece.
Sally Grainger is α professional chef ιryith α
degree ßη ancient history,,vho regularly
organizes Roman banquets.

FRoNT JAcKET ILLυsTRAπoN: ΙOßαΙΙ painting from

Herculaneum, Museo Nazionale, Naples (photo
Scala Istituτo Foτografico Editoriale SpA, Florence)
BAcKJAcKET ILLUSTRATºoN: Detail of α Roman vine
scroll motif from Sidon, Lebanon (draιving by
Ενα §iilson)

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JosephJay Deiss
222 pages, 1 18 black-and-ιryhiτe ßΙΙυsττατßοηs

Α Πterary Companion to Tiauel ßη Greece

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400 pages, 25 black-and-,σrhite illusτrations, map

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