The word "learning" was coined in the 1980s to describe organizations that experimented with

new ways of conducting business in order to survive in turbulent, highly competitive markets
(see Argyris and Schon 1996; also Senge 1990). Table 1 presents the characteristics that define
the learning organization, and the positive results accruing to individuals and the organization
or culture as a whole when they are present. Two characteristics are individual; three are
group-based. The characteristics listed in Table 1 are general qualities that exist within a
learning culture. However, there are concrete cognitive and behavioral tools, as well as
specific types of social interaction and structural conditions, that improve the chances that
these qualities are achieved and sustained over time. These are the "best practices" listed in
Table 1. While not an exhaustive list, the ones listed in Table 1 fall under four main categories:

 communication and openness;

 inquiry and feedback;
 adequate time; and
 mutual respect and support.

Communication and openness involve both self-reflection (i.e., being honest with oneself
about a situation) and participatory reflection (i.e., pushing the group to clarify and evaluate
the assumptions underlying how work gets done within the organization). It also involves
communication that flows as much from the bottom of a hierarchy to the top as vice-versa.
Inquiry allows individuals to become adept at questioning things as a normal course of their
work. It encourages people to take risks in improving aspects of their work. Positive feedback
involves activities that are designed to let people learn from their inquiries, to build a personal
knowledge base that is defined by proactive rather than reactive or defensive thinking. It
involves those with more experience helping those with less experience understand not just the
"right" way to do things, but what can be learned from doing things the "wrong" way.
Communication, reflection, feedback, flexibility, and inquiry all depend upon individuals
having adequate time to engage themselves and others in meaningful dialogue and
brainstorming. Finally, mutual respect and support involves treating co-workers, supervisors,
and employees equally and consistently with respect to one's ability to contribute positively to
the organization, regardless of where that person is located in the organizational hierarchy.

Table 1. Characteristics of a Learning Organization and Associated Best Practices *

Characteristic Definition Associated Best Practices Positive Byproducts

Self mastery- The ability to honestly
individual and openly see reality as
it exists; to clarify one's
personal vision
1.Positive reinforcement Greater commitment to
from role the organization and to
models/managers work; less
2.Sharing experiences rationalization of
3.More interaction time negative events; ability
between supervisory to face limitations and
levels areas for improvement;
4.Emphasis on feedback ability to deal with
5.Balance work/non- change
 work life
Less use of defensive
The ability to compare 1.Time for learning routines in work; less
Mental reality or personal 2.Reflective openness reflexivity that leads to
models - vision with perceptions; 3.Habit of inquiry dysfunctional patterns
individual reconciling both into a 4.Forgiveness of oneself of behavior; less
coherent understanding 5.Flexibility/adaptability avoidance of difficult
situations
1.Participative openness Commitment over
2.Trust compliance, faster
The ability of a group of
3.Empathy towards change, greater within
individuals to hold a
Shared vision others group trust; less time
shared picture of a
- group 4.Habit of dissemination spent on aligning
mutually desirable
5.Emphasis on interests; more
future
cooperation effective
6.A common language communication flows
1.Participative openness Group self-awareness;
The ability of a group of
2.Consensus building heightened collective
individuals to suspend
3.Top-down and bottom- learning; learning "up
Team learning personal assumptions
up communication flows; and down" the
- group about each other and
hierarchy; greater
engage in "dialogue"
4.Support over blame; cohesiveness;
rather than "discussion"
5.Creative thinking enhanced creativity
Long-term
The ability to see
1.Practicing self mastery improvement or
interrelationships rather
2.Possessing consistent change; decreased
than linear cause-effect;
Systems mental models organizational conflict;
the ability to think in
thinking - 3.Possessing a shared continuous learning
context and appreciate
group vision among group
the consequences of
4.Emphasis on team members;
actions on other parts of
learning Revolutionary over
the system
evolutionary change

* Adapted from the work of Senge (1990), Argyris and Schon (1996), Argyris (1991), and Schon
(1983).