Claudia Finish

UNIVERSITATEA DE PETROL GAZE DIN PLOIEȘTI
FACULTATEA DE LITERE ȘI ȘTIINTE
SPECIALIZAREA LIMBA ȘI LITERATURA ROMÂNĂ ȘI

LIMBA ȘI LITERATURA ENGLEZĂ
LUCRARE DE LICENȚĂ
NATIVE AMERICANS
CONDUCĂTOR ŞTIINŢIFIC:
ABSOLVENT:
PLOIEȘTI
2017
Contents
Foreword 4
Chapter I. Brief History of Native Americans 5
I.1 Time Line for North America 5
I.2 Historical Facts 6
Chapter II. Native American Tribes 12
II.1 Apache 13
II.1.1 Way of Life 14
II.2 Cheyenne 15
II.2.1 Migration 15
II.3 Navajo 18
II.4 Cheroke 19
II.4.2 From the Frist Contact with the Colonist to the Trail of Tears 20
II.5 Mohegan 22
II.6 Pueblo Indians 23
II.6.1Way of Life 24
II.6.2 Contact with the Spanish 25
II.6.3 The Rebellion and Later History 26
II.7 Sioux(Dakota,Lakota,Nakota) 27
II.7.1 Sioux Branches 27
2
Chapter III Myths and Legends 29
III.1 Trickster 33
III.2 Cultural Hero 35
III.3 Animal 37
III.4 Origin Stories 42
Chapter IV. The Effect of the „White Man” on the Native Americans 44
IV.1. Wars 44
IV.1.1 Apache 44
IV.1.2 Cheyenne 47
IV.1.3 Navajo 50
IV.1.4 Sioux 51
IV.2 The Trail of Tears 58
IV.2.1 The Removal 60
IV.2.2 Slaves 62
IV.2.3 Tsali and how the Cherokee Rose 63
IV.2.4 The Afertmath in the U.S. 65
IV.2.5 The Afermath in the Indian Territory 66
Conclusion 75
Bibliography 76
Annex 77
3
Foreword
This paper proposes to present the life, culture and history of the American Indian. They are
,according to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, a member of any of the indigenous peoples of
the western hemisphere; especially: ”a Native American of North America and especially the
U.S.”.
In the first chapter entitled ”A Brief History”, sets out to show the chronological time line
from the presupposed arrival of the Paleo-Siberian, the genetically ancestor of the Native
American, to the arrival of Christopher Columbus , to the setting of the British Colonies to the
modern day.
In the second chapter named ”Native American tribes”, I will present certain tribes from the
way they came to be in that certain territory to their way of life. The tribes that I have chosen
are the most common know such as Cheyenne, Navajo or Sioux.
Because the Native American do not have a written history, in the third chapter I will
present different types of myths and legends from different tribes. In this chapter, it can be
observed that the native American appreciate every living thing, showing it respect- where it’s
due. Also, the animals had an important role in mythology, because they represent certain
carachteristics that are present in human behavior.
In the fourth chapter set out to present what was the effect of The White Man on the Native
American, from wars and massacres to what is still know as ”one of the greatest injustices of
the Native Americans” which is The Trail of Tears .
4
I.Brief History of the Native Americans
I.1 Time Line for North America
 ca. 40,000-10,500 BC. Arrival of Paleo-Siberians in North America from Asia and
dispersal throughout the Americas
 ca. 35,000–8000 B.C. Paleo-Indian Period
 ca. 9200–8000 B.C. Clovis spear-point culture
 ca. 9100–8000 B.C. Sandia and Folsom spear-point cultures ca. 9000–1000 B.C.
Desert culture in Great Basin
 ca. 8000–4500 B.C. Plano (Plainview) culture ca. 5000–1000 B.C. Archaic (or
Foraging) Period
 ca. 4000–1500 B.C. Old Copper culture around Great Lakes ca. 1800–500 B.C.
Poverty Point culture
 ca. 1500 B.C.–A.D. 1500 Formative Period
 ca. 1400 B.C.–A.D. 1500 Woodland cultures in East
 ca. 1000 B.C.–A.D. 200 Adena culture
 ca. 200 B.C.–A.D. 700 Hopewell culture
 ca. A.D. 100–1300 Anasazi culture in Southwest
 ca. 700–1550 Mississippian (temple mound building) culture along Mississippi River
and its tributaries
 ca. 1200–1400 Ancestral Apache and Navajo (Dineh) bands migrate into Southwest
 1492 Period of European contact begins when Christopher Columbus (Spain; Italian
descent) lands in San Salvador in the Caribbean
 1512 Colony of New Spain founded, covering present- day Mexico, Central America,
the southwestern United States, Florida, the West Indies, and the Philippines; Spanish
law gives Spanish land grantees the right to enslave native peoples on granted lands
 1540–42 Francisco Vázquez de Coronado (Spain) explores the Southwest and
southern Plains; horses are introduced to North America
 ca. 1560–70 Formation of Iroquois League of Five Nations by Deganawidah and
Hiawatha
 1830 U.S. Congress passes Indian Removal Act calling for relocation of eastern
Native American tribes to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River
 1832–42 Relocation of Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Seminole, and other
eastern tribes to Indian Territory (in what is now Oklahoma)
 1838 Potawatomi “Trail of Death,” relocation from Indiana to Indian Territory
 1838–39 Cherokee “Trail of Tears,” enforced march to Indian Territory during which
thousands died from disease, starvation, and abuse
 1876–77 Sioux War for Black Hills, involving Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho under
Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse; Battle of Little Big Horn in 1876; Crazy Horse
surrenders in 1877
 1889 Ghost Dance movement founded by Northern Paiute prophet Wovoka
 1890 U.S. troops massacre some 200 Lakota en route to Ghost Dance celebration at
Wounded Knee Creek, South Dakota; last major engagement between Native
Americans and U. S. settlers
5
I.2 Historical Facts
Native Americans lived in North America for some time. There are no concurrences on the
exact period of the time or even on how and when, they initially showed up on the continent.
As for numerous Indian creation stories, the people have dependably been here, having started
either beneath the earth or, less usually, in some other no terrestrial zone.
The most broadly acknowledged hypothesis expresses, that tribal Native Americans arrived
from the Nearing Straight when frozen sea conditions made an area span among what is the
Siberia and Gold country. That may have happened about 15,000 to 40,000 or more years.
A few people estimated that even without an area span, traditional individuals may have
crossed the Bering Strait by boats. At last, there is a hypothesis; taking into account certain
fossils found in New Mexico, that ancient people touched base here specifically from Europe,
from Iceland and Greenland.
“In any case, the ancestors of at least some groups were living in their historic territories in 10,000
B.C.E. Over the millennia, people adapted to dramatic climate changes by creating new technologies
and migrating when necessary. Some early groups’ hunted species of big game that are now extinct.
People gradually filled in new territory as the glaciers withdrew from northern North America. The
Great Plains became populated, depopulated, and then repopulated. Some groups settled down to farm
the great American triad of corn, beans, and squash while others continued primarily to hunt and/or
fish and/or gather wild plant foods.”1
Some of the Indians developed complex religions and mythologies, where others decided to
remain to simpler beliefs. Some groups decided to build great cities, where thousands of
people could reside, where others preferred to live in small groups. Hostility was endemic
among a few groups, while others lived in relative peace. Numerous Native Americans had
learned about the land itself. A few groups found actually many plants that could be used for
medical purposes. Indians were no strangers to travel. Some waterfront groups created tough,
seagoing vessels that took them at least 60 miles out to ocean to chase marine life. Extensive
exchange systems were set up, so that thing both prevalent and vital, and thoughts, could be
traded over separations of hundreds and even a huge number of miles.
Indians figured out how to remain sensibly cool in the warmth of forsake summers, and
alongside the Inuit, sensibly warm in the solidified northern winters. Many groups had
splendid material expressions, traditions, and numerous more raised dramatically and
narrating to imaginative statures. In the domain of government, Indians formed complex
reactions to different neighborhood circumstances. A few groups created boards, a few were
1
Barry M. Pritzker, Native Americans. An Encyclopedia of History, Culture and People,ABC-CLIO Inc, Santa
Barbara,California 1998, xi
6
controlled by faction affiliations, and some had isolated war and peace governments. Bunches
had the solid pioneers, powerless pioneers, or even no genuine pioneers by any means.
”Confederacies such as the Creek and Iroquois developed particularly sophisticated

governmental models. One trait that stands out in this area, however, is the near-universal
tendency among Native Americans to make decisions by consensual agreement rather than
majority rule.”2
The native population of North America was estimated to be among around 2 million and 18
million at its pinnacle. In any case, maladies ( for example, smallpox, cholera, typhoid, and
measles) brought by non-locals, annihilated many Indian groups. Many endured misfortunes
of up to 90 percent or all the evener before non-locals really arrived, because the germs from
exhausted travelers, agents, preachers and pioneers. So, it was that such many non-locals
talked about the land as open, pristine, and virgin. In addition, literary and historic depiction
of Indians as savage, uncivilized and primitive, have ended the conflict among the diverse
Indian and Euro-American methods for being on the planet.
The Spanish looked for gold and different types of wealth. They also requested converting to
Christianity and were flawlessly anxious to slaughter and subjugate Indians to get what they
needed. The British needed land more importantly and were occupied with religious and in
addition social changes. The French had their share of missionaries, yet when all is said in
done were all the more anxious to acknowledge Indian societies all alone terms, a reality that
records for the generally high rates of interracial marriage in New France.
“In the far north, the Russians, too, sent missionaries to convert the Indians, but mainly launched a
program of brutal enslavement in order to force Indians and Inuit to acquire pelts for Russian trade
companies. Indians, for their part, were happy to trade with the newcomers and even to cede some
land willingly. They were not, however, prepared for a wholesale onslaught on their land and way of
life. These sorts of struggles are often couched in moralistic dualities, such as “savage” and
“civilized,” but even the introductory student must move beyond simplistic, ethnocentric explanations
in order to achieve any real understanding of cultural conflict.” 3
Indian and Inuit groups experienced non-natives as tremendously unique circumstances.

The Norse likely showed up in the outrageous upper east around 1000; Basque and other
European anglers, landed in generally a similar zone in the mid sixteenth century, about
the season of Spanish contact in the south. Interestingly, a few groups in California and the
2
Barbara,California 1998, xii
3
Barbara,California 1998, ,xii
7
Plateau district did not specifically experience non-locals, until the nineteenth century - in
parts of Arctic America, there was no immediate interracial contact until the mid-twentieth
century.
The experience of Indian groups with non-natives varied by time and place, however when
all is said in done there was a more prominent or lesser level of hostility with respect to
the last mentioned. Numerous Indian groups experienced dramatic changes during this
period. The requirement for expanded centralization to battle the newcomers and the need
to adjust to the loss of freedom modified governmental structures. New alliances were
effected, as Indian groups took sides in the considerable pilgrim battles and turned out to
be intensely included in the hide exchange. Native manufactures of specific things fell
away as individuals had a tendency to depend on non-local products. Religion changed as
well, as Christianity blended with and much of the time subsumed conventional
convictions. Maybe the two greatest improvements to impact the lives of Indians were the
presentations of the steed and of guns. Now said, ailments from abroad additionally took
an extraordinary toll on local population, as did, increasingly, warfare and in addition
venereal infection and liquor. While people were caught grabbing Indians' domain and
pulverizing their assets, both the United States and Canada, having blended as countries,
created official approaches that constrained Indian gatherings to surrender boundless
measures of land. Many were persuasively expelled a long way from their countries at a
gigantic cost in life and enduring.
In the United States, bargains made with sovereign Indian countries were broken
practically when they were closed. A few gatherings in the United States were resettled on
continuously contracting reservations, which might possibly have been situated in their
genealogical grounds. Patriot leaders, also warriors and noncombatants, were executed or
generally killed, and agreeable, artificial pioneers were frequently introduced in their
place. In both nations, Indians were put under enormous weight to desert their legacy and
absorb into non-local society. Different tactics were used to accomplish these objectives,
for example, the persuasive expulsion of children for instruction at all-inclusive schools,
prohibiting parts of conventional culture, for example, dialect and religious practice, and
compulsory support by roaming bunches in cultivating plants. These strategies went far to
crumble solid family securities and tribal customs. Authorities responsible for Indian
issues were famously corrupt, a circumstance that additional to the troubles of Native
Americans.
8
“Both countries also passed a series of laws designed to further their assimilations goals.
In the United States, the General Allotment (Dawes) Act (1887) sought to break up the
reservation system and tribalism. Among its provisions were those that called for the
government to negotiate with tribes with the goal of allotting Indian lands in severalty.
Those lands remaining after certain individuals had received their share would be released
for sale to or use by nominatives.”4
Despite the fact that tribe could consult under this system, as a gathering they lost about 90
million sections of land of land—around 66% of the total land base—either through the
distance of "excess" land or because individual allocations were thus lost through systems
(for example, assess abandonment). By persuasively dispensing with so much regularity
land, the United States prevailing with regards to managing a serious blow to tribal
identity and union. Canada ended a progression of numbers arrangements with Indian
gatherings, started in 1871. These approached local individuals to trade arrive in stores,
installments, and different contemplations. In 1876, Canadian authorities combined their
approaches under a solitary Indian Act. In view of prior laws went for eradicating
"Indianans" through the emancipation of Indian men, the demonstration enabled the
government to control local individuals, even for characterizing who was a Indian and
who was definitely not. Under the demonstration, Indian pioneers worked basically as
government operators. Ensuing alterations extended the idea of liberation, making it
automatic, and prohibited certain customs, for example, the potlatch. They additionally
permitted the legislature to seize Indian land the administration chose, was not being
adequately misused monetarily by the tribes. In the far north, the North-West Mounted
Police manufactured post from which they controlled numerous parts of Inuit life.
“By the early twentieth century, many Indians and Inuit had fallen into conditions of
severe poverty and dependence. Although many resisted it, the United States granted
citizenship to Indians in 1924.In 1934, U.S. officials overturned Dawes-era policies and
passed the Wheeler-Howard Indian Reorganization Act (IRA).”5
Under the IRA, the apportioning was ended, and Indians were urged to make protected,
dominant part rule–style tribal governments. Decisions made by such governments were,
obviously, subject to endorsement by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). The tribes were
4
, Barry M. Pritzker, Native Americans. An Encyclopedia of History, Culture and People,ABC-CLIO Inc, Santa
Barbara,California 1998, xiii
5
Barbara,California 1998, , xiii
9
likewise given such hypothetical impetuses us the chance to participate in non-local
improvement plans. In spite of the best any desires of approach producers, numerous tribes
dismissed the IRA as being contradictory to their traditions and convictions and an
infringement of settlement ensured power. It was not long, however before response set in,
and New Deal arrangements were thus turned around: in the Introduction 1950s, the
central government began separating the unique relationship among Indian tribes and the
United States in a procedure known as the end. Related arrangements likewise, urged
Indians to leave reservations and live in urban communities. There, rather than
occupations and absorption, many discovered just neediness, loneliness, and estrangement.
Meanwhile, the reservations lost a great many youngsters who might have given up and
then came the era of administration.
“Meanwhile, Indians, led in part by war veterans, were creating important pan-tribal
organizations. In1944, the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) took the lead in
advocating for Indian self-determination. Younger activists created the National Indian
Youth Conference in 1961.”6
Both of these groups were instrumental in forming a Indian motivation for political and
social activity. What at last ceased end, truth be told, notwithstanding the terrible
experience of two ended tribes, the Menominee and Klamath, was the capacity for Indian
pioneers to convince Congress regarding the significance of keeping up the
administration's settlement commitments and of the potential picks up in permitting
Indians themselves to decide the course of their own future.
“In the United States, a revolution of rising expectations, combined with the growing militancy of
the period, produced the “Red Power” movement of the late 1960s and 1970s. Activist
organizations included the Native American Civil Rights Council and the American Indian
Movement. The most visible manifestations of direct action were the occupation of Alcatraz Island
in 1969 and of the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1972 and the standoff at Wounded Knee, South
Dakota, in 1973. Northwestern and then Great Lakes tribes fought hard, visibly, and ultimately
successfully for their fishing rights, guaranteed by treaty but denied in practice.” 7
The advance was additionally made toward achieving the objective of self-dependence.
6
Barbara,California 1998, xiv
7
Barbara,California 1998, , xiv
10
Indians scored important, despite the fact that stills constrained, legal victories during this
period, winning section of a few bills, including the Indian Social Equality Act (1968), the
Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (1971), and the Indian Self- Assurance and
Educational Assistance Act (1975). A few tribes increased more prominent control over
broad mineral possessions (despite the fact that less frequently remained horribly
exploitative). Alongside Red Power came Red Pride, as individuals rediscovered their
legacy in dialect, craftsmanship, and deep sense of being. Young people, especially, began
to embrace the teaching of their elders . Regardless of the fact that poverty and poor health
remained endemic to numerous Indian people group, the most noticeably bad
maltreatment of the mid-twentieth century have passed and Indian population are by and
large expanding.
” The U.S. Census recorded roughly two million Indians in 1990.There were 287 reservations
composed of 56 million acres of land. More than 300 tribal governments were officially
recognized by the federal government, plus over 200 in Alaska, with over 100 more either seeking
recognition or considering such a move. Slightly more than 50 percent of Indians in the United
States live in urban areas. According to the 1991 Canada census, there were 1,002,675 self-
identified Indians, 608 First Nations Councils (bands), 66 Inuit communities, and 2,370 reserves
totaling 7.4 million acres. In 1993 there were 626,000 status Indians, 212,650 Métis, and 49,225
Inuit. Almost half of all status Indians live on a reserve.” 8
All over North America, Native American groups kept on pressing for independence and
self-assurance, counting control over regular assets, a satisfaction of bargaining rights, just
pay for—or the arrival of—land and lawful locale. In the United States, associations such
as the Council of Energy Resource Tribes (CERT) played the main part in overseeing
Indian vitality and regular role. Despite the fact that gaming is disputable for various
reasons, numerous Indian tribes have made it a centerpiece of their new economies—in
the mid-1990s there were more than 100 high-stakes operations also, more than 60
gambling clubs taking in generally $6 billion a year. Child welfare was and still is under
Indian control. Indian gatherings are occupied with social rejuvenation on any number of
fronts. In any case, unemployment, destitution and suicide rates stay higher between
Indian individuals, than between some other single racial or ethnic group. In 1995, there
were about 18,000 local claimed organizations in Canada. Inuit individuals looked after
dynamic cooperatives, some in view of craftsmanship and art generation, as a way to make
8
Barbara,California 1998, xv
11
a living. They have moreover created radio and TV programming in their local dialect
(Inuktitut). There was a noteworthy effort on the piece of neighborhood Inuit to get ready
for the production of Canada's freshest region, for the most part Inuit Nunavut in 1999 and
other local gatherings in Canada are occupied working out their own particular forms of
social rejuvenation, monetary adequacy and political self-determination.
In 1995, First Nations and the government, started defining a methodology planned
eventually to supplant the Indian Act with neighborhood self-government. When free,
sovereign countries later regarded as local ward countries, local North Americans are once
again on their way to manage their own future. They confront overwhelming, but exciting
challenges in their mission to make new political, social and monetary structures and
methods for being construct particularly on the old ways. Beside, notwithstanding the long
legacy of persecution, reliance, contempt, and dread, Native Americans and non-locals are
cooperating viably to determine old clashes. The accomplishment of these endeavors will
be based, at minimum somewhat, on an intensive comprehension of the passed what is
more, a firm responsibility to push ahead as full and measure up to accomplices into what
is to come.
II.Native Americans Tribes
Native American tribes are classified into:

 The Artic: Polar Eskimo, Igulik Eskimo, Southampton Eskimo, Labrador
Eskimo,Netsilik Eskimo, Mackenzie Eskimo, Alaskan Eskimo, Caribou Eskimo,
Baffin Island Eskimo, Aleut ,Inagalik , Inupiaq ; major languages: Eskimo-
Aleut ;
 Subarctic: Chipewyan, Koyukon, Dogrib, Beaver, Kutchin, Abitbi, Carrier,Cree,
Han ,Slave, Tutchone, Yellowknife, Naskapi, Kalapuya, Notka ; major language :
Atapascan ;
 The Northwest: Coast:Tlingit, Haida, Kwakiutl, Chinook Haida, Hupa, Karok,
Nootka, Alsea, Bella Coola, Chilcontin, Cowlitz, Gitksan, Haisla, Heiltsuk, Salish,
Quileute,Tsimshian and Yurok ; major languages: Salishan,Na-Dene ;
 California: Hupa, Pomo, Yurok, Chumash, Maidu, Miwok, Modoc, Ohlone,
Patwin ,Salinan, Wintun, Costonoa, Dieguno, Serrano, Shasta, Yurok, Yokuts and
Yuki ; major language: Penutian ;
12
 Southwest: Apache, Pueblo, Navajo, Coahuitec, Jemez, Mojave, Yume, Tanoan
Pueblos, Papago ; major language: Penutian ;
 The Great Basin: Shoshoni, Paiute, Nez Perce ,Spokane, Bannock, Ute, Skitwash,
Yakama, Chemehuevi ,Goshute ,Washo ; major language: Uto-Aztecan ;
 The Plains: Sioux, Backfoot, Assiniboin, Crow Omaha, Cheyenne,Arapaho,
Kiowa, Comanche, Arikara,Cadoo,Gros Ventre, Kansa,Lipan,
Mandan,Missouri,Nez Perce,Plains Cree, Pawnee, Osage ; major language:
Muskogean ;
 South-east: Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, Seminole, Biloxi, Natchez,
Alabama, Calusa, Quapaw, Timucua, Yuchi; major language: Muskogean ;
 Nort-east: Abenaqki, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, Conestoga,
Conoy, Delaware, Powhatan,Montauk, Pequod, Narraganset,Wampanoag,
Massachuset, Mohican, Huron, Ottawa, Menominee, Sauk&Fox, Winnebago,
Potawatomi, Miami, Illinois, Shawnee, Erie, Tuscarora, Minga, Maliseet, Ojibwa,
Tobacco ; major languages : Algonquian-Titawan-Kutenai, Iroquois-Caddon ;
II.1 Apache
When one hears the Apache, pronounces as “uh-Patchce”, people think about Chief
Geronimo or of a warlike tribe. The name Apache comes from the word “apachu” which
means “enemy”, it was given to this tribe of nomadic hunter by the Zuni who fear them.
The Apache was feared, because through their history, they would raid other tribes or
villages for food. A big part of the Apache culture is based on warfare, but like all Indian
people they had a well-defined and complex society and mythology. The Apache had
different version of their native name that includes: Tineh or Tinneh, Tinde, Dini, Inde
orN’de, Deman and Haisndayin which means “the people” .Their ancestral homeland
could have been located in the region of North America ,the part classified as the
Southwest Indians, but because their numerous tribes and because they were a nomadic
kind of tribe ,their territories could include much of New Mexico and Arizona, the
northern Mexico ,western Texas, southern Colorado western Oklahoma and southern
Kansas. Before the Europeans reached the territory of North America, it was believed that
various Apache people migrated to the Southwest and later to other Indians. It is probable
that around the 4000’s, some scholars even theorized that it was even earlier, more like
13
850 that Athapascan-speaking tribes broke off from other Athapascans, present day
western Canada and migrated south and become what we now know as Apache, other
Apascans the migrated to this region were the Navajo. The Apache was made up of
various tribes and they were organized by dialects such as: in Arizona we have the San
Carlos, Aravaipa, White Mountain, Northern Tonto, Southern Tonto, Cibecue, Chiricahua
and Mimbreno. Chiricahua,Mimbreno Mescalero and Jicarilla in New Mexico. In Mexico
there were Lipan and Mescalero an in Colorado there was Jicarila and Kiowa-Apache in
Oklahoma.Later in the history of these subgroups there was intermarriages and/or were
placed together on a reservation by Non-Indians.
II.1.1Way of life
Primarily as previous state, the Apache were nomadic hunters and gatherers, seeking
game, more specific rabbit and deer and wild plant food, in specific cactus and mesquite
seed, that could be found in the territory. The Mescoda tribe was named after a type of
cactus, the mescal, an important part of their diet. But there was not enough food to be
found in the rugged land, much of it is desert country, they started raiding farms, villages
of the Pueblo Indians and as well in later years they raided the Spanish Mexican and
Anglo-American settlements. Some groups of Apache adopted life ways from other
Indians groups that they had contact with. Western Apache took up farming because they
were living so close to the Indians from Rio Grande pueblos. Apaches from the Jicarilla
borrowed from THE PLAINS INDIAN cultural traits. In the late 1600’s they acquired
horses from raids on the Pueblo Indians, Spanish, they often rode in pursuit of the great
buffalo hoards. Lipan, similar to the Mexican tribes, shared the trait of raising dogs to eat.
The type of lodging, most commonly used by the Apache were the wickiup, a domed or
cone-shaped hut with a pole framework that is covered with grass, reed mats and brush,
that were centered around a fire pit and a smoke hole, but the Jicarilla and Kiowa-Apache
use hides tipis. Clothing was originally made out of deerskin, because they never grew
cotton or wove it as people in the Southwest did. The Apache did not become shepherds as
the Navajo became, .they preferred to eat the sheep instead .The cotton and wool clothing
they attained was by trade or raid. Regarding pottery The Apache made very little of it,
they were though masters in basket making, in crafting coiled baskets of many shapes and
sized that had intricate designs. The Apache became known for a musical instrument, after
14
the communion of the Europeans, it was called the Apache fiddle; it was a painted sound
box that was fashioned out of yucca stalk and held a single string of sinew attached to a
rotating peg. The instrument was played with the help of a bow made of sinew and wood.
The Apache tribes had a loose social and political life, each tribe had headman, he was
chosen based on his leadership skills and military expertise, but even thought they had a
chief warrior that could go on or launch raid without the headman’s consent .The religious
ritual was done by shamans, their belief was in many supernatural creatures. To the
Apache USSEN, also signified as Yusn, was considered to be the most powerful
supernatural being, he is known as the Giver of Life. Then there were the guardians of the
wildlife, the Gans or Mountain Spirits, the Apache believed that the Gans was the one to
bring agriculture to them and thus they were a very important part in their ritual .Men
customarily would dress in intricate costume to mimic the Gans .They would wear kilts,
black mask, tall headdresses and body paint, they also would have had wooden
swords.The headdress enclosed four colors symbolizing the Mountain Spirits: white for
pollen, black for eagle feathers, yellow for deerskin and blue for turquoise.
II.2 Cheyenne
Also know by the their native name as Tsetchestahase,Tsistsistas or Dzitsistas which mean
beautiful people or our people. The name Cheyenne is pronounced “SHY-ann” or” shy-
ANN” by the Sioux tribe and it means “red talker” or “people of a different speech”,
because for the Sioux, who are siouan speaking tribe, the Algonquian speaking Cheyenne
sounded very different to them. The Cheyenne spoke Algoniquian because originally the
Cheyenne cohabite closer to the Algoniquian, in what is today known as Minnesota. They
lived in villages, preferring a permanent place to live and beside hunting and gathering,
they farmed their land.
II.2.1 Migration
In 1680, the Cheyenne came in contact with French explorer Rene-Robert Cavelier de la
Salle in Illinois and because of this encounter, there is historical proof as to know a
general time and place, as where the Cheyenne tribes were at that time. But soon after that,
the Cheyenne decided to cross the Minnesota River and travel west towards North and
South Dakota. It was believed, that they moved, because of the hostile bands of the Sioux
and/or Chippewa pushed them off the territory. The Cheyenne did settle on the Missouri
river and continued living as farmers and villagers. They obtained the use of horses around
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the late 1700s and during this time, they stopped farming, because as their stories said they
“lost the corn” and started hunting buffalo. They also stopped making pottery, because it
was too fragile and it keeps breaking when they traveled. They also stopped building
permanent dwelling and started living in deer skin tipis. When Clark and Lewis made their
expedition up to Missouri in 1805, they found that the Cheyenne was still living in the area
of the Missouri River. In the beginning of the 1800s, the Cheyenne migrated westward
around the Cheyenne River, a branch of the Missouri in the Black Hills and they merged
with another Algonquin tribe, known as the ”Suitas”. Because the Sioux kept pushing the
Cheyenne farther south towards the North Platte River, east of Wyoming and west of
Nebraska and in turn they pushed the Kiowa south. But in 1832, the Cheyenne split into
two branches : one group stayed around the Platte River and become known to the white
man as the Northern Cheyenne and they started becoming allies with their former enemies
the Sioux ; the second group has gone south towards Arkansas River, now being east of
Colorado and west of Kansas. They become known as the ”Southern Cheyenne”. In this
new location, they were at war with the Comanche and the Kiowa. In the end, they made a
loose peace treaty with the two tribes to fight against their common enemies: the Crow,
the Pawnee, the Shoshone and the Ute. During this time, the Northern Cheyenne decided
to become allies with the Northern Apaches, as did the Southern Cheyenne with the
Southern Apaches. The Cheyenne, Apaches, Sioux, Comanche and Kiowa were
considered the most important participants for the Native Americans, so they could keep
their tradition alive.
II.2.2 Way of life
The Cheyenne is part of the Great Plains Indians, their way of life was nomadic; they used
horses for hunting of buffalo and hide of buffalo for tipis. Their social organization was
made in the Council of Forty-four, meaning that there were forty-four chiefs. Each chief
represented the headman of an extended family. The chief responsibility included, where
they would move their camp and to settle disputes that may happen between members of
the tribe. The type of characteristics they use to look in a chief was wisdom, calmness,
kindness, fairness, selfless and generous; he had to have energy and to be brave. The chief
had to put the well-being of the whole tribe above himself, but also the well-being of the
individuals. He had to be willing to sacrifice himself to help others to improve their way of
life. The council also made a decision regarding war parties and if needed, to make
alliances with other tribes . But they did not involve themselves when it came to raiding or
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military strategies, such thing were left to the military society. Most of the chiefs of the
Council of Forty-Four, had been at one time members of the soldier’s society, but when
they became chief, they left their military position. The military societies were made out
of members of different bands that decide to fight together, they would meet to discuss
war campaigns and they would review them and plan new ones. The Cheyenne did not
group their military society by age as some tribe did. This was made up of Dog Soldiers,
Fox, Elk or Hoof Rattle, Shield, Bowstring or Contrary Wolf and Northern Crazy Dogs.
The most important part in the Great Plains war, was played by the Dog Soldiers, also
known as the ”Hotomitanio”. Each tribe had their own rituals, holy items, symbols and
clothing articles. And its society was organized first as family units, then as bands and in
the end as a tribe. These Cheyenne groups had many rules regarding their behavior. A
Cheyenne woman was considered desirable if she behaved properly and keeps their
chastity before marriage. Because of these rules, courting was prolonged and very
complicated; it could take up to four years. A young man would wait for hours every day,
so he could talk to a young woman he wanted to court. He would follow her along the path
she would take from her family’s tipi, to the river, when she went for water or w for
firewood. It was customary for a young man to whistle her, call her out or when she would
pass him, he would tug on her robs to try to get her attention. If the girl was interested, she
would talk to him. Before the young couple could get married, both families had to be
consulted and the man’s family had to bring and offer gift to the woman’s family to prove
their good intentions. When referring to Cheyenne ceremonies, the most important ones
were the ”Arrow Renewal”, ”The New Life Lodge” and the ”Animal Dance”. The legend
regarding the ”Arrow Renewal”, makes reference to an ancestral hero, Sweet Medicine,
made a pilgrimage to the Sacred Mountain near Black Hill, where Maiyun, the Great Spirit
gave this hero four arrows, two meant for hunting and two meant for war. These arrows
were kept in a medicine bundle; these objects symbolized the collective existence of the
tribe. In this bundle there was also kept other tribal object, such as the Sacred Buffalo Hat,
made from the skin of female buffalo. Regarding the”Arrow Renewal”, this ceremony
could be held every year or every several years, depending on the Cheyenne band to renew
the arrows. The ceremony would last for four days and the participants would perform
rituals, to renew the ”Sacred Arrow” and by doing so, they would renew their tribe. ” The
New Life Lodge” or ” The Sun Dance”, is considered a renewal ceremony that is
performed every year to make the world over again. This ceremony was banned in 1910
by the federal government, because of its violent nature. The ceremony lasted up to eight
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days, were a special lodge was built with a sacred pole in the middle of it. Medicine Men
would dance around the pole and they would practice self-torturing, where they would
skewer their flesh, even ripping it. ” The Animal Dance” is also known as the ”Crazy
Dance”, because most of the ceremony was done backwards. It was not as serious as the
”Arrow Renewal” or the ”Sun Dance” and even women could participate in this
ceremony. The ceremony would last for five days, for four of them, they would prepare
everything need it for the ritual, such as painting a wolf skin. On the fifth day the
celebration would begin, when members of the Bowstring Society would act like they hunt
other members and corral them. The warriors would do things backward and clown around
to the delight of the spectators.
II.3 Navajo
The territory that the Navajo occupied was the north part of Arizona and New Mexico and
a smaller part of the south of Utah and Colorado. They were part of the South-west
Cultural Area. It is believed that, they came to the South-west sometime around 1400’s.
Their name “Navajo” or “Navaho” is not Athapascan -which they are part of, is
pronounced “Nah-vu-ho” (the name came from the Spanish). The full name was “Apaches
de Navajo “; but in their language of the Navajo, they called themselves “Dineh” which
meant “the people” and they called their land “Dineto”.
2.3.1 Way of life
When the Navajo first appeared in the South-West, the land was dry and rugged for the
nomadic bands; they were hunter and gatherers. So because of this, they launched raids on
the “Pueblo Indian”, which were formed. They would take food, property, women and
slaves. During most of their history, the Navajo were feared by the Spanish, Mexicans,
other Indians and American inhabitants. Even if the Navajo still continued with raids,
because their contact with the “Pueblo Indians “, they started picking up new customs
(such as farming and weaving). It was probable that they learned how to make pottery and
basket making, also from the Pueblo Indians. From the Spanish, the Navajo acquired
sheep and goats, but they didn’t only use them for meat like the Apaches did. They also
used the livestock for milk and wool. Sheepherding became soon after, a crucial part of the
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Navajo society and their economy. Around the mid to late 1600’s, the Navajo acquired the
sheep, but also horses. The type of dwelling the Navaho lived, were called hogans. The
shape generally was cone-shaped. The framework was made out of logs and poles and
they were covered with bark and earth, but in later years, their homes could have up to
eight side and covered stone or adobe. The doorway always faced east. Regarding religion,
the Navajo like all the Native Americanss, it intertwined with art, because art served a
ceremonial purpose. It was a way to connect with the spiritual creature that the Navajo
believed in the existence of the natural, but also the supernatural. One of the art forms of
the Dineh, was the oral chant. The spoken word is a big part in the keeping their history,
because like most of the Native American, the Navajo didn’t use the written word to
record their legends. They used poetry and songs to recite their myths. Many legendary
beings were a combination of animals and people. An important role in the Native
American mythology, is played by the coyote- an animal known for being cunning and to
be able to survive anywhere. The Holy People for the Dineh, are the Coyote the trickster-
who plays practical jokes on people. Then they had Changing Woman or the Earth
Mother, who was always and gave born to the Navajo. Then, there was the Spider Woman
how was thought them how to weave, the “ Hero Twins” , made the world safe by killing
the monster, but they could also be mean just like the Coyote. Beside myth poetry, song
and music for their oral tradition, the Navajo used an art form known as sand painting.
Even though, they did do permanent paintings on pottery, clothes and tipis, they use sand
paintings for altars in healing ceremonies. It was probably a custom, learned from the
Pueblo Indians. The Navajo used to create these intricate designs that were very colorful
dry paints. The ground sand stone, gypsum and charcoal, was used to create patterns in
clear sand. At the end of the ceremony, the design was destroyed and usually participants
would take some of the powders with them, because they believe that the powder had
magical proprieties. The Navajo are also known for their craftsmanship in weaving. The
Navajo women learned to spin wool from sheep, color the thread and weave them into
blankets and rugs, that would have a bright geometric pattern, or even in some cases,
pictures or animals. Another type of craft the Navajo was known for silver smiting, a trade
pick up from the Mexican around the mid 1800’s.
2.4 Cherokee
The European found when they first arrived in North America, a large expansion of
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territory occupied by the Cherokee. The Cherokee is a large part of the territory in the
South-west. Villages could be found in the Great Smoky Mountains, in the west part of
North Carolina and Blue Ridge of Virginia and West Virginia and also, from the east part
of Tennessee, in the Great Valley. Another part, was they also choose to live in the
Appalachian Mountains to the far south of northern Atlanta. It is believed that they had
more than 60 villages at one time. Cherokee were part of the South-East India and like
most southeastern Indians, they are Iroquoian speakers. Cherokee is pronounced as CHAI-
ru-kee “and it is probably derived from the Chataw name for them -“ Tallageni” -which
means “ people of the land of caves “.
2.4.1 Way of life
Most Cherokee villages were placed along rivers and streams, so they could farm the rich
black soil. Their crops were made out of corn, bean, squash, pumpkin, sunflowers and
tobacco. They also used what the land had to offer like edible roots, crab, apples, berries,
cherries, grapes and different type of nuts. Because they lived close to the river and
streams, they would fish using spear, traps, hooks and line to catch any kind of fish. The
Cherokees like to hunt for large animals such as deer and bear. They hunted with bows
and arrows, but they also hunted small prey such as rabbit, raccoons, turkey and squirrels.
Besides the meat, the products of the hunt, were used in the making of clothing (usually
made of buckskin). Ceremonies took place in seven-sided temples; these temples were
found on the summit of a flat-top mound in the center of the village plaza. Families had
two types of homes, a large summer house was made with clay walls with a pole
framework with bark for a roof. The winter home could double for a sweathouse, was
placed over a pit and had a cone-shape roof of warth and poles. The Cherokee was
crafters. They practice thing as basket work, pottery and carving in wood and gourds. For
the Cherokee, the most important celebration was a healing ritual, the “Green Corn
Ceremony”, that took place every year, when the last corn crop was harvested. Another
important part of the Cherokee life, was the game of lacrosse, played by members of the
same village and also members from other villages. Cherokee villages had two chiefs, the
White Chief or the Most Beloved Man who helped villages regarding farming and also
resolved disputes among individual families and clans. They also helped the Cherokee
shamans in religious ceremonies; the other chief was The Red Chief, his main occupation
was regarding warfare. One such decision was the choosing of the War Woman, a woman
who would ride with the men, when they would go to war ; she did not fight, she just
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cooks for them and offer them advice and help them decide who live or die.
2.4.2 From the first contact with the colonies to the Trail of Tears
Hernando de Sot was Spanish explore between the first European traveler, to come in
contact with the Cherokee; he arrived in the southeast in 1540. As years passed, the
Cherokee occasionally French and English trader started to appeared. The English even
settled permanently in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607, soon after the Carolina colonies
appeared. From 1689 to 1763, the French-Indian wars were happening, mostly because of
the natives generally sided with the British. The Cherokee providing warrior for different
war parties. The Cherokee also supported the British in the American Revolution of 1775-
1783, attacking American settlements. During the colonial period, the Cherokee was
confronted with several epidemics, brought to them by the non-Indians, such as smallpox,
that killed many them in 1738 and 1750. Despite these different mishaps, the Cherokee
remade their lives. They gained from the pilgrims around them, embracing new tactics for
cultivating and business. They got to be reliable partners of the Americans,
notwithstanding the battles under Andrew Jackson in the Creek War of 1813. A Cherokee
boss named Junaluska spared Jackson's life from a tomahawk-swinging Creek warrior at
the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. In 1820, the Cherokee set up between themselves a
republican type of government, similar to the United States. In 1827, they established the
Cherokee Nation under a constitution with an elected chief, a senate, and a place of
delegates. A significant part of the advancement between the Cherokee came about,
because of the work of Sequoyah, otherwise called George Significance. In 1809, he
started taking a shot at a comprised adaptation of the Cherokee dialect, with the goal that
his kin could have a written constitution, official records, books, and daily papers. Over a
12-year period, he conceived a comprised framework that decreased the Cherokee dialect
to 85 characters, representing all the diverse sounds. Sequoyah is the main individual in
history to imagine without any help a whole letter set or a syllable, because the characters
speak to syllable. In 1821, he completed his inconceivable venture. In 1827, tribal pioneers
recorded their constitution. What is more, in 1828, the start of the Cherokee daily paper,
the Cherokee Phoenix, was distributed in their dialect. Regardless of the new Cherokee
lifestyle, the pilgrims needed the Indians' territories. The revelation of gold close
Dahlonega, Georgia, effected government authorities to require the movement of the
Cherokee, alongside other eastern Indians. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson marked the
Indian Removal Act, to move the eastern tribes to a Indian Domain west of the Mississippi
River. Despite of the way that the essential head of the Cherokee, the colossal speaker
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John Ross, energetically contended and won the Cherokee case under the watchful eye of
the Supreme Court of the United States; despite the way that Junaluska, who had spared
Jackson's life, actually begged the president for his kin's territory; regardless of the way
that such awesome Americans as Daniel Webster, Henry Clay, also, Davy Crockett
bolstered the Cherokee claims; still, President Jackson requested the eastern Indians'
expulsion. Thus starting the Trail of Tears. The condition of Georgia started driving the
Cherokee to offer their territories for besides nothing. Cherokee homes and belonging
were pillaged. Whites crushed the printing press of the Cherokee Phoenix since it
distributed articles contradicting Indian expulsion. Fighters started rounding up Cherokee
families and taking them to internment camps in readiness, for the trip westbound. With
little nourishment and unsanitary conditions at these quickly constructed stockades,
numerous Cherokee past on. During this time, some tribal individuals got away to the
mountains of North Carolina, where they effectively hanged out from the troops. The
initially constrained path westbound started in spring 1838 and kept going into the late
spring. On the 800-mile venture, explorers endured in view of the exceptional warmth.
The second mass migration, occurred in the fall and winter of 1838–39, in the midst of the
blustery season; the wagons hindered in the mud, and after that came solidifying
temperatures and snow. On both voyages, numerous passed on from illness and lacking
nourishment furthermore, covers. The fighters drove their detainees on at an unfeeling
pace, not notwithstanding permitting them to cover their dead legitimately. Nor did they
shield Cherokee families from assaults by highwaymen. Amid the time of imprisonment,
besides the two separate trips, around 4,000 Cherokee past on, just about a fourth of their
total number. More Cherokee past on after entry in the Indian Territory, because of
plagues and continuing deficiencies of nourishment. In the middle of the 1830s, other
South-east tribes persevered through comparable encounters, including the Chickasaw,
Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole.
2.5 Mohegan
The Mohegan really was a subgroup of the PEQUOT. At the point when English pioneers
landed in their domain, not long after the Pilgrims arrived at Plymouth Rock in 1620, the
sachem Sassacus headed the Pequot. Their primary town, was on the Thames River in
Connecticut. However, a subordinate chief named Uncas, revolted and drove a gathering
to another town on the Thames closes Long Island Sound. They got to be known by the
name Mohegan, declared mo-HEE-weapon, and gotten from the mainland for "wolf." The
Mohegan had a life way like other Northern Indians in New England and Long Island.
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Timberlands, sea, bayous, streams, and lakes gave their sustenance, their crude materials,
and motivation for their myths and legends. They lived in both domed wigwams and
rectangular houses, normally secured with birch bark. They used to confine birch-bark
kayaks and holes produced using a solitary tree. Because of the comparability of their
tribal names, the Mohegan regularly are mistaken for different Algonquians, the Mahican,
living along the northern Hudson Valley. Although, both people groups may be plunged
from the same removed progenitors, alongside the Pequot, they are unmistakable tribe.
Another purpose of confusion, is that both have been eluded to as "Mohican," a spelling
advanced by the author James Fenimore Cooper in his 1826 novel ” The Last of the
Mohicans”. It appears to be likely that in his works about occasions in upstate New York,
in the middle of the French and Indian wars in the 1700s, Cooper was more likely drawing
on what he knew of the Mohegan because the character Chingachgook, a Algonquian
Chief and closest companion of the legend Natty Bumppo, notice a "Mohican land by the
ocean," which would apply to the Mohegan yet not the Mahican. Beside, Cooper used the
name ”Uncas”, for the child of Chingachgook. In any case, the work is anecdotal and
despite some troublesome times throughout their history, the Mohegan has persevered.
Taking after the annihilation of the Pequot by the settlers in the Pequot War of 1637,
Uncas, who had become a close acquaintance with the pioneers, got to be head of the rest
of the Pequot also as the Mohegan. As partners of the English against the French, Uncas'
group safeguarded their self-governance longer than their neighbors, the Wampanoag and
Naragansett, who was crushed in King Philip's War of 1675–76. Some Niantic settled
between them, after the war. However, British pilgrims in the long run betrayed the
Mohegan as well and appropriated the greater part of their territories. Some tribal
individuals were sold into servitude alongside hostages , from different tribes. The
Mohegan likewise, endured from a progression of smallpox flare-ups in New England,
attacking New England's Algonquians.
2.6 Pueblo Indians
Pueblo, said “PWEH-blo”, signifies “town” or “village” in Spanish. The word has come to
remain for a certain sort of Indian town with a specific kind of design, and additionally for
the Indians themselves who possessed them. Accordingly, the word now and again shows
up without a capital first letter to mean a town or building, then again with a cash-flow to
signify the general population. The name, when utilized for individuals, is a general term.
There were a wide range of Pueblo people groups in the American Southwest, which is
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alluded to as the Southwest Society Area by researchers, some of these Indians lived on
the Colorado Plateau. These were the Hopi and Zuni. The Hopi, were the westernmost
Pueblo people groups, living in what is currently northeastern Arizona. The Zuni lived to
their east, in what is presently western New Mexico. Other Pueblo Indians, lived along or
close to a 130-mile stretch of the Rio Grande, the long waterway coursing through a
significant part of the Southwest, the distance to the Gulf of Mexico. There were four
tribal gatherings, talking diverse dialects: Tewa, Tiwa, Towa (Jemez), and Keres ( the
initial three talked altering dialects of the Kiowa-Tanoan dialect family). The Keres talked
an alternate dialect, called Keresan. Every one of the four gatherings had diverse pueblos,
or towns, regularly arranged on the highest points of plateaus (little levels). The diverse
pueblos had names, which were once in a while, utilized as unmistakable tribal names,
since towns were independent political units with their own particular pioneers and
customs. Pueblo Indians are thought to be relatives of Anasazi and Mogollon people
groups of the early Southwest societies and acquired numerous social attributes from
them, counting engineering, cultivating, ceramics, and basketry.
2.6.1 Way of life
Pueblo-style houses are interesting between Indian residences, because of their flat
building outline. They had as numerous as six distinctive levels. The level top of one level,
served as the floor and the front yard of another. The diverse stories were interconnected
by stepping stools. For a lot of history, the dividers, particularly on the ground level, had
no entryways or windows, making the towns less demanding to protect from assaults. The
Indians went into their rooms through openings in the rooftops. Two unique sorts of
building material were used for the dividers: the Hopi and Zuni used stones, that were
mortared and surfaced with mortar; notwithstanding a few stones, the Rio Grande Indians
used adobe blocks, made from sun-dried earth and straw. All known Pueblo Indians
extended log pillars over the rooftops, covering them with posts, brush, and more mortar.
Here and there, the pillars expected to pass the dividers and were used to hang sustenance
for drying. Pueblo Indians likewise, burrowed pit houses as stylized chambers. The Hopi
name for these underground loads ”kiva”, is a term now connected to all such Pueblo
Indian structures. ”Kivas” regularly were situated at a focal square of the pueblo. Pueblo
Indians developed an assortment of products, including corn of numerous assortments,
squash, beans, sunflowers, cotton, furthermore, tobacco. They additionally kept trained
turkeys. Pueblo seekers likewise sought after wild deer, gazelle, and rabbits. Pueblo men
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wore kilts of cotton besides cowhide shoes. The ladies wore cotton dresses and shoes or
high sandal boots. They additionally used deerskin and rabbit skin for garments. The
women made twisted ceramics and then, they would clean and painted with stunning
design. They additionally made crate, both looped and wicker sorts. Pueblo men cut
wooden veils to wear in detailed services. A hefty portion of these, were with the end goal
of bringing precipitation, fundamental to their cultivating. In the Hopi religion, these
covers and the creatures they were presumed to speak to were called kachinas. The Indians
likewise, cut kachina dolls to educate their youngsters about their religion. The different
people group, had diverse names for comparative unbelievable creatures, however the
term ”kachina”, is presently far reaching.
2.6.2 Contact with the Spanish
The early history of the Pueblo Indians in post contact times, is intertwined with that of the
Spanish, who initially asserted the area and gave it the name New Mexico. A Spanish
wayfarer, named Marcos de Niza, achieved Zuni nationally as ahead of schedule as 1539,
just 18 years after the province of New Spain was established in North America. At that
point, Francisco Vásquez de Coronado investigated the locale in 1540 and Antonio de
Espejo in 1582. These early endeavors did not modify the Pueblo Indian lifestyle. In 1598,
notwithstanding, Juan de Oñate and 129 homesteaders—whole families—touched base to
build up the province of New Mexico. They brought stallions, goats and sheep with them.
In 1610, Oñate established the capital of this province, Santa Fe. The Spanish made the
Indians pay charges in cotton yields, fabric, and work and showed them to develop new
yields, for example, wheat, peppers, and peaches; to tend rushes and to turn and weave
fleece. Catholic missionaries, in addition, attempted to kill Native religions and spread
their own. Amid his first year in New Mexico, Oñate sent word to the different Indians
that they were from this time, forward subjects of the Spanish ruler. At the point when the
Keres Indians of the Acoma Pueblo ascended and slaughtered the warriors who brought
this order, he sent others to rebuff them. The fighters, in the wake of scaling the precarious
bluffs of the plateau and catching the pueblo, slaughtered several people. Oñate sentenced
the survivors in an open trial. He requested his fighters to cut off one foot of the men older
than 25. All the females and also boys older than 12, were made to serve as slaves for a
period of 20 years. Youngsters under 12, were to be set in missions. Oñate's activity
against Acoma's kin made it less demanding for the Spanish to oppress alternate pueblos,
since the Indians now dreaded Spanish backlashes.
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2.6.3 The Rebellion and Later History
The Pueblo Indians at long last rose up again in a rebellion called ” The Pueblo
Rebellion”, otherwise called ” The Great Pueblo Revolt”, in 1680. The uprising was
driven by a Tewa shaman, named Popé. The issue of religion was key to the Pueblo
Rebellion. The peaceful Pueblo individuals had endured the Spanish for quite a long time.
They were willing to do the offering to the Spanish, if permitted to hone their conventional
religion in the kivas. When Spanish authorities reliably rebuffed specialists through
floggings, the Indians waged war. Popé prepared for war, by sending runners to different
towns from his pueblo at San Juan, after word that the defense would soon come. They
conveyed lines of maguey strands, showing a specific number of days until the general
uprising. On the given day, August 11, 1680, warriors from various pueblos, along the Rio
Grande what has more, toward the west, moved against warriors and ministers positioned
in the pueblos and in addition farmers living on distant haciendas, murdering numerous.
The Pueblo Indians really drove the Spanish out of New Mexico. The Spanish put up a
battle at Santa Fe, waiting for a considerable length of time against Popé's men, by ending
metal gun from behind the royal residence dividers. However, when the Indians became
burnt out on the attack and pulled back to their pueblos, the Spanish traveled south to El
Paso. The Pueblo Indians had recovered control of their country. They now were allowed
to hone their conventional society and religion. Lamentably, Popé's freshly discovered the
power ruined him and he turned into a demanding pioneer himself, notwithstanding
allowing his kin to use Spanish devices abandoned. Spanish troops walked north out of El
Paso in 1689 and recovered Santa Fe, in 1692. By 1694, they had re-conquered the more
remote pueblos. The Pueblo Indians got to be wards of the Spanish state. The Spanish
treated the Indians less cruelly, notwithstanding, permitting them to rehearse their
customary religions to a more noteworthy degree. An enduring social attribute, became
out of the Pueblo Disobedience and came to impact Indians far and wide. It was among the
rebellion that the Indians initially obtained their own stallions, abandoned by the escaping
Spanish. The Pueblo Indians exchanged these with northern tribes on the other hand lost
them in assaults. The more northern Indians, such as the Ute, exchanged the stallions to
different Plains Indians. By the mid-1700s, stallions had spread to numerous tribes what is
more; a radical better approach forever was developing on the Great Fields. The Pueblo
Indians stayed under Spanish guideline until 1821, the year of Mexican freedom. In 1848,
after the U.S.- Mexican War of 1845–48 and the Mexican cession of the region to the
United States as characterized by the Bargain of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Pueblo Indians went
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under the power of the U.S. government. Pueblo Indians stayed quiet through this period.
The one special case happened amid the U.S.- Mexican War, when the Tiwa of the Taos
Pueblo, furious because American troops stole their crops and animals and even seized
their women, propelled an arrangement of strikes against pioneers. U.S. strengths reacted
with a substantial cannon assault on the pueblo. The thick adobe dividers repulsed the
shells, notwithstanding. Yet, the staggering capability of the troopers in the long run
directed the Indians. Not every single memorable pueblo made due to cutting edge times.
Assaults by striking tribes, for example, the Apache, Navajo, what is more, Comache,
incurred significant injury as did ailments conveyed by Europeans and Euro-Americans.
2.7 SIOUX (DAKOTA, LAKOTA, NAKOTA)
Horse-mounted Indians, that wore long hawk feathered war headpieces and bordered
calfskin dress with brilliant beadwork and rode over the meadows of the Great Plains.
They chase bison, battled the mounted force, sat in committee inside painted tipis, wearing
wild ox robes and smoking since quite a while ago stemmed peace channels. These
pictures of Indians, have been appearing to us over and over, in books, motion pictures
and network shows on the West. These pictures, almost certainly, define the Sioux, all the
more legitimately alluded to by the Native name Dakota, Lakota, or Nakota. Two of the
most popular episodes in Indian and American history—Custer's Last Stand (additionally
called the Battle of Little Bighorn) and Wounded Knee—included the Sioux. The various
Sioux battled numerous different fights the U.S. armed forces on the northern fields. The
absolute most celebrated Indian warriors ever, for example, Red Cloud, Sitting Bull, and
Crazy Horse, were Sioux. What is more, one of the most celebrated episodes in later
Indian history happened on a Sioux reservation, again at Wounded Knee.
2.7.1 Sioux Branches
The Sioux were truly comprised of various groups with differing histories and traditions.
When regarding the Sioux, the first difficulty is learning the different names and areas of
the diverse groups. Siouan was an across the board Indian dialect family. Tribes in many
parts of North America, spoke a Siouan dialect. The tribal name Sioux, supposed Sue, is
connected just to a particular division of Siouan-talking individuals, The name is gotten
from the French form of a Chippewa (Ojibway) word in the Algonquian dialect. The
Chippewa tribe called their foes ”Nadouessioux”, for "adders", a sort of snake. The Sioux
additionally are known as ”The Dakota” (da-KO-tah), particularly in Canada, from which
has come the names of two U.S. states, North and South Dakota. In the Siouan dialect,
27
”Dakota” (or Lakota or Nakota) signifies "partners".
There were four familial branches of the Sioux, with various groups in each :
 The biggest branch was the ”Teton” (on the other hand Titonwan), with the
accompanying groups: (1) Oglala; (2) Brulé (Sicangu); (3) Hunkpapa;
(4)Miniconjou; (5) Oohenonpa (Two Kettle); (6) Itazipco (Sans Arcs) and (7)
Sihasapa ;
 A second branch was the”Santee”, with the accompanying groups: (1) Sisseton; (2)
Wahpeton: (3) Wahpekute; and (4) Mdewakanton. (The term ”Santee” used truly
to more precisely apply to only the Wahpekute and Mdewakanton bunches, not
Sisseton and Wahpeton to every one of these fours are viewed as unmistakable
lingo bunches.) ;
 A third branch was the ”Yankton” (or Ihanktonwan), with just a single band, the
Yankton ;
 A fourth branch was the ”Yanktonai” (or Ihanktonwanna), with the accompanying
groups: (1) Yanktonai; (2) Hunkpatina; and (3) Assiniboine.
The Assiniboine isolated from their relatives and are talking about under there possess
section. The Teton used the Lakota adaptation of the tribal name; the Santee said
Dakota; and the Yankton and Yanktonai used Nakota. The Teton, Yankton, Yanktonai,
and four Santee hordes additionally called themselves the Oceti Sakowin, or "Seven
Council Fixes".
The Sioux initially lived as Woodland Indians, along the upper Mississippi River. It is
known from early records of Jesuit voyagers of the 1600s, that the Sioux once
overwhelmed region, that now contains the southern 66% of Minnesota and
additionally adjacent parts of Wisconsin, Iowa, North Dakota and South Dakota. By
the mid-1700s, some Sioux was relocating westbound, toward and over the Missouri
River. The reason: their customary foes, the Chippewa, were currently equipped with
French weapons, making fighting with them significantly more perilous. In addition,
with the European interest for hides, diversion in the Sioux's prairie nation, was getting
to be distinctly scarcer. The Teton Lakota moved the most distant west to the Dark
Hills district, of what is western South Dakota, eastern Wyoming, and eastern
Montana. Some of the time additionally groups, are known as the Western Sioux. The
Yankton Nakota settled along the Missouri River in what is southeastern South
28
Dakota, and also in southwestern Minnesota and northwestern Iowa. The Yanktonai
Nakota, settled to their north along the Missouri in what is presently, eastern North and
South Dakota. The Yankton what is more, Yanktonai are once in a while eluded
together as the Center Sioux. The Santee Dakota remained along the Minnesota
Waterway in what is presently Minnesota. They in these manners are alluded to as the
Eastern Sioux.
2.7.2 Way of life
”The Sioux”, is considered Plains Indians, part of the Great Plains Culture Area. But since
they are in distinctive areas, the lifeway’s of the four branches are differed. The Teton
gained stallions, took after the incredible bison crowds and lived in tipis. The lifestyle of
the Yankton and Yanktonai, got to be like that of other Missouri River tribes, for example,
the Mandan also, HIDATSA, other Siouan-talking people groups. The Yankton and
Yanktonai, started using steeds in the 1700s, and furthermore chased wild ox likes the
Teton, however they lived usually in perpetual towns of earth cabins. They moreover kept
on developing products. Subsequently, the Yankton and Yanktonai can likewise be
depicted as Prairie Indians. The Santee held huge numbers of the social attributes of the
western Great Lakes Indians. Their way of life was something like that of the Winnebago
(Ho-Chunk), other Siouan-talking individuals. They lived in lush waterway valleys and
made bark-shrouded houses. They chased wild ox in the tall prairie nation of the
Mississippi Waterway. They, in the long run, started to used stallion; however, they dind’t
keep the same number of mounts as their all the more westerly relatives did. The Santee
can be considered as a cross amongst Woodland and Prairie people groups. It ought to be
recollected, that the average lifestyle of the Great Plains, did not develop until long after
contact with non-Indians, when Native Americans got the steed. Albeit most tribes on the
fields, got to be equestrian migrants who lived in tipis year-round, not all the tribes
surrendered their towns, their cultivating, and their earthenware later having got steeds. As
demonstrated, of the branches of the Sioux, the Teton is the nearest to the Native
Americans, so predominant in the well-known creative ability. Teton life ways—tipis, war
head pieces, bison robes, solution groups, holy shields, horsemanship, horse equip,
military social orders, wild ox chasing, communication through signing, upset checking,
Sun Dances, and Vision Missions—are condensed under the section Plains Indians.
1. Myths and Legends
29
The historical backdrop of America does not start in 1492. There were at that point a large
number of individuals living in the Americas, when Christopher Columbus and his men,
reached shore ward in the Bahamas. Columbus thought he had experienced the East
Indies, so named the locals 'Indios', Indians. Columbus was soon advised of his misstep in
geology, however, his name for the aboriginals of the Americas stuck. To themselves, the
occupants of the landmass, were generally 'The People'. Aside from the mistake in
classification, the European pilgrims, likewise mixed up the racial roots of the 'Red Men'.
Usually, the local individuals ,were viewed as being lost Phoenicians, transient Hittites, or
the lost Ten Tribes of Israel. Most arbitrary of all, were the early voyagers, who found a
blood link among the American Indian and the Welsh, with the previous evidently the
diverse posterity of the Welsh sovereign Madoc, child of Owen Gwyneth, who colonized
the Golf of Mexico in 1170. It is anything but difficult, to deride ethnographically
clarifications of prior hundreds of years , however , present day Western science is
shockingly unclear and partitioned about the main settlement of the area that would get to
be known as America. Maybe the principal people set foot there 30,000 years prior,
however then it may have been as late as 12,000 years prior. As far back in the fog of time
as 60,000 years prior. What ethnologists do to a great extent concedes to, is that the first
settlement strolled there from Siberia, by the area span has known as Bering, despite the
fact that "scaffold", is a misnomer for a tundra landmass five hundred miles wide. What is
more, that these pioneers – who were likely roused by a strive after big game, for example,
the mastodon and Goliath bison .
Later arriving in present day Alaska, the first Americans spread-out out down the
Continent, by stream valleys, as the Ice Age unwilling thawed; the occupying of the New
World, was a long procedure, with entry habitually obstructed by the Laurentide ice sheet,
which secured five million square miles of Canada and the USA, some of the time
achieving 700 feet thick. As per a few anthropologists, it might have taken man 25,000
years to spread from Alaska to Cape Horn. At that point, glacial melt-water had brought
on the oceans to rise, submerging Berengia and removing the New World from the Old.
However, just before the waters lapped over Berengia, there were two late influxes of
relocation, those of the Na-Dene also, Eskimo-Aleuts, around 9,000 BC. Something else
that present day Western scientific minds generally concedes to: the principal people in
America were Paleolithic, their way of life portrayed by the utilization of rough stone
equipment. A second phase of advancement, Upper Lithic or Paleo-American, starting
around 20,000 BC, saw American aboriginals style stone blades and focuses for lances
30
which were slight, level and fluted; the lances themselves were propelled from a wooden
lance hurler. At that point, around 10,000 years prior, either due to a movement in the
Earth's pivot or as a result of over-chasing, the monster Pleistocene herbivores that had
tempted people to the Americas vanished, driving these supposed Clovis People ,named
after the archaeological site Clovis, New Mexico, to swing to the chasing of little
diversion, and notwithstanding cultivating. Processing stones and manos started to show
up. In this 'Obsolete Stage' the Native Peoples turned out to be tremendously productive in
adjusting to the situations in which they found themselves, whether it was the salmon-rich
waters of the Pacific Northwest drift ,the Tlingit, the wild rice bearing Great Lakes ,the
Menominee or the unforgiving deserts of Arizona with their life-sparing Mesquite trees
,the Pima. As the tribes manufactured associations with their territory, so they changed, to
fit as society, religion, and tongue. From the single voice of the first pilgrims, there came
Babel of dialects: Algonquian, Siouan, Iroquoian, Athapascan, Piman, Shoshonean,
Shahaptian, Caddoan, Salishan among several others. The language specialist Morris
Swadesh, evaluated that when Columbus reached the shores in 1492, the occupants were
talking 2,200 dialects. In spite of the fact that the white latecomers like to discuss 'the
Indian' when they entered the New World, on the other hand a million or original
occupants living north of Mexico, had for quite a while ago veered into unmistakable
countries around 500 of them. Similarly, as the French and English both occupied Europe,
however were totally dissimilar to each other, so were the countries of North America.
This differing quality of nationality guaranteed that while a few tribes, would oppose the
European colonialist, others put their support behind the newcomers, either to amplify
their control over their neighbors the Mohegan, or to protect themselves, from hegemonic
local people (as did the Crows, who had an indistinguishable neck of the Plains from the
expansionist Sioux).
“Most tribes had shamans, individuals who mixed priesthood with medicine, who were believed to
be able to establish direct contact with the spirit world, as well as ward off evil spirits, ensure good
hunting, help the crops grow, bring success in battle. But these good things could only happen if
the world and its animals were accorded respect, as well as accessed and honoured with ritual.
Animals had the power of reason – and they reasoned that they would only give their life to those
who honoured them. The Montagnais above the St Lawrence River, to the incredulity of the Jesuit
priests who encountered them in the 1630s, would not allow dogs to eat the bones of animals the
Montagnais had trapped. Souls of the beaver, patiently explained the Montagnais to the black-clad
priests, visited the home of prospective hunters to see how the bones of dead beaver kin were
treated.”9
The Dakota Sioux some time ago secured the bones of elk and beaver later eating the
9
Lewis Spencer, A Brief Guide to Native Americans Myths and Legends, Constable and Robisob Ltd,
London ,p. 12
31
tissue. The Powhatans made offerings of tobacco for their fish traps. Though all this
considered bound to the Earth, the Amerindian was especially bound to one corner of it.
Typical to Amerindian religion was the conviction that each nation was made for its own
specific zone, and it was exceptional to them. In the outflows of Geronimo, the celebrated
the world over Apache war chief: “For each tribe of men Usen [God] created he also made
a home. In the land for any particular tribe He placed whatever would be best for the
welfare of that tribe, the Apaches and their home [were] each created for the other by Usen
himself.”10
What's more, in the expressions of Luther Standing Bear, who got to be head of the Oglala
Sioux in 1905 :”The American Indian is of the soil, whether it be the region of forests,
plains, pueblos, or mesas. He fits into the landscape, for the hand that fashioned the
continent also fashioned the man for his surroundings. He once grew as naturally as the
wild flowers;he belongs just as the buffalo belonged.”11
Pretty much as the Native Americans had no basic religion, they had no general
mythology. The large number of tribes, each built up their own particular stories about the
formation of the earth, the happening to the first individuals and the lives and doings of
divinities and legends. Before investigating the mythology of North America, it is valuable
to consider the topography and atmosphere of the landmass in light of the fact that, as
Geronimo and Luther Standing Bear so relevantly clarified the join between the Native
American (and his and her mythology) and the earth is total. In managing the limitless
mythology of North America, contemporary anthropologists, for accommodation, sort out
myths by topography to create nine or so primary society zones. These are:
1) The Arctic and major myth are trickster, sea goddess, shamans ;
2) The Subarctic and major myth are trickster, Earth Diver, transformer ;
3) The Northwest Coast and it major myths are transformer, trickster, stories based on
lineage, heroic myths, bear myths ;
4) California and it major myths are Origin myths, animal myths, tricksters and
transformers ;
5) Southwest and it major myths are Emergence myths, migration myth, trickster ;
6) The Great Basin and it major myths are Trickster, hero and heroine, transformer,
10
London ,p 13
11
London ,p 13
32
dying gods ;
7) The Plains and it major myths are Culture hero, trickster, stories and legends
featuring buffalo ;
8) South-east and it major myths are Culture hero, emergence myths, trickster and
tales featuring councils of animals ;
9) North-east and it major myths are Trickster stories, culture hero. The most myths
that almost all the region have in common were the trickster, transformation,
culture hero, animal and origin/migration myths ;
3.1 Trickster
“TRICKSTER A type of character known for trickery, deceit, and mischief-making. Almost every
North American tribe has tales of tricksters. Tricksters can be male or female, human or animal.
They are often shape-sifters with the power to transform themselves into other creatures.
Sometimes they have other supernatural powers, such as the ability to regrow body parts. Trickster
tales frequently involve layers of tricks, with the trickster himself often becoming the victim of a
trick (sometimes his own).The most common trickster figure is COYOTE,who appears in tales
from the Southwest, Great Plains, Great Basin (almost all of Utah and Nevada;parts of Colorado,
Wyoming, Idaho, Oregon, and California; small parts of Arizona, New Mexico, and Montana),
Plateau (parts of Washington, Oregon,Idaho, Montana, northern California, and British Columbia),
and California.”12
The trickster is a typical character all through Native American mythology, however a
large part has a more noteworthy place in the legends of seeker, gatherer people groups
than of sedentary agricultural groups, generally in light of the fact that individuals who
lived on wild things were all the more appalling mindful of the ideas of nature. The
trickster, who is constantly male, is the portrayal of instability. Once in a while, the
trickster demonstrations are basically reasonable jokes, however he can be a savage
destroyer. Constantly, his activities come from a wild craving, oftentimes sexual, regularly
transgression, for example, when he shape shifts to wed his own girls. The trickster shows
up in different pretenses in Amerindian mythologies, now and then as a creature, in some
cases as a human. To paint with an expensive brush, the trickster shows up as Coyote all
over the place, however regularly west of the Mississippi, as Raven and Blue Jay in the
Northwest, as Nanabush the Great Hare (and variations such as Manabozho and Winabojo)
in the Northeast, as Rabbit in the Southeast and Southwest, as Spider and Hare among the
Sioux, and Na'pi in the Great Basin.”Frequently the trickster is a transformer. Coyote, Old
Man, and Raven are all transformers as well as tricksters.”13
Another common character that is depicted as tricksters, is the Blue Jay. Blue Jay is a
Patrician Ann Lynch, Native American Mythology A to Z, Fact on File New York,NY, 2004, p106
12
Lewis Spencer, A Brief Guide to Native Americans Myths and Legends, Constable and Robisob Ltd, London,
13
p 67
33
turbulent egotist, conniver, and underhandedness maker. He is the very mischief beings
and perpetually, in a bad position himself on the off chance, that he is not fabricating it for
others. He has the state of a jay-fledgling, which was given him by the Supernatural
People, since he lost to them in a bows and arrows challenge. They put a mark upon him,
telling to him the note he utilized as a flying creature would pick up an unenviable
reputation, as a terrible sign. Blue Jay has a older sibling, the Robin, who is persistently
scolding him for his evil wayi. The tale of the many traps and tricks played by Blue Jay,
not just on the tolerant individuals from his tribe additionally upon the inhabitants of the
extraordinary world, must have managed extraordinary delight, around numerous an
Indian open air fire. Indeed, even the famous gravity of the Red Man could barely hold out
against the humorous enterprises of this American Owl-glass.
The Rabbit obtained notoriety outside the Native Americans ,he is an ancestor to the Brer
Rabbit and can be clearly observed as such in the tale “Fox and Rabbit”, a tale that belong
to the Jicarilla Apache : “Fox one day met a Rabbit who was sewing a sack. ‘What do you
intend to do with that sack?’ asked he. ‘I am making this coat to protect myself from being
killed by the hard hail which we are going to have today,’ replied Rabbit. ‘My friend, you
know how to make them; give me this coat and make another for yourself.’ Rabbit agreed
to this, and Fox put the sack over his head. Rabbit then hung him on a [tree] limb and
pelted him with stones, while Fox, thinking it was hail striking him, endured the
punishment as long as he could, but finally fell nearly dead from the tree, and looked out,
to see no signs of hail, but discovered Rabbit had run away. Fox wished to avenge himself
by killing Rabbit, and set off in pursuit of him. When overtaken Rabbit was chewing soft
gum with which to make spectacles. Fox’s curiosity was stronger than his passion for
revenge. ‘What are you making those for?’ said he. ‘It is going to be very hot, and I am
making them to protect my eyes,’ answered Rabbit. ‘Let me have this pair, you know how
to make them and can make yourself another pair.’ ‘Very well,’ said Rabbit, and he put the
eye-shields on Fox, who could then see nothing, as the gum was soft and filled his eyes.
Rabbit set fire to the brush all around Fox, who was badly singed in running through it.
The gum melted in the fire, and yet remained as dark rings around his eyes. Fox again
started on the trail of Rabbit, with the determination of eating him as soon as he saw him.
He found Rabbit sitting beside the opening of a beehive. ‘I am going to eat you,’ said Fox;
‘you have tried to kill me.’ ‘You must not kill me,’ replied Rabbit. ‘I am teaching these
children,’ and he closed the opening of the hive, so that Fox could not see inside. Fox
desired very much to see what was in the hive making such a noise. ‘If you wish to see,
34
stay here and teach them while I rest. When it is dinner time strike them with a club,’ said
Rabbit, who then ran away. Fox patiently awaited the dinner hour, and then struck the
hive with such force that he broke into it. The bees poured out and stung him until he
rolled in agony. ‘When I see you again, I will kill you before you can say a word!’ declared
he, as he started after Rabbit again. Fox tracked the Rabbit to a small hole in the fence
around a field of watermelons belonging to a Mexican. The Rabbit had entered to steal,
and was angered by the gum figure of a man which the owner of the field had placed
beside the path. ‘What do you desire from me?’ he cried, as he struck at the figure with his
forefoot, which stuck fast in the soft gum. He struck at the gum with every foot, and even
his head was soon stuck in the gum. Thus Fox found him. ‘What are you doing here?’ he
asked. ‘They put me here because I would not eat chicken for them,’ said Rabbit. ‘I will
take your place,’ said Fox, ‘I know how to eat chicken.’ The Mexican found him in the
morning and skinned him, and then let him go – still on the trail of the Rabbit who had so
frequently outwitted him. (‘Myths of the Jicarilla Apache,’ Frank Russell, The Journal of
American Folklore, Vol. XI, No. XLIII, 1898)”14
Another trickster is the Raccoon. In many tales the clever Raccoon seem as a trickster.
Abenaki stories portray him as trying to outwit other creatures in order to get food. In a
tale explains the raccoon’s distinctive mask, the Raccoon ate all of his grandmother’s
stored acorns, so she struck him with a fire poker, leaving the markings onto his face.
3.2 Cultural hero

CULTURE HEROES” Virtually every Native American tribe, pueblo, or cultural group has culture
heroes or heroines, characters who are responsible for a variety of significant acts: creating
humans;
bringing CORN, FIRE, or LIGHT; teaching skills; transforming the landscape; and slaying
MONSTERS to make the world safe for humans. Common aspects of culture heroes include a
birth shrouded in mystery (sometimes with a nonhuman parent, frequently the SUN), rapid growth
from birth to adulthood, and supernatural powers. Some culture heroes are AMCHITAPUKA
(Yavapai), BREATH MAKER(Seminole),GLUSKAP(Algonquian),ICTINIKE
(Iowa,Omaha),MANABOZHO (Algonquian, Anishinabe), OKABEWIS (Anishinabe), and
WISKE (Potawatomi). Culture heroes are frequently WARRIOR TWINS,often sons of the Sun.
Twin culture heroes include AMATSILEMA (Zuni), IOSKEHA AND TAWISCARA (Iroquois),
KILLER-OF-ENEMIES and CHILD-OF-THE-WATER (Apache), MASEWA AND UYUYEWA
(Keres), and MONSTER SLAYER AND BORN FOR WATER (Navajo [Dineh]). 15
Women were also figured as Cultural Hero, they were normally connected with richness,
origination, birth, and the planning of nourishment. White Buffalo Calf Woman gave the
Lakota the Sacred Pipe ,the Buffalo and showed them how to venerate, wed and what is
14
London ,p 67
15
Patrician Ann Lynch, Native American Mythology A to Z Fact on File,New York,NY,2004, p 46
35
more cook. Other female culture hero, are Changing Lady (Navajo [Dineh]) and White
Painted Lady (Apache). Not all culture saints are human. Creatures and Flying creatures
much of the time fill this part too. Coyote is credited with the birthplace of a few tribes,
the arrival of diversion, the robbery of light, the starting point of winter, and the
irreconcilability of death. Fire was given to the Nez Perce by BEAVER, to the Jicarilla
Apache by Fox, to the Anishinabe by Muskrat, and to the Ute by Wolf. For some
Northwest Drift tribes, Bear(Suku) was a culture saint who made fish, named streams,
instructed abilities to people, and slew beasts. Mink, likewise a creature slayer, made
mountains, lakes, and streams and stole the Sun. For different tribes in the Northwest and
the Arctic, Raven conveyed light to the dull world, showed creatures, made what's more,
changed parts of the world, and named plants. Incredible Hare—Michabo—was a culture
saint of Algonquian-talking tribes.
The Buffalo Woman is Pawnee stories, an unbelievable figure connected with the
diffusing of the Buffalo groups. One of the two spouses of a seeker named Without-Wings,
Buffalo Woman fled with her child, who was a calf, what's more, looked for shelter with a
group of bison. Without-Wings appeared as a hawk and tailed her. He changed once more
into a human and played with his child, yet his significant other declined to come back to
him. At the point when Without-Wings persevered in his endeavors to recover his
significant other, the bison chief attempted to slaughter him by catching him inside a hot
sweat lodge. Without-Wings got away by transforming himself, into a badger what's more,
a jaybird and afterward executed the wild ox boss. The wild ox separated into numerous
groups and scattered, what's more, Without-Wings came back to his kin. The Lakota
Buffalo Woman instructed the Lakota the Buffalo Bull Ceremony (Ta Tanka Lowanpi), a
adolescence ceremony for young ladies that was held to sanitize them at their first monthly
cycle. The service started at the point when Anog Ite (Double-faced woman) attempted to
bait one of Buffalo Woman's little girls to the home of Iktomi, the Trickster, and a
mammoth named Iya. Buffalo Woman impeded Anog Ite's arrangement with the assistance
of the Sun (Wi) and the South Wind (Okaga). At the point when Buffalo Woman saw Anog
Ite sneaking around a camp of Lakota, she interceded and instructed the general
population the Buffalo Bull Ceremony so that the Lakota could purify and care for their
daughters.
Another type of cultural hero is Glooskap, which mean “The Liar”. He is one of the most
interesting figures in the Algonquin Indians pantheon.Glooskap can be considered a
cultural hero for the following reason: he has a twin , which is a common thing in the
cultural hero myth,his twin being Malsum, the Wolf but also this type of hero is know to
bring “gifts to the people” and that can be seen in the story Glooskap’s gifts:” Four Indians
36
who won to Glooskap’s abode found it a place of magical delights, a land fairer than the mind
could conceive. Asked by the god what had brought them thither, one replied that his heart was
evil and that anger had made him its slave, but that he wished to be meek and pious. The second, a
poor man, desired to be rich, and the third, who was of low estate and despised by the folk of his
tribe, wished to be universally honored and respected. The fourth was a vain man, conscious of his
good looks, whose appearance was eloquent of conceit. Although he was tall, he had stuffed fur
into his moccasins to make him appear still taller, and his wish was that he might become bigger
than any man of his tribe and that he might live for ages. Glooskap drew four small boxes from his
medicine-bag and gave one to each, desiring that they should not open them until they reached
home. When the first three arrived at their respective lodges each opened his box, and found
therein an unguent of great fragrance and richness, with which he rubbed himself. The wicked man
became meek and patient, the poor man speedily grew wealthy, and the despised man became
stately and respected but the conceited man had stopped on his way homei n a clearing in the
woods, and, taking out his box, had anointed himself with the ointment it contained. His wish also
was granted, but not exactly in the manner he expected, for he was changed into a pine-tree, the
first of the species, and the tallest tree of the forest at that.” 16
3.3 Animal
“Animals were vital to the survival of Native Americans. They were a source not only of food, but
also of clothing, tools, utensils, musical instruments, and lodge coverings. In addition to turning
furs and hides into clothing, footwear, robes, and shields, Native Americans used sinew for thread;
crafted bones into knives, awls, and other tools; used rawhide for bindings and to make drums and
drumsticks; and turned hooves into rattles. Because of their importance, animals are a major
presence in the folklore of every Native American cultural group. Numerous tales describe their
origin and tales across the continent explain how animals acquired specific characteristics, such as
the Raccoon's face mask or the Bear's short tail. In myths, animals act as messengers, guardians,
advisers, and servants of humanity. They are essentially human—thinking,speaking, and acting as
humans do—but also have abilities specific to their animal form. Animals are featured in many
CREATION ACCOUNTS, sometimes as the CREATOR of the universe and the human race
sometimes as deities helping to regulate conditions” 17.
Native American traditions show the view that all the Creator's works—people, creatures,
feathered creatures,creepy crawlies, plants—are equivalent and share the Earth as
accomplices. A show of regard for the soul of a creature going to be chased, has portrayed
all Local American societies: unless they were respected, creatures would not agree to
their passing. In a number of myths, creatures or effective creatures, for example,
Manitous, Holy People, or spirits in charge of diversion taught seekers about the customs
essential for an effective chase. A few stories say, that before people came into the world,
creature spirits led over the Earth and the creatures could talk. At the point when creatures
turned the Earth over to individuals, they lost their capacity to talk. Numerous individuals,
in any case, could comprehend creature dialects what's more, speak with creatures.
Creatures were too accepted to have extraordinary forces and information, that they could
16
London,pp70-71
17
Patrician Ann Lynch, Native American Mythology A to Z,Fact on File,New York,NY,2004 p 19
37
impart to picked individuals. Through fasting and different means, a human may have a
vision of his or her creature defender or soul manage. Marriage among creatures and
people, is a typical subject in Native American old stories. Societies over the mainland
have stories about bear life partners, the Buffalo is a typical figure in stories from the
Southwest and Plains and numerous stories spin around a Dog Husband. Now and then,
the creature life partner changed itself into human shape for a time frame. A canine spouse
for instance, may be a Dog by day and a human during the evening. Most stories of
creature human relational unions end miserably, with one of the combine—creature or
human—getting to be distinctly aching to go home for his or her own reality and
individuals before running off. Numerous stories include smart creatures that play the part
of an aide, a Trickster, or a blend of the two. In different stories, creatures—as Culture
Hero—conveyed Light and Fire to people, appeared them how to survive, and showed
them critical abilities, for example, weaving. Among the creatures that brought light or fire
are Beaver, Fox, Mink, and Muskrat. Coyote is maybe the most much of the time seeming
creature character in myths. Over the western piece of North America, the coyote is
generally regarded for its astuteness and capacity to survive in a wide assortment of
conditions. Among alternate creatures that assumed parts in different societies are the
Badger, Deer, Elk, Frog, Horse, Mountain Lion, Opossum, Otter, Porcupine, Rabbit,
Sable, Snake Turtle, Whale, Wolf, what's more, Wolverine.
Among Native American tribes, whose main sustenance was the deer, these amusement
creators assume an unmistakable part in old stories and function. In numerous stories, deer
are female and show up as the spouse, mother, or sister of another creature character. In a
few stories, Deer Woman wedded a human however, left with their child when her
husband insulted her by insulting the way she ate. A Nootka story credits Deer with the
burglary of Fire from Woodpecker, the just being that had it. A deer helped Old Man
Coyote take summer and convey it to the Crow people.
In spite of the fact that the modern horse developed in North America around 1 million
years back and spread over land spans into South America, Asia, Europe, also, Africa, by
8,000 years back, it had turned out to be wiped out in the Americas. Stallions were not
reintroduced into the Americas by the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the sixteenth
century, when Hernán Cortés arrived in Mexico in 1519 with 16 stallions. The Spanish
pioneer Francisco Vásquez de Coronado brought stallions onto the Plains in 1541,
however over 100 years passed before Native Americans procured them in any numbers.
Since there was no word for steed and the Fields tribes had already utilized Dogs as
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mammoths of load, the steed was alluded to differently as Elk Dog, Soul Dog, Mystery
Dog, Medicine Dog, Sacred Dog, also, Moose Dog. The steed changed the lifestyle of the
Plains Indians, who got to be distinctly celebrated their horsemanship. It empowered
seekers to look for after the wild ox more remote what's more, quicker than at any other
time and its quality as a brute of weight, permitted to roam individuals to travel more
prominent separations and convey more products with them. A Blackfeet legend tells how
a poor, stranded child, named Long Arrow conveyed the steed to the individuals. Long
Arrow was embraced by a central who told him about effective soul individuals, who
inhabited the base of a lake and had puzzled creatures, called Elk Canines to do their work
for them. Each fourth era, a youthful warrior went to discover the soul individuals also,
bring back an Elk Dog for the tribe,however none had ever returned. Long Arrow
embraced the mission. A spirit child becomes friends with Long Arrow and let him know
the mystery of acquiring an endowment of Elk-Dogs from the soul boss. Long Arrow
effectively came back to his tribe with a crowd of stallions.
Dogs were trained by Native Americans around 4,000 years prior. Prior to the Plains
tribes obtained Horses; they utilized puppies as pack creatures. A pack saddle set over a
canine's shoulder was joined to a device that was later called a travois by French wayfarers
— comprising of two joined posts that dragged along the ground. A dog could pull a
travois stacked with as much as 75 pounds of products. To the Lakota, the canine was the
soul of dependability and companionship. Dogs play a part in numerous myths. The most
widely recognized subject, are the marriage between a woman and a dog- Dog Husband.
In Cherokee mythology, the Milky Way was created by a dog, when he stole cornmeal and
left a trail of it . Marriage between a woman and a Dog, is a typical topic in Native
American mythology. In myths, states of mind of human and creature partners of the
couple toward such relational unions differ, extending with grudging acknowledgment and
dismissal. Every now and again with these stories, the spouse's tribe desert her. Another
topic, is the ability of the Dog to change himself into a human by night, so the human
woman is unaware that he is a dog. The nature and destiny of the youngsters that outcome
from marriage between a human lady and a dog, are not the same as story to story. In an
Inuit story, five of the couple's 10 children were puppies, and five were human children
who turned into the Adlet—blood-drinking Beasts. The mother sets the five puppies untied
in a watercraft and they turned into the precursors of white individuals. As indicated by a
Chippewa legend, the Dogrib individuals (neighbors of the Chippewa) were relatives of
Copper Woman (the first woman) and a canine. In a Cheyenne story, the dog father of
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puppies destined to a human lady took them to the sky, where they turned into the
PLEIADES, a well-known star .
All through North America, wherever bears live, they have been respected as effective
figures related with mending. Since bears rest in winter, they are images of restoration and
regular change. The Plains tribes declined to eat endure meat, on the grounds that they
viewed bears as their progenitors. Bears were key to the fundamental ceremonies of
numerous tribes and were celebrated at the start of youthful individuals—both young men
and young ladies—into adulthood, shamanistic, healing rituals and hunting practices.
”Bear Dances” were held by numerous tribes for an assortment of purposes—to mend the
wiped out and those harmed in fight, to get ready for war, to welcome and respect bears
when they rose up out of hibernation in the spring, what's more, to shield individuals from
assaults by bears. A bear Kachina (which the Zuni call Aincekoko), participates in the Zuni
Mixed Dance, held each spring (see too Move). For the Zuni, Bear is the Beast God that
symbolizes the west.
As indicated by Yavapai custom, Bear was the first great Shaman. Tribes of the western
subarctic moreover depicted the bear as a creature shaman. Among numerous tribes,
shamans with bear power were accepted to be the best healers of all. Shamans with bear
soul, aides wore bearskin robes and pieces of jewelry of bear paws; kept bear paws, teeth,
and other body parts in their Medicinal Bundles; and painted bear signs on their
countenances and bodies. For the Cherokee, bears were Cherokee of an antiquated faction
who had been changed. Agreeing to convention, a young man of the Ani'- Tsa'guhi tribe,
had a tendency for leaving home and staying in the mountains throughout the day. At the
point when chestnut hair started to develop over his body, his folks inquired as to why he
favored the woods to his home. He talked convincingly about the great life that could had
been living in the forested areas, where sustenance was abundant and superior to the corn
and beans accessible in the settlement. His folks, as well as the whole group, chose to
leave with him and live in the wild. At the point when dispatchers sent by different
families attempted to convince the Ani'- Tsa'guhi to stay, they saw that hide was at that
point starting to cover the general population's bodies. The Ani'- Tsa'guhi told the
detachments that, starting now and into the foreseeable future they would be called yanu,
"bears," and that when individuals were eager, the bears would come what's more, give
them their own tissue. The bears' homes were under Four pinnacles of the Great Smoky
Mountains, where they held moves each fall before they resigned to their caves for the
winter. Since they had once been human, bears could talk however they picked not to.
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Bears show up in many stories in various parts. To some Northwest Coast tribes, Bear
(Suku) was a Culture Hero who ventured to the far corners of the planet showing abilities
—especially angling aptitudes—to people, naming waterways, making fish and murdering
Monsters. In different stories, the bear was itself a creature—typically a monster and
regularly having heavenly forces—that slaughtered individuals and nourishment creatures
until it was killed by a legend. In Tricksters stories, Bear shows up as a moderate
considering, naïve animal that unavoidably loses to the cheat creature, for example,
Coyote. People changed into bears and bears that changed their shape, to ended up people
or different creatures are regular topics, as are relational unions among people and bears.
Bears moreover figure in myths identified with the Big Dipper and are a vital piece of the
Navajo (Dineh) Mountain Way ceremony.
Strong swimmers, beavers, were seen as intense submerged spirits that gave individuals
control over the waters. To a few tribes, beavers were an image of bounty. In a Nez Perce
legend, Beaver stole FIRE from the Pines, desirous watchmen of this mystery, and offered
it to birches, willows, and different Trees. This story, clarifies why fire is made when the
wood of trees is rubbed together. In one form of the Blackfeet Creation Account Beaver,
was one of swimmers, beavers were seen as intense submerged spirits that gave
individuals control over the waters. To a few tribes, beavers were an image of bounty.
Secured with a defensive layer of slim, sharp, empty quills, the porcupine gets away from
its foes by raising them threateningly. Local Americans esteemed porcupine quill for quill
working, a handle in which colored quills were utilized to enrich a wide assortment of
things—cut sheaths, tobacco sacks, bison robes, and formal attire. Legends frequently
portray plume functioning as the sacrosanct blessing of a culture legend or champion, for
example, Anog Ite, the Two Faced Woman. Porcupine shows up in different stories as the
friend of Coyote or Beaver. In Plains Indian stories, Coyote often ran bison chasing with
Porcupine also, deceived him out of his share of the meat. In Micmac mythology,
Porcupine controlled the cold weather.
A tale in which the Porcupine, show his power is the tale The Beaver and The Porcupine ;
” This is the tale of a feud between the beavers and the porcupines. Beaver had laid in a
plentiful store of food, but Porcupine had failed to do so, and one day when the former
was out hunting the latter went to his lodge and stole his provision. When Beaver returned
he found that his food was gone, and he questioned Porcupine about the matter.
‘Did you steal my food?’ he asked.. ‘No,’ answered Porcupine. ‘One cannot steal food
from supernatural beings, and you and I both possess supernatural powers.’ Of course this
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was mere bluff on the part of Porcupine, and it in nowise deceived his companion.‘You
stole my food!’ said Beaver angrily, and he tried to seize Porcupine with his teeth. But the
sharp spines of the latter disconcerted him, though he was not easily repulsed. For a time
he fought furiously, but at length he was forced to retreat, with his face covered with quills
from his spiny adversary. His friends and relatives greeted him sympathetically. His father
summoned all the Beaver People, told them of the injuries his son had received, and bade
them avenge the honor of their clan. The people at once repaired to the abode of
Porcupine, who, from the fancied security of his lodge, heaped insults and abuse on them.
The indignant Beaver People pulled his house down about his ears, seized him, and carried
him, in spite of his threats and protests, to a desolate island, where they left him to starve.
It seemed to Porcupine, that he had not long to live. Nothing grew on the island save two
trees, neither of which was edible, and there was no other food within reach. He called
loudly to his friends to come to his assistance, but there was no answer. In vain he
summoned all the animals who were related to him. His cries never reached them. When
he had quite given up hope he fancied he heard something whisper to him : ” Call upon
Cold weather,call upon North-wind.’ At first he did not understand, but thought his imagination
must playing tricks with him. Again the voice whispered to him: ‘Sing North songs, and you will
be saved.’Wondering much, but with hope rising in his breast, Porcupine did as he was bidden, and
raised his voice in the North songs. ‘Let the cold weather come,’ he sang, ‘let the water be
smooth.’18
3.4 Origin Stories
“Accounts of the creation of the world, the first people, and the nature of the world vary according
to geography, a people’s way of life, climate, and many other factors. A few Native American
creation accounts begin with the Earth’s creation from a void. The Creators in some of these
stories are AWONAWILONA (Zuni), Earth Maker (Hohunk), TAIOWA (Hopi), and TIRAWAHAT
(Skidi Pawnee). In most traditions, however, the Earth already existed in one form or another,
almost universally covered with the Primordial Waters . These accounts tell how the world
achieved its present form and how humans, Animals, and Plants came into being. Several themes
are repeatedly seen among creation accounts. In accounts of a water-covered world, different
beings bring up soil to make the Earth. In the Southwest, people traditionally emerged into the
present world from one or more Underworlds. In Northwest accounts, people descended to the
present world through a hole in the sky that is associated with the smoke hole of a tipi. Several
common themes are presented here.”19
A fundamental conviction of Native Americans all through North America, was the
presence of a higher power most importantly other soul creatures, all forces of nature, and
the normal characteristics of people. This power, or incomparable being, was known by
18
Lewis Spencer, A Brief Guide to Native Americans Myths and Legends, Constable and Robisob Ltd, London
pp 201-202
19
Patrician Ann Lynch, Native American Mythology A to Z, Fact on File,New York,NY,2004 p 44
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different names, including AWONAWILONA, “the Maker”(Zuni); ESAUGETUH
EMISSEE, “Master of Breath”(Creek); GITCHE MANITOU, “Great
Spirit”(Algonquian,Anishinabe); MAHEO (Cheyenne); Naualak (Kwakiutl); Orenda
(Iroquois); TAIOWA (Hopi);Tamanoas (Chinook); TIRAWAHAT, “This Expanse”(Skidi
Pawnee); Unsen, “Life Giver” or “In Charge of Life” (Apache); and WAKAN TANKA,
“Great Mystery”(Lakota).
For the most part, the maker did not stay to control the world or its kin, however rather left
the undertaking to different creatures that were made—aides, soul creatures, and Culture
Heroes. A sky-abiding male maker figure, shows up in customary records of many
societies. Illustrations are : ABOVE-OLD-MAN (Wiyot); AKBAATATDIA, "The One
Who Has Made Everything" (Crow); Earth Maker (Ho Chunk, Tohono O'odham); ES-TE
FAS-TA, "Gives Everything" (Seminole); Kodoyape (Maidu); Kumush (Modoc); and
Utsiti (Keres). Ladies, for example, the Navajo (Dineh) Changing Lady, assume noticeable
parts as makers. The Arapaho Whirlwind Woman (Nayaanxatisei) made the world from
mud.
In the Pawnee creation account, Evening Star helped the Creator make the Earth. Her little
girl, Standing Rain, was the mother of humankind. Iatiku is a capable maker figure of the
Keresan Pueblo individuals. In the Hopi Emergence. What's more, Migration acconts
Spider-woman made every living thing, including people. Other female maker figures are:
Sky Woman (Iroquois), White Painted Woman (Apache), and WIDAPOKWI (Yavapai).
The mythologies of the Red Man are infinitely more rich in creative and deluge myths
than those of any other race in the two hemispheres. An example of creation-myths, is the
Algonquian creation-myth. In many other Indian mythologies, we find the wind brooding
over the primeval ocean, in the form of a bird. In some creation-myths, amphibious
animals dive into the waters and bring up sufficient mud with them, to form a beginning of
the new earth. In a number of these tales, no actual act of creation is recorded, but a
reconstruction of matter only. The Algonquins relate that, their great God Michabo, when
hunting one day with wolves for dogs, was surprised to see the animals enter a great lake
and disappear. He followed them into the waters with the object of rescuing them, but as
he did so the lake suddenly overflowed and submerged the entire earth. Michabo
dispatched a raven with directions, to find a piece of earth which might serve as a center
for a new world, but the bird returned from its quest unsuccessful. Then the god sent an
otter on a like errand, but it also failed to bring back the needful terrestrial seed. At last, a
musk-rat was sent on the same mission and it returned with sufficient earth to enable
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Michabo, to recreate the solid land. The trees had become denuded of their branches, so
the god discharged arrows at them, which provided them with new boughs. After this,
Michabo married the musk-rat and from their union sprang the human race.
Another example of a creation story is that of the Muskhogean creation-story :
“The Muskhogean Indians believe that in the beginning the primeval waste of waters alone was
visible. Over the dreary expanse two pigeons or doves flew hither and thither, and in course of
time
observed a single blade of grass spring above the surface. The solid earth followed gradually, and
the
terrestrial sphere took its present shape. A great hill, Nunne Chaha, rose in the midst, and in the
centre of this was the house of the deity Esaugetuh Emissee, the ‘Master of Breath’. He took the
clay which surrounded his abode, and from it molded the first men, and as the waters still covered
the earth he was compelled to build a great wall upon which to dry the folk he had made.
Gradually the soft mud became transformed into bone and flesh, and Esaugetuh was successful in
directing the waters into their proper channels, reserving the dry land for the men he had created.
This myth closely resembles the story in the Book of Genesis. The pigeons appear analogous to the
brooding creative Spirit, and the manufacture of the men out of mud is also striking. So far is the
resemblance carried that we are almost forced to conclude that this is one of the instances in which
Gospel conceptions have been en-grafted on a native legend.” 20
IV.The Effect of the “White Man” on Native Americans

It has been said many, many times that history is mostly written blood, in conflict and war
between different civilizations. And unfortunately this is the sad truth. Where in many case
the weak civilization is assimilated or even destroyed by the more powerful one.
For many people, the struggle between the Native Americans ,also known as “red skins”
and the European colonist , that later became “cowboys”, still represent that typical
western genre that is depicted in movies or novels written by authors, such as Karl May or
James Fenimore Cooper. The grand productions of Hollywood, offers an idyllic image of
the Wild West, one filled with gun slinging rebels that are in constant conflict with
authorities and then, there are the blood hungry Indians, that are always attacking the
pioneers.
Really is anything but this. If we look past the commercialized wild West, we can see one
of the most tragic and controversial episode of history from North America. A part of
history that no matter how much time passes cannot eras the uncountable crimes done in
the name of civilization.
IV.1 Wars
IV.1.1 Apache
Lewis Spencer, A Brief Guide to Native Americans Myths and Legends, Constable and Robisob Ltd, London p
20
42
44
The first contact the Non-Indian had with the Apache were non-violent, they were
peaceful. In 1540 Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, a Spanish explorer, came in contact
with the Querechos, but the Apache tribes stated to raid the Spanish settlements during the
late 1500’s . As a matter of protection the Spanish created a line of defenses against the
attacks from the Apache. Before the soldiers could manage successful resistances against
the assaults from the Apache, then they would disappear into the wilderness. The Spanish
even tried to convert the Apache to Christianity and move them to a mission but they had
very little success. The Apache preferred to raid the Spanish settlers for horses, cattle and
there raid lasted throughout the 1700’s up till the 1800’s.
The Comanche advanced into the Apache territory around 1740 and managed to hold their
own against the much feared Apache. Mexico and New Mexico, gained independence
from Spain in 1821, but the new powers in Mexico did not handle the Apache attacks any
better them the old government . In this period, the Apache were hostile to the Anglo-
American traders and trappers that were traveling through or around their territory. With
the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, after the Mexican War, the
northern holding of Mexico were yielded to the United State and soon after American
troops came to the Apache lands in large numbers. Also in this period of time there is
discovered gold in California and with the number of Anglo-American communing to the
territory increased dramatically and even thought the U.S. now claimed these territory the
Apache did not see this in the same way and such they considers anyone that was traveling
in that direction as trespassers. Even if the United State defeated the Mexicans, the
Mexicans did not defend the Apache and such the land rightfully belong to the Apache.
Thru the 1850’s, the Apache still preyed on landowners in Mexico, but starting with the
1860’s Americans started to show aggression from them. One of the first outbursts
involved the Chiricahua Apache, U.S. Lieutenant George Bascom suspected, at that time
Chiricahua headman Cochise, of kidnaping children and of stealing cattle, so Bascom took
captive some of Cochise’s people. Cochise and his wariors started to attacking along the
Apache Pass on the Butterfield Southern Route that ran from El Paso to Los Angles.
Mimbereno Apache soon joined the fighting ,they were ran by Mangas Coloradas,
Cochise’s father-in-law. The U.S army, managed to chase the rebellion up tol Mexico, but
soon after left them to take part of The American Civil War. California had volunteers
under the command of General James Carleton, to try and control the Chiricahua country,
but they were no match for the Chiricahua and Mimbreno. In 1862 the Apache lost one of
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their most important leaders, MangasColoradas was captured by way of trickery and was
then killed by his guards. During this time, the Mescalero Apache carried out raids on
travelers that were near El Paso, on the Butterfield Southern Route. General Carleton
decided to appoint a former fur trader , and also Indian Agent and Union solider , as a
leader in the field against the Mescalero, he appointed Christopher “Kit” Carson. Carson
and his men wore down the Mescalero with their relentless chase and manage to relocated
the Mescalero to the east of Bosque Redondo, desolate flatlands of the Pecos River valley
that was near Fort Summer. Carson them turned his attention on the Navajo that were also
relocated to this area. In 1871, there was a massacred in Camp Grand, were over 100
innocent Aravaipa Apache, most of them being women and children, their leader was
Chief Eskiminzin. They were killed by settlers from Tucson that marched on to the camp.
After this incident, President Ulysses S Grand decided there was a need for a reservation
that could separate the Indian from the white soldiers and after extensive negotiations with
Cochise of the Chiricahua, who up that point was hostile, signed a treaty. That treaty help
him keep peace along the Apache pass until his death in 1874. During 1872 and 1873
General George Crook led a successful campaign against different Apache band from the
western part Tonto Basin and also against the Apache allies, the Yavapai.
Another important name to mention in the Apache Wars, were the names of Victoria, a
Minembro Apache who fought along with MangasColoradas and the known name when
referring to the Apache tribes ,Geronimo, “He how yawns”, a Chiricahua that fought along
with Cochise. They both started uprising in Arizona ,on the San Carlos Reservation.
Insurgents escaped the reservation and they hid in the rugged plains of the Southwest and
also in Mexico. Because of this the army was force to put soldiers in the field for long
battles. The fighting with Victorio lasted from 1877 till 1880 and is known as Victorio’s
Resistance. After many battles with the American and the Mexican army ,he was defeated
at the battle of TresCastillios and with his death in battle the residence virtually ended, but
some of the survivors of his resistance joined Geromino’s residence of ’81-86. For the
Apache life on reservation was hard. They were used to wander around and now they were
not allowed to leave the reservation. At first, Geronimo spent time on the Oja Caliere
Reservation in New Mexico; a reservation established for the Mescalero and then joined
his people in Arizona at the San Carlos Reservation. Because they were not allowed to
leave the reservation, Geronimo and his followers decide to escape. They managed to do
this three times. The first time, the breakout result after the death of a With Mountain
46
medicine man known as Nakaidoklini. He was preaching a new religion that claimed the
fallen warriors would return and banish the white man from the Apache territory ,but in
August 1881 when soldiers tried to arrest Nakaidoklini. What resulted from this ordeal
was fighting out at Cibecue Creek and the soldiers instead of arresting Nakaidoklini, they
kill him. So the Chiricahua and the Apache decide to flee the San Carlos Reservation and
started with a new series of raids. Geronimo and his men decide to return to San Carlos in
1884 after a extended battle with General Crook and many negotiations. The second
escape was, because a ceremonial alcoholic drink the Apache called tiswin,was banned.
The Apache resented the intervention of the with officials in their religion. So Crook’s
soldiers, had to track Geronimo and his people to the jagged hilltops of Canon de los
Embudos in Mexico and again after negotiation, he surrendered a second time in 1886.
But on the trip back to San Carlos, Geronimo and some of his men escaped. After this
incident, General Crook was removed for his command and was replaced with General
Nelson Miles, who put up to 5000 men in the field. They pursuit the Indian guerrillas
throughout the Southwest border of the United States with Mexico. Because of hunger and
weariness, Geronimo and his men surrendered for a third time at Skeleton Canyon in
1886 close to where the Apache War started ,25 years prior. Geronimo and his men, were
sent to Florida to Fort Pickens by trains, they were also put in chains. For a time they were
confined, to Mount Vernon Barack in Alabama. The conditions there were terrible and as
a resulted many of them died, because of tuberculosis; survivors were then permitted to
return to the West. Citizen of Arizona did not agree to the return of the Chiricahua to San
Carlos, so Geronimo and his men were sent to Fort Still in the Indian Territory of the
Comanche and the Kiowa. At this time Geronimo was considered a legend by the non-
Indians and also by his own people. The U.S. officials did not permit Geronimo to return
to his land of birth. In 1909, he died still as a prisoner of war, but the other members of the
Chiricahua were allowed to return to their home in 1914.
IV.1.2 Cheyenne
The Cheyenne were not violent towards the non-Indians, they even signed a treaty with the
federal government in 1825 and trading was built between the two sides on the upper
Arkansas River .But in 1849, the Cheyenne suffers from an epidemic of cholera, were
about 2000 of their people died. In 1851, the Cheyenne singed the first two treaties at Fort
Laramie to ensure safe passage to non-Natives settlers along the Missouri to the Oregon.
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But the settlers did not respect the treaties, when prospect entered Cheyenne territory and
the Cheyenne attacked them. In 1857, the Cavalry was sent to punish them and the battle
of Solomon Fork in western Kansas took place and forces the Cheyenne to retreat. In the
1858 in Colorado at Pikes Peak the numbers of miners and settlers increased because of
the gold rush and by 1859 the Colorado official, Governor John Evans tried to open up the
Cheyenne and Arapaho hunting ground to white development. Because the native refused
to sell, Evan decides to force the issue and started a war with the two tribes to try to push
them away. In the spring of 1864, Colonel John Chivigton had a campaign of violence
against the Cheyenne and the Arapaho, where they plunder the natives possession and
burn down the villages. During 1864-65, is known as ”Cheyenne-Arapaho War” or as the
”Colorado War”. Military campaigns force then both parties, so negotiations could be at
Camp Weld Denver. The tribal leaders were told that if they camped nearby, reported to
the army post and by doing so peace was put into effect and the Indians were safe from
attacks. Black Kettle and his people, about 600 Southern Cheyenne and some Southern
Aparaho, went to Sand Creek; he informed the garrison that they had come in peace. But
soon after Chivington with the Third Cavalry, rode into the garrison and found out that
Black Kettle band surrender peacefully, he did not care because Chivington was an
advocate for Indian extermination. Sand Creek is known as one of the cruelest massacre in
the Indian history. It is important from a historical point of view, because of this incident
began the most extreme era of warfare in the plains since the Civil War.
On November 29 1864, Chivington order the attack on Black Kettle’s camp, even though
he had raised a white truce flag and an American flag. Chivington men open fire on the
natives, with use of cannons and rifles. When the fire stop, 200 Cheyenne where dead of
which more than half were women and children , but Black Kettle and a few other
warriors managed to take cover and even fight back for a short period of time before they
escaped. Because of this incident, Chivington was forced to resign, but it was too late to
stop further warfare. In the years after the Civil War, the armed force dispatched two
crusades against the Plains Indians—the Bozeman Crusade on the northern fields and the
HancockCrusade on the southern fields. In the War, for the Bozeman Trail of 1866–68,
some Northern Cheyenneunder Dull Knife, battled close by Red Cloud's Sioux. Toward
the south, after a useless conference with the Southern Cheyenne boss Tall Bull and White
Horse,General Winfield Scott Hancock requested troops toround up Cheyenne rebels. One
of his pioneers in the field was a youthful mounted force officer named George Armstrong
48
Custer .The war parties stayed one stage in front of the troopers and proceeded with their
assaults on wagon trains, carriages, railroad sites and mail stations. The disappointment of
the armed force in both the Bozeman and Hancock crusades, in addition to the prior
slaughter at Sand Creek, made U.S. authorities to look for peace with the effective fields
tribes. In the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, the Sioux were granted a reservation on the
northern fields. In the Medicine Lodge Treaty of 1867, the Southern Cheyenne and
Southern Arapaho got lands in the Indian Territory as did the Comanche and Kiowa.
Again non-Indians disregarded the terms of the settlements, settling down on Indian
terrains, and warriors proceeded with their assaults. Cheyenne Dog Soldiers assaulted
anyone that came along the Sabine and Solomon Rivers. General Philip Sheridan was
given the new order. The main real clash including his troops was the Battle of Beecher
Island in 1868, which finished in a stand-off. Lieutenant Frederick Beecher and a greatly
worshiped Dog Soldier named Roman Nose alongside a few others on both sides lost their
lives in this fight. The accompanying winter, Sheridan propelled a three branched assault,
with three meeting sections out of fortresses in Colorado, Kansas, and New Mexico,
against Cheyenne, Arapaho, Comanche, and Kiowa. The Sheridan battle broke the
resistance of most Southern Cheyenne groups. The primary basic fight occurred along the
Washita Stream in the Indian Territory in November 1868. A section under Custer
assaulted Black Kettle's band. Indeed after Sand Creek, Black Kettle had never gone to
war. He had driven this gathering into the Indian Territory to stay away from the battling
in Kansas and Colorado. Be that as it may, Custer, frantic for a triumph, as Chivington
four years prior, assaulted anyway. The Indians oversaw just a brief counterattack. Black
Kettle and around 100 others kicked the bucket in this terrible rehash of history. The
armed force kept up its weight. In March 1869, Southern Cheyenne groups under Little
Robe and Medicine Bolts surrendered. At that point before long, the Dog Soldiers under
Tall Bull were cut off by troops as they traveled northward to join their northern relatives.
Tall Bull and around 50 others kicked the bucket in the Battle of Summit Springs in
Colorado. Pockets of Southern Cheyenne resistance remained, notwithstanding. Some
Cheyenne warriors battled with the Comanche and Kiowa in the Red River War of 1874–
75. Others achieved the Northern Cheyenne and with them joined the War for the Black
Hills of 1876–77, battling at Little Bighorn in 1876 and getting their vengeance on Custer
by murdering him and every one of his men. Be that as it may, that year, a power under
Colonel Wesley Merritt blocked and vanquished a power of around 1,000 Cheyenne at
War Bonnet Creek in Nebraska before they could collaborate with Sitting Bull and Crazy
49
Horse of the Sioux. At that point troops under Randal Mackenzie engaged the Northern
Cheyenne under Dull Knife in the fight named after that well known Northern Cheyenne
pioneer. Cheyenne resistance had finished. Dull Knife's band was put in the Indian
Territory among the Southern Cheyenne. Impelled by rare sustenance proportions, a flare-
up of jungle fever, and an aching for their country in Wyoming also, Montana, Dull Knife
and his devotees made an epic flight northward in September 1877. Crossing lands now
created by non-Indians—having farms, ranches, streets, what's more, railways—the
around 300 Cheyenne kept away from a seeking after power of 13,000 for six weeks
before they were at last got. Numerous Cheyenne passed on in the grisly roundup,
including Dull Knife's little girl. Dull Knife and others surrendered on the Sioux
reservation at Pine Ridge in South Dakota. Be that as it may, other Cheyenne made it to
the Tongue River in Montana. In 1884, after further negotiations, the Northern Cheyenne
were finally granted reservation lands in Montana.
IV.1.3 Navajo
In the early 1600’s, the Spanish came in contact with the Navajo for the first time, by the
mid 1700’s the Spaniards sent missionaries to try to convert them to Catholicism, but it
had little success. By the late 1700’s and early 1800’s, the Navajo, Mexican and Spanish
were involved in a series of raids and counter raid for slaves, food and livestock.
The Navajo frequently attack early traveler from the Santa Fe Trail, on the route
connecting Missouri to New Mexico. During the 1846 Mexican War, the American
occupied New Mexico; but Mexico did not truly cede the territory until 2 years later, after
the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. After the U.S took control of this territory, colonel
Stephen Kearny informed the Mexican-Americans and Anglo-American that they were
safe from Indian attack. During the winter of ’48, Colonel Alexander Doriphan, led an
attack on the Indian in the Missouri to punish them for stealing livestock, but the Navajo
managed to avoid them, because of rugged terrains. Even if they signed treaties in 1846
and 1849, the Navajo remained militant until 1860. A point of controversy between the
soldiers, tried to use the Navajo land of Canyon Bonito near Fort Defiance, as pasture land
for the horses of the U.S army. But when they found Navajo horses on this land, they shot
and killed every one of them. The Navajo raided the U.S armies’ herds to make up their
loss. The conflict reached its climax in 1860, when a famous Navajo chief, by the name of
Manuelito and his ally Barboncito led warrior, to attack the fort. They were almost caught.
50
Colonel Edward Canby took the troops into the Chuska Mountains to try and capture the
warriors, but he did not manage too. The warrior used their landscape to their advantage.
Another fight broke out in 1861, during the Civil War. The incident that sparked this
conflict was a horse race at Fort Lyon between Dineh and army mounts. The Dineh
claimed that a soldier had cheated by cutting one of their mount’s reins. When the judges
refused to hold the race again, the angry Indians rioted. The soldiers fired artillery into the
Indian crowd; killing 10 people..By 1862 Union troops had driven the Confederate troops
out of New Mexico. They then turned the attention to the Apache and Dineh. General
James Carleton, the new commander of the Department of New Mexico, chose Colonel
Christopher “Kit” Carson as his leader in the field. Carson, a former fur trader, scout, and
Indian agent, knew Indian ways well. He moved first against the Mescalero Apache. Then,
he began his campaign against the Dineh. Rather than try to defeat the elusive Dineh in
battle in their mesa and canyon country, Carson first began a scorched-earth offensive.
During a six-month period in 1863, his men destroyed Dineh fields, orchards, and
hogans and confiscated their livestock. Then in January 1864, as a final blow against the
Dineh, his troops advanced on Canyon de Chelly. They blocked the steep- walled
canyon at both ends, and then flushed out the pockets of resistance. The will of the Dineh
had been broken. By March, about 6,000 half-starving tribal members had trickled into
army posts, and by the end of the year, another 2,000, making the Dinehsurrender the
largest in all the Indian wars. Manuelitoand many of his remaining 4,000 followers
surrendered in 1866. In the meantime, the army carried out its plan to relocate the Dineh,
along with Apache prisoners, to the eastern part of New Mexico, at Bosque Redondo near
Fort Sumner on the barren flats of the Pecos River valley. About 200 Dineh died on the
300-mile track eastward—the Long Walk, as they call it. The Dineh were miserable at
Bosque Redondo, suffering from outbreaks of disease, shortages of supplies, infertile soil
for planting, and quarrels with the Apache. It is estimated that 2,000 Dineh died during
their stay there. A delegation of chiefs, including Manuelito, traveled to Washington to
plead their case for a return to their homeland. Finally in 1868, the federal government
granted the Dineh 3.5 million acres of reservation lands in their ancestral homeland. The
Dineh returned westward over the trail of the Long Walk and began rebuilding their
lives.
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IV.1.4 Sioux
The Sioux, due to their tenacious imperviousness to non- Indian development, were the
most popular of Plains warriors. The different clashes including the Sioux have been given
names by students of history (now and then more than one name). The contentions did not
generally have unmistakable beginnings and endings, yet were a piece of a progressing
design of attacks and counter assaults enduring from around 1850 to 1890 and all things
considered known as the Sioux Wars. The distinctive periods of the Sioux Wars are: the
Grattan Issue in 1854–55; the Minnesota Uprising (or Little Crow's War) in 1862–64; the
War for the Bozeman Trail (on the other hand Red Cloud's War) in 1866–68; the War for
the Black Slopes (or Sitting Bull's and Crazy Horse's War) in 1876–77; and the Massacre
at Wounded Knee in 1890.
The Grattan Affair
In 1851, U.S. authorities arranged a settlement at Fort Laramie in Wyoming with the
Sioux and their partners, the northern branches of Cheyenne and Arapaho, all together to
guarantee safe entry for voyagers along the Oregon Trail, running from Missouri to
Oregon. It just took three years after the marking of the arrangement for brutality to eject.
A gathering of Mormons voyaging west lost one of their cows, which meandered into a
camp of the Brulé band of Teton Lakota. The Mormons answered to troops at Fort
Laramie that Indians had stolen the cow. Meanwhile, a Sioux named High Forehead
slaughtered the cow for nourishment. In spite of the fact that the Brulé offered to pay for
the cow, an excessively energetic lieutenant from the post, named John Grattan, demanded
the capture of High Forehead and rode to the Indian camp with a constrain of around 30
men. Whenever High Temple declined to hand himself over, Grattan requested an assault.
A Brulé boss named Conquering Bear was executed in the main volley. The Indians
counterattacked and wiped out the separation. The armed force sent in more troops. In
1855, at Blue Water in Nebraska, a constrain under General William Harney assaulted
another Brulé camp and executed 85. War had been conveyed to the Sioux. They would
not disregard this treatment on account of the whites. Actually, a youthful warrior of the
Oglala band of Teton Lakota— Insane Horse—actually saw the executing of Conquering
Bear. He would later get to be distinctly a standout amongst the most viable guerrilla
warriors ever.
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The Minnesota Uprising
Another flare-up of viciousness including the Sioux happened far toward the east, in
Minnesota, among the Santee Dakota groups. The focal issue that brought about the
Minnesota Uprising (on the other hand Little Crow's War) was land, as to an ever
increasing extent non-Indians settled along the rich farmlands of the Minnesota Waterway.
A portion of the youthful Santee conquers needed war against the general population who
were appropriating their property. The Santee boss Little Crow contended for peace. Be
that as it may, youthful aggressors constrained the issue by murdering five pilgrims. Little
Crow at that point helped the other Santee boss sort out a defiance. In August 1862, Santee
war parties completed amazement strikes on settlements and exchanging posts,
slaughtering as numerous as 400 individuals. Little Crow himself drove strikes on Post
Ridgely. The fortress' gun repulsed the Indians, executing numerous. Another gathering of
Santee raged the town of New Ulm. The pioneers pushed the aggressors away, in any case,
then emptied the town. General Henry Sibley drove a costly raid into the field. At Birch
Coulee in September, the warriors assaulted an armed force entombment party, executing
23. However, Sibley connected with the Santee at Wood Lake soon thereafter and steered
them with substantial mounted guns. Numerous warriors fled northwestward into the wild,
Little Crow among them. Numerous others surrendered, guaranteeing honesty in the
killing of the pioneers. Of the individuals who remained behind, 303 were sentenced to be
hanged. President Abraham Lincoln invested significant energy from his worries with the
Civil War to survey the trial records, and he exonerated the substantial greater part. Still,
33 Santee, announcing their guiltlessness to the end, were hanged the day after Christmas
in 1862, the biggest mass execution in American history. Of those Santee Dakota that fled,
many settled among Teton Lakota and Yanktonai Nakota in Dakota Domain (the northern
part that was soon to turn into North Dakota). General Henry Sibley and General Alfred
Sully connected with Sioux from different groups at Big Hill, Dead Buffalo Lake, and
Stoney Lake in 1863, what's more, at Whitestone Hill and Killdeer Mountain in 1864. The
Santee and the other Sioux who helped them paid a high cost in affliction for their
Minnesota Uprising. Little Crow himself kicked the bucket in 1863 on a stallion taking
undertaking out of Canada into Minnesota. Pioneers shot him furthermore, handed over
his scalp for the abundance. The War for the Bozeman Trail (or Red Cloud's War) started
not long after the Minnesota Uprising finished. Arrive was again the focal issue of this
contention, yet it was the mining fever that conveyed expanded activity to the terrains of
53
the Teton Lakota in what is currently Montana and Wyoming. In 1862, in the wake of
having made a trip to Montana's goldfields, the wayfarer John Bozeman took after an
immediate course through Teton arrives back to the Oregon Trail in Wyoming as opposed
to travel a more drawn out path around to the east or west. Different transients and
excavators took after along this new course. The different Teton groups—the Oglala under
Red Cloud, the Hunkpapa under Sitting Bull, and the Brulé under Spotted Tail—hated the
trespassing. So did their partners, the Northern Cheyenne under Dull Cut and the Northern
Arapaho under Black Bear. In 1865, the Indians started assaulting military watches also,
wagon prepares and additionally different explorers along both the Bozeman and the
Oregon Trails. General Patrick Connor sent in three unique sections that year to rebuff the
activist groups. Their exclusive accomplishment against the subtle warriors, who assaulted
quickly and after that vanished into the wild, was the obliteration of a camp of Northern
Arapaho under Black Bear. A portion of the boss rode into Fort Laramie in 1866 to sign a
bargain. Red Cloud demanded that no posts be manufactured along the Bozeman, be that
as it may. At the point when the armed force declined to agree, the boss rode off with his
warriors to make arrangements for war. Troops under Colonel Henry Carrington fortified
Fortification Reno and fabricated two new posts in northern Wyoming and southern
Montana to keep the Bozeman Trail open. The Indian guerrillas utilized attempt at
manslaughter strategies to bother the warriors. Insane Horse, the youthful Oglala, started
building up his notoriety for being a daring contender and good strategist right now. In
1866, he utilized an imitation strategy to trap a whole rangers equip. He had a few
warriors assault a woodcutting party and escape. Whenever Captain William Fetterman
drove a 80-man mounted force a great many them, 1,500 covered warriors assaulted them,
wiping them out. After the Fetterman Fight, the armed force sent in new troops with new
breech-stacking rifles. In two fights in 1866, the Hayfield Fight and the Wagon Box Fight,
the Teton lost numerous warriors to these cutting edge weapons, yet they prevailing with
regards to driving the troopers back to their posts. The agitators kept up their attacks. The
central government, understanding of the high cost of keeping up the Bozeman
fortifications, respected Red Cloud's requests. In the Fort Laramie Settlement of 1868, the
administration consented to forsake the posts if the Indians would stop their strikes. At the
point when the armed force emptied the district, the Indians celebrated by smoldering
down the Bozeman strongholds. The Sioux and their partners had won this round of
fighting on the Great Plains. However, the whites would continue entering their space.
Meanwhile, the southern and focal Plains tribes—the Comanche, Kiowa, Southern
54
Cheyenne, and Southern Arapaho—had constrained concessions out of the whites in the
Medication Lodge Treaty of 1867.
The War for the Black Hills
The revelation of gold operating at a profit Hills of Wyoming what's more, South Dakota
in the year 1874 prompted to the following stage of the Sioux Wars: the War for the Black
Hills (or Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse's War) of 1876–77. At this point, Red Cloud and
Spotted Tail had settled on reservations. Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse now drove the
associated chasing groups that declined to surrender the conventional itinerant lifestyle.
Restricting them were two commanders who had turned out to be well known as Union
authorities in the Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman, general administrator of
the armed force, and General Philip Henry Sheridan, administrator of the Division of the
Missouri. In the field, the commanders had different officers, including General George
Crook, who had beforehand battled Apache and Paiute, and Lieutenant Colonel George
Armstrong Custer, who had prior crusaded against the Cheyenne. War broke out when the
military requested the chasing groups onto the reservation. At the point when the groups
neglected to report, the armed force followed them in the winter of 1876. Amid that year,
probably the most acclaimed fights on the Extraordinary Plains occurred. The initial three
were awesome Indian triumphs. The last five were triumphs for the armed force and
brought the resistance of the Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, what's more, Northern Arapaho
to a virtual close. At Powder River in Montana in March 1876, Oglala and Northern
Cheyenne warriors under Crazy Horse repulsed a mounted force assault drove by Colonel
Joseph Reynolds. At Rosebud Creek in June, Crazy Horse's warriors steered General
George Crook's tremendous drive of fighters and their Crow and Shoshone partners. At
that point additionally in June, along the Little Bighorn River, Oglala under Crazy Horse
and Hunkpapa under Sitting Bull also, Gall, in addition to their Cheyenne partners, wiped
out Custer's Seventh Cavalry. The Battle of Little Bighorn is the most well-known fight in
all the Indian wars. It is additionally called Custer's Last Stand or the Battle of Greasy
Grass. George Armstrong Custer was a vain, driven, and indiscreet youthful rangers
officer, called "Long Hair" by the Indians on account of his long fair bolts. He was
55
attempting to utilize the Indian wars as a way to further his own particular vocation.
Despite the fact that he had accomplishment as a Union officer in the Common War, his
lone triumph to date in the Indian wars had been against Black Kettle's tranquil band of
Southern Cheyenne in the Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) in 1868. He brashly
thought little of his rivals. At the point when his scouts detected the Indian camp along
the Little Bighorn, instead of sit tight for fortifications under General Alfred Terry and
Colonel John Gibbon, Custer separated his men into four gatherings and requested an
assault. In a progression of isolated activities against them compelled, the Indians figured
out how to murder no less than 250 soldiers, including Custer's whole separation and the
lieutenant colonel himself. This keeps going extraordinary Indian triumph on the Plains.
The accompanying fights demonstrated shocking for the Sioux and their partners. In July
1876, at War Bonnet Creek in Nebraska, a drive under Colonel Wesley Merritt blocked
what's more, crushed around 1,000 Northern Cheyenne, who were en route to collaborate
with Sitting Bull and Insane Horse. In September 1876, at Slim Buttes in South Dakota,
General Crook's propel monitor caught American Horse's consolidated Oglala and
Miniconjou band. In November 1876, in the Battle of Dull Knife in Wyoming, Colonel
Ranald Mackenzie's troops directed Dull Knife's band of Northern Cheyenne. In January
1877, at Wolf Mountain in Montana, General Nelson Miles' troopers vanquished Crazy
Horse's warriors. At that point in May 1877, in the Battle of Lame Deer, General Miles'
men vanquished Lame Deer's Miniconjou band. Insane Horse died in 1877, wounded with
a knife while attempting to escape from jail. Despite the fact that photos exist of other
Native American from this period of history, there are none of Crazy Horse. He declined
to posture for picture takers, saying, “Why would you wish to shorten my life by taking
21
my shadow from me.” Sitting Bull and some of his devotees hung out in Canada until
1881, when he came back to the United States to surrender. He went ahead to assume a
part in occasions paving the way to the renowned Wounded Knee episode. The force of
the northern field’s tribes had been broken. The southern and focal Plains Indians—the
Comanche, Kiowa, Southern Cheyenne, and Southern Arapaho—had beforehand yielded.
Other Indian tribes to the west of the Rocky Mountains, for example, the Apache, Nez
Perce, Ute, and Bannock—would proceed with their resistance for a few years, however
the Indian wars were winding down. The last Apache disobedience, under Geronimo,
finished in 1886.Wounded Knee is one more occurrence shook the fields as late as 1890.
Since it was so superfluous, the Wounded Knee Massacre has come to symbolize the
many slaughters of Indians all through American history. The occasions of Wounded Knee
21
Carl Waldman Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes,Checkmark Books,New York, NY,2006, p. 272
56
sprung out of another religion, began among the Paiute. In 1888, a Northern Paiute named
Wovoka began the Ghost Dance Religion. He asserted that the world would soon end, then
come to be once more. Every single Native American, including the dead from past ages,
would acquire the new earth, which would be loaded with rich prairie grasses and colossal
crowds of wild ox. To procure this new life, Indians needed to live in concordance and
stay away from the methods for whites, particularly liquor. Ceremonies in what got to be
distinctly known as the Ghost Dance Religion included reflection, supplications, droning
and particularly moving. While moving the Ghost Dance, members could as far as anyone
knows get a look at this world-to-be. Numerous western Indians started rehearsing the
Ghost Move. Its lessons offered want to once free and glad people groups now living in
neediness and melancholy on reservations amidst their winners. In any case, Sioux
solution men—Kicking Bear and Short Bull of the Miniconjou band of Teton Lakota—
gave the religion their own understanding. They guaranteed that uncommon Apparition
Shirts could stop the white man's projectiles. U.S. authorities got to be distinctly
frightened at the measure of Indian social affairs and the restored Indian militancy. As a
result, they restricted the Ghost Dance on Sioux reservations. As it was, the Indians kept
on holding the prohibited functions. Troops rode into the Pine Ridge and Rosebud
Reservations in South Dakota to uphold the new run the show. In insubordination, Ghost
Dancers arranged an enormous social occasion on a bluff in the northwest corner of the
Pine Ridge Reservation known as the Stronghold. They indeed, even sent word to Sitting
Bull, now on the Standing Shake Reservation in North Dakota, to go along with them. The
general in control, Nelson Miles, who dreaded Sitting Bull's impact, requested the boss 's
capture. In the battle that came about, Sitting Bull and seven of his warriors were killed,
like the way that Crazy Horse had lost his life 13 years prior. General Miles likewise
requested the capture of a Miniconjou boss named Big Foot who had earlier upheld the
Apparition Dance. Be that as it may, Big Foot, sick with pneumonia, as it were needed
peace now. He bolstered Red Cloud and other defenders of peace. He drove his band of
around 350— 230 of them ladies and kids—to Pine Ridge to cooperate with Red Cloud,
not with the Ghost Dancers Kicking Bear and Short Bull. All things considered, a
separation of the armed force under Major S. M. Whitside blocked Big Foot's band and
requested them to set up camp at Injured Knee Creek. At that point, Colonel James
Forsyth landed to take summon of the detainees. He requested his men to place four
Hotchkiss gun in position around the camp. The following morning, Forsyth sent in troops
to gather all Indian guns. A drug man named Yellow Bird called for resistance, saying that
57
the Ghost Shirts would secure the warriors. Enormous Foot upheld peace. At the point
when the officers attempted to incapacitate a hard of hearing Indian named Black Coyote,
his rifle purportedly releasing noticeable all around. The troopers shot back accordingly.
At first the battling was attacking elbow room. In any case, then the substantial big guns
opened shoot, chopping down men, ladies and youngsters alike. Others were executed as
they attempted to escape. No less than 150—perhaps upwards of 300—Indians passed on
at Wounded Knee, with others harmed and because of this the soul of the Sioux had been
smashed. The Ghost Dancers before long surrendered their moving. Injured Knee denoted
the end of the Indian wars. That same year, 1890, the Census Agency of the government
reported that there was no longer a line of wilderness on the evaluation maps. That is to
state, other than scattered Indian reservations, no huge Indian wild range stayed free of
white settlements.
IV.2 The Trail of Tears
The U.S. Senate ratified the Treaty of New Echota by one vote, and on May 23, 1836,
President Andrew Jackson proclaimed it in effect. This set the deadline for the voluntary
exodus of nearly twenty thousand Cherokees from their homes to lands across the
Mississippi River for May 23, 1838. After that date, those who remained would be moved
by force. The U.S. secretary of war told John Ross that Jackson no longer recognized any
government among the Eastern Cherokees, and neither Ross nor anyone else would be
allowed to challenge further the legitimacy of the removal treaty. At the same time,
congressmen and community leaders urged Ross not to give up hope, but rather to trust
that the system would work, and justice would prevail, before the deadline for relocation
arrived. Immediate action on behalf of the treaty did not come easily. General John Ellis
Wool was the commander of the U.S. troops originally ordered to enforce the Treaty of
New Echota. When he arrived to begin the process of disarming the Cherokees, he was
meet with a memorial signed by council members, protesting both the treaty itself and the
plan for disarmament that followed from it. When he attended a council meeting in
September 1836, he learned considerably more about the Cherokee larger part's side of the
New Echota story: “is, however, vain to talk to people almost universally opposed to the
treaty and who maintain that they never made such a treaty. So determined are they in
their opposition that not one . . . would receive either rations or clothing from the United
States lest they might compromise themselves in regard to the treaty. . . .The whole scene
since I have been in this country has been nothing but a heartrending one, and such a one
58
as I would be glad toget rid of as soon as circumstances will permit”22
Wool asked to be relieved of his mission, and he was. Brigadier General R.G. Dunlap led
his Tennessee troops to begin building stockades for the use of the U.S. soldiers who
would enforce removal, and containment pens to hold the Cherokees who did not plan to
leave voluntarily. The problem was that the construction sites put Dunlap and his men
close to Cherokee communities and homes. They talked, they socialized. The contrast
between the sophistication of the Cherokees-many of the young girls had been educated
formally by Christian missionaries-and the crudeness of the wooden pens that were meant
for their imprisonment soon struck the Tennessee forces. At length, Dunlap threatened to
resign his commission rather than continue to assist in preparations for removal, claiming
that enforcing the Treaty of New Echota would dishonor both his men and his home state.
Meanwhile, only about two thousand Cherokees, less than 15 percent of the Cherokee
Nation, left of their own accord to join the "Old Settlers" in Indian Territory in the West.
Among them were members of the Treaty Party. Despite the fact that his men in the field
balked at their orders, Jackson remained firm. The Treaty of New Echota would be
implemented. He gave instructions that no one have additional communications with John
Ross, in speech or writing, about the treaty. After Jackson served out his second term in
the White House, his vice president and hand-picked successor, Martin Van Buren, began
his administration in March 1837, making it clear that he had every intention of following
Jackson's precedents and implementing Jackson's policies. In August 1837, the Cherokees
gathered by the thousands at Red Clay, Tennessee, which served as the seat of government
in the place of New Echota after the state of Georgia forbid the Cherokee Council to meet.
At this meeting, a U.S. agent sent for the purpose made a speech in which he tried to
convey that resistance to removal was useless. The treaty in question did not manage to
end opposition to removal, as the Cherokees were offended and angered by suggestions
that their failure to support the minority-made Treaty of New Echota reflected merely the
bitter fruit of faction politics rather than a serious complaint against an illegitimate
compact. A British visitor who witnessed the meeting, George Featherstonhaugh, left with
far more sympathy for the Cherokees than the U.S. government.
He later reported on what he witnessed in his memoir”A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay
Sotor”, and in the process offered a succinct sketch of the removal issue as a whole : “A
whole Indian nation abandons the pagan practices of their ancestors, adopts the Christian religion,
uses books printed in their own language, submits to the government of their elders, builds houses
and temples of worship, relies upon agriculture for their support, and produces men of great ability
to rule over them. . . . Are not these the great principles of civilization? They were driven from
their religious and social state then, not because they cannot be civilized, but because a pseudo set
of civilized beings, who are too strong for them want their possessions!” 23
In early 1838, John Ross and a delegation of other Cherokee leaders, including Elijah
Hicks and Whitepath, traveled again to Washington, D.C. They brought with them the
signatures of 15,665 Cherokees protesting the Treaty of New Echota. The Commissioner
of Indian Affairs told them that the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs had met and voted
to sanction the president’s plans to carry out the treaty. Outraged citizens from around the
United States sent messages and petitions on behalf of the Cherokee cause. Nonetheless,
Van Buren ordered that seven thousand soldiers be assembled to prepare for action. Time
22
Amy H. Sturgis, Trail Of Tears and Indian Removal, Greenwood Press Westport CT,2007 ,p. 55
23
Amy H. Sturgis, Trail Of Tears and Indian Removal, Greenwood Press Westport CT,2007 , pp 56,57
59
had run out. On May 23, 1838, the military roundup of the Cherokee Nation began.
IV.2.1. The Removal
Replacing John Wool as the military commander of the removal campaign was Major
General Winfield Scott, known as "Old Fuss and Feathers," a veteran of the War of 1812,
the Blackhawk War, the Seminole Wars, and at one time nearly a duelist against Andrew
Jackson. Scott looked at his mission without enthusiasm; when he realized that many of
the Georgia troops seemed as interested in killing the Cherokees as removing them, he
realized the extent of the challenge he faced. He attempted to bring order to a chaotic
situation. His address to the Cherokees offered equal parts warning and plea:
“Chiefs, head-men and warriors! Will you then, by resistance, compel us to resort to arms? God
forbid! Or will you, by flight, seek to hid yourselves in mountains and forests, and thus oblige us
to hunt you down? Remember that, in pursuit, it may be impossible to avoid conflicts. The blood
of the white man or the blood of the red man may be spilt, and, if spilt, however accidentally, it
may be impossible for the discreet and humane among you, or among us, to prevent a general war
and carnage. Think of this, my Cherokee brethren! I am an old warrior, and have been present at
many a scene of slaughter, but spare me, I beseech you, the horror of witnessing the destruction of
the Cherokees.”24
Within four weeks in May and June, separate military operations in Georgia, Tennessee,
North Carolina, and Alabama succeeded in removing roughly seventeen thousand
Cherokees from their homes at gunpoint and gathering them together in various
containment camps, that had been constructed for the purpose of Cherokee prisoners. It
soon became clear that the preparations made for the event were not satisfactory. In
general, the camps were hardly more than fenced pens, with little shelter from the
elements and no arrangements for basic sanitation. The hardships of these living
arrangements created were exacerbated by the fact that the roundups were conducted as
surprise operations, parting husband from wife and parents from children, so that some
Cherokees had nothing but the clothes on their backs, and many possessed only what they
could carry. John G. Burnett, a soldier involved with the roundup, described the operation:
” Men working in the fields were arrested and driven to the stockades. Women were dragged from
their homes by soldiers whose language they could not understand. Children were often separated
from their parents and driven into the stockades with the sky for a blanket and the earth for a
pillow. . . . In another home was a frail Mother, apparently a widow and three small children, one
just a baby. When told that she must go the Mother gathered the children at her feet, prayed an
humble prayer in her native tongue, patted the old family dog on the head, told the faithful creature
24
Amy H. Sturgis, Trail Of Tears and Indian Removal, Greenwood Press Westport CT,2007 ,pp 57,58
60
good-by, with a baby strapped on her back and leading a child with each hand started on her exile.
But the task was too great for the frail Mother. A stroke of heart failure relieved her suffering. She
sunk and died with her baby on her back, and her other two children clinging to her hands” 25.
To make matters worse, a terrible drought struck the Southeast at almost the same time the
roundup began. Without adequate supplies or facilities, the camps became breeding
grounds for dysentery and other diseases, and the dangerous heat added to the unhealthy
mix. As with the rest of removal, the young and the elderly suffered most. Various
scholars have speculated that the camp conditions might have been responsible for perhaps
one-third to one-half of all of the deaths associated with the Trail of Tears, though the
records leave little chance for anything more than speculation. Scott divided the camps
into three military districts, each with its own plan for removal to Indian Territory,
involving land and water routes. Two groups were stationed along the Tennessee River,
one at Ross's Landing (at present-day Chattanooga, Tennessee) and one at Gunter's
Landing (at Guntersville, Alabama). The third group went to the Cherokee Agency on the
Hiwassee River (at Calhoun, Tennessee). From each of these starting points, groups were
to be dispatched to make the trek to Indian Country through a combination of land and
water passages by foot and by boat. As none of the passages was direct, the distance of the
trek averaged approximately 1,200 miles. The first three groups faced disastrous
conditions with heat and sickness, and more died.
Despite Scott's attempts to watch the Georgia troops in particular, and to exhort all of the
soldiers to treat the Cherokees in a humane manner, his best intentions were not entirely
successful. Baptist missionary Evan Jones, a white man who lived and worked among the
Cherokees and shared their fate when they were removed West, wrote of their experience
in July 1838.The work of war in a time of peace, is commenced in the Georgia part of the
Cherokee Nation, and is carried on, in most cases, in the most unfeeling and brutal
manner; no regard being paid to the orders of the commanding General, in regard to
humane treatment of the Indians.
Defeated in his attempts to thwart removal, John Ross appealed to General Scott for delays
until the weather cooled, and also asked that the remainder of the relocation logistics be
turned over to the Cherokee Council, which had a greater vested interest in the Cherokees
surviving their journey. General Scott agreed. Thereafter, John Ross himself became the
architect of the removal process he had fought for so long.
25
Amy H. Sturgis, Trail Of Tears and Indian Removal, Greenwood Press Westport CT,2007 ,p 58
61
The Cherokee-organized marches started on August 28, 1838. Thirteen groups of roughly
a thousand each slowly made their way west. John Ross, carrying the laws and records of
the Cherokee Nation, left with the last group of sick and infirm Cherokees in December.
Thousands were trapped by the harsh winter conditions before they could cross the
Mississippi River, and once again, many died. Ross’s own wife succumbed to illness on
the trail on February 1, 1839; like so many others, she was buried in a shallow grave in the
little time that could be spared before the Cherokees again had to march. The last party did
not reach its destination until late March.
Determining the cost of the Trail of Tears in human lives is a difficult proposition. In the
first wave of relocation, soldiers had strong motivation to under report deaths (the original
official number provided by the government was approximately four hundred). When the
Cherokees themselves had some control over the removal process, they were more
concerned about keeping each other alive, than with documenting each loss along the way,
even if they had possessed the means. Traditional approximations suggest that some four
thousand Cherokees died of hunger, exposure, dysentery, whooping cough, violence, and
other factors during or because of the Trail of Tears. This figure may date from one single
missionary's 1839 estimation, repeated and cited until it gained the credibility of fact; at
any rate, recent scholarship suggests that the death toll figure of four thousand may
represent only half of the actual Cherokee lives lost (seven regardless of the exact
statistics, though, removal exacted a terrible toll on the people of the Cherokee Nation). In
1968, the National Historic Trails System Act established the National Historic Trails
System in the United States in order to commemorate important national routes and
promote their preservation. In 1987, Congress designated the Trail of Tears National
Historic Trail, which covers approximately 2,200 miles of land and water routes,
intersecting nine different states. The Trail of Tears Trail refers specifically to those paths
taken on the removal of the Cherokee Nation in 1838 and 1839. In 1993, the National Park
Service partnered with the newly formed Trail of Tears Association to promote awareness
about the trail and oversee its management and development
IV.2.2. Slaves
If determining the number of Cherokee dead is difficult, then it is even more challenging
to reconstruct the experiences of the black slaves who were forced to travel the Trail of
Tears with their Cherokee owners. As many as two thousand slaves may have been
62
removed along with the Cherokee Nation. Members of the Cherokee economic elite had
adopted the Southern plantation system, along with slavery, from the English colonials
before the United States was formed.
While the practice was not widespread among average Cherokee households, it remained
among some of the wealthiest families. Some slave-owning Cherokees shifted their
households to Indian Territory in the two years between the Treaty of New Echota and the
forced removal campaign. Major Ridge was one of these.
Such relocations, while not of their own choosing, were at least more comfortable for all
concerned than the deadly marches that followed. Other slaves shared the fate of their
owners and suffered through the Trail of Tears. John Ross, for example, was not only the
final coordinator of removal, but also a slave owner who moved his family and household
during some of the most treacherous of conditions. Although the Cherokees had watched
firsthand as the U.S. system failed them, most chosen to renew their commitment to
certain institutions inspired by the United States and its colonial predecessors once they
reached Indian Territory. One of these was slavery, and another was the constitution,
which enforced this practice. The close of the U.S. Civil War brought an end to slavery in
the Cherokee Nation. And the legacy of Cherokee slave holding, as well as the Trail of
Tears, continues to be felt in the twenty-first century, as the descendants of freedmen-who
spoke the Cherokee language, lived among the Cherokee people, suffered the Trail of
Tears along with their owners, and shared their exile in Indian Territory-sue the Cherokee
Nation of Oklahoma to become Cherokee citizens. The controversy hinges on the issue of
blood. Cherokee law denies citizenship to those without Cherokee blood, but the
descendants of the freedmen claim that by culture and by right, they have earned a place in
the nation.
IV.2.3. Tsali and How the Cherokee Rose
While all of the Cherokees were, in one form or another, victims of the Trail of Tears, not
all were removed to Indian Territory. In North Carolina, for example, one group had
separated from the Cherokee Nation and lived in an area known as Quallatown, where
they were led by Chief Drowning Bear and his advisor, William Holland Thomas, a white
merchant who had been adopted and raised by the Cherokees. Thomas acted as a liaison
between the Cherokees and the U.S. government, arguing that the Quallatown Cherokees
were either North Carolina citizens or qualified and willing to become one, and therefore
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did not fall under the Treaty of New Echota. Thomas ultimately succeeded in negotiating
safety for the QuallatownCherokees. In return, however, he pledged to General Winfield
Scott that this group would not harbor other Cherokees who sought to elude U.S. forces.
This left the Quallatown Cherokees in the position of either watching their fellow
Cherokees be hunted down, or helping the enemy forces who were doing the
hunting.There were also Cherokees who fled from U.S. troops and sought to hide in the
Smoky Mountains. Their story is the one immortalized in the contemporary Cherokee,
North Carolina, drama Unto These Hills, and the tale of their escape from removal, has
taken on a near-mythic quality. The traditional account of these fugitives and their martyr
savior Tsali, who was captured by early ethnologist James Mooney in his landmark book
Myths of the Cherokees. He compiled the tale from interviews given by Tsalis surviving
son, an elderly William Holland Thomas, and other Cherokees :
” One old man named Tsali Charley, was seized with his wife, his brother, his three sons and
their families. Exasperated at the brutality accorded his wife, who, being unable to travel
fast, was prodded with bayonets to hasten her steps, he urged the other men to join with
him in a dash for liberty. As he spoke in Cherokee the soldiers, although they heard,
understood nothing until each warrior suddenly sprang upon the one nearest and
endeavored to wrench his gun from him. The attack was so sudden and unexpected that
one soldier was killed and the rest fled, while the Indians escaped to the mountains.
Hundreds of others, some of them from the various stockades, managed also to escape to
the mountains from time to time, where those who did not die of starvation subsisted on
roots and wild berries until the hunt was over. Finding it impracticable to secure these
fugitives, General Scott finally tendered them a proposition, through (Colonel) W. R.
Thomas, their most trusted friend, that if they would surrender Charley and his party for
punishment, the rest would be allowed to remain until their case could be adjusted by the
government. On hearing of the proposition, Charley voluntarily came in with his sons,
offering himself as a sacrifice for his people. By command of General Scott, Charley, his
brother, and the two elder sons were shot near the mouth of the Tuckasegee, a detachment
of Cherokee prisoners being compelled to do the shooting, in order to impress upon the
Indians the fact of their utter helplessness. From those fugitives thus permitted to remain
originated the eastern band of Cherokee.”26
Many of the details of the Tsali story are not easily verifiable. The Quallatown Cherokees,
to protect their own agreement with the United States, seem to have helped find Tsali. The
facts of the original killings, and of any negotiations made by Tsali, are unclear. How-
ever, official reports to Winfield Scott do note that Tsali and members of his family were
executed in November 1838; moreover, Colonel William S. Foster, whose duty it was to
find those responsible for the deaths of the soldiers, did recommend that the other refugees
be allowed to remain in North Carolina. Approximately 1,400 Cherokees did not make the
trek West. Of those, more than a thousand were in North Carolina. Less acculturated than
many of the other Cherokees, this group tended to include full blood purists who preferred
26
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to practice a traditional Cherokee lifestyle rather than assimilate with U.S. society. This
remnant of the Cherokee Nation formed what is now the Eastern band of Cherokees.The
story of Tsali has a legendary quality about it, but other stories from the Trail of Tears take
myth a step further, while making meaningful commentary about the nature of U.S.
Indian removal
One such story is the legend of the Cherokee rose. Widely available now on everything
from postcards to calendars, the tale is a simple one. As the soldiers forced the Cherokees
to march West, the Cherokee mothers wept for their dying children. The elders prayed that
some reassuring sign would appear to give them strength. After these prayers were said,
flowers grew from each spot where a Cherokee mother's tear hit the ground. The story
ascribes significance to each aspect of the flower-the white color represents the mothers'
tears; the gold centers represent the gold taken from Cherokee national lands; and the
seven petals represent the seven clans of the Cherokee Nation-and to the fact that it grows
naturally in the areas through which the trail routes passed. Although, this story is not
properly termed history; it is significant because it captures a certain persistent memory
about the Trail of Tears experience, and its power in the public consciousness. In 1916, the
Cherokee rose became the state flower of Georgia.
IV.2.4. The Aftermath in the U.S
With the dispossession of the Cherokee Nation via the Trail of Tears, the previous
relocations of the Choctaw, Creek, and Chickasaw Nations, and the defeat and ejection of
the Seminole Nation, new U.S. policy toward Native America was established. If U.S.
forces could confiscate the property and remove the members of the so- called "Five
Civilized Tribes," the groups with whom U.S. citizens seemed to share the closest
relationship, then the same action could be taken against other native nations, ones that
seemed more foreign and less sympathetic to whites. From such policies came the
reservation system, the practice of assigning native peoples to specified federal lands, and
the trust system, the practice of the U.S. government holding funds owed to native nations
on their behalf, much in the same way as guardians would hold property on behalf of their
wards. Removal remained the principal U.S. strategy for native peoples, and other nations
suffered the same fate as the Cherokees had in their deadly march. Perhaps the most
infamous of the later removals was the Long March of the Navajo in 1863-1864. The
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United States met significant resistance from Western Native Americans, however, and the
rest of the nineteenth century became known for costly and violent Indian Wars with
nations such as the Apache, the Nez Perce, and the Sioux.
In the election of 1840, Van Buren lost the White House to "Old Tippecanoe," William
Henry Harrison. Although he styled himself much as Andrew Jackson had, as a log cabin
everyman and Indian fighter, he had little chance to make an impact on U.S. policy of any
kind; he died only a month after his inauguration. His vice president, John Tyler, assumed
executive office during a time that was rife not only with economic concerns, but also with
sectional disputes. The question of expansion-exacerbated by specific challenges in the
cases of Texas, California, and New Mexico-brought with it increased tensions between
the Northern and Southern states. Slavery was the primary subject of contention. U.S.
policy toward Native America followed in the direction it had begun under Jackson, but
Tyler, like Van Buren, found other subjects of more immediate concern. Interestingly
enough, some of the important figures in the debate over slavery were leaders of
"Jacksonian" reform movements ( the same people who had protested U.S. treatment of
the Cherokee Nation during removal). These individuals and the reform groups they
represented supported abolition, the ending of slavery and freeing of slaves for the same
reasons they had argued for justice and human rights for the Cherokees. Ultimately, the
abolitionists arguments against the institution of slavery, met more success than previous
defenses of the Cherokees had. It took a violent civil war for the issue to be resolved,
however.
IV.2.5 .The Aftermath in the Indian Territory
The Trail of Tears had more immediate and extreme implications for the Cherokee Nation.
The assassinations of the Treaty Party leadership left Principal Chief John Ross alone to
come to terms with the tragic aftermath of forced removal. One of his greatest challenges
was to face the Cherokees who had settled Indian Territory long before the recent exodus.
The Old Settlers, as they called themselves, included cultural purists, such as Sequoyah,
who had willingly chosen exile from their homeland over assimilation with U.S. ways. An
1810 Cherokee law made these Cherokees expatriates, a people without a nation. But
when Ross and his citizens came to Indian Territory, they brought the Cherokee Nation
with them. The expatriates found themselves surrounded by the tattered remnants of the
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body politic they had fled. The defiant Old Settlers and the exhausted emigrants found
themselves revisiting an old debate once again. In his 1965 work The Colonizer and the
Colonized, Tunisian philosopher Albert Memmi suggests a model for analyzing the
cultural clash between an indigenous population and a colonial power. First, he notes the
native peoples observe the power structure that the colonists impose.
When they realize that only the colonizers had to gain in this system, they seek to emulate
it. Prior to 1839, however, the Cherokee experience failed to follow Memmi's model
convincingly. Although the majority of the people of the Cherokee Nation eventually
committed to assimilation, they refused the ultimate invitation to enjoy "rights,"
"possession," and "benefits"-they declined Thomas Jefferson's offer of complete U.S.
citizenship and the protection that would follow, at the expense of Cherokee identity.
Instead, they followed the campaign of simultaneous acculturation and separation that left
them especially vulnerable to Jacksonian policy. Memmi's analysis did not end there.
When such a violent event as forced, removal ends all hopes of fair treatment and
successful integration, Memmi argues that native peoples respond with a cultural backlash.
They return to old ways and embrace tradition. In Memmi's words:
” He has been haughtily shown that he could never assimilate with others; he has been
scornfully thrown back toward what is in him which could not be assimilated by others.
Very well, then! He is, he shall be, that man. The same passion which made him absorb
Europe shall make him assert his differences; since those differences, after all, are within
him and correctly constitute his true self.” 27
In 1839, then, according to Memmi, the Cherokees should have harnessed their collective
grief and disillusionment and outrage with the U.S. republic they had mirrored and used
that momentum to fuel a purist movement of extreme proportions. They did not. In the
darkest hour of the Cherokee Nation, the Old Settlers and New Settlers reached agreement
and together, they ratified a national constitution. In its pages they reaffirmed the nation's
faith in a constitutional republic, and pledged themselves anew to the goals of the
Jeffersonian civilization campaign. Of Andrew Jackson, the man who called himself ”The
New Jefferson” and John Ross- the principal chief of the Cherokees, it seems that the
latter remained the more Jeffersonian. Interestingly enough, by dedicating himself to the
causes of consensus, the rule of law and political debate, Ross also acted as a traditional
Cherokee.
When the survivors of forced removal arrived in Indian Territory, they found the Old
Settlers living modest lives primarily as subsistence farmers, and also as local traders
27
67
and operators of grist- mills and salt works. Sequoyah ran a school and taught the
Cherokee syllabify but little interest in education reached beyond that. Uniform law
and law enforcement took a decentralized, locally driven form. These exiles shared a
vision of the past—or, perhaps more accurately, a distaste for one particular vision
of the future— and so, together they tried to simply survive. Life was, to use
Woodward’s words ” casual, informal and rustic”. That life left only a tenuous
welcome for the influx of emigrants from the so-called Trail of Tears. The divisions
between the Old Settlers and the Trail of Tears survivors—the divisions that had helped to
persuade the Western Cherokees to leave their homeland in the first place—consisted of
more than a simple disagreement over lifestyles. The purism of the Old Settlers did not
merely reflect the desire to return to subsistence farming or the monolingual dependence
on the Cherokee language. This purism had political dimensions. These Cherokees favored
a decentralized, locally based government like the traditional Cherokee town council/clan
system. The system they had instituted in Indian Territory reflected this perspective.
The Old Settlers made the first move, when their chiefs sent a combined invitation to the
Cherokee Nation leadership to meet at Double Springs, in June of 1839 and officially
accept the Old Settlers hand of friendship. Less than a week into that meeting of welcome,
the Old Settler chiefs asked Ross to commit his views on the future of Cherokee
government, to paper for their consideration. In the resulting resolutions, Ross
distinguished between the Western Cherokees, the Old Settlers, and the Eastern
Cherokees, those forcibly removed on the Trail of Tears. He suggested that three current
leaders from each group specifically, John Brown, John Looney, and John Rogers from
the Western Cherokees and George Lowrey, Edward Gunter, and Ross himself as well. As
three more Cherokees elected from each side for this purpose, join together as a committee
with the intent of revising and drafting a code of laws for the government of the Cherokee
Nation, with the hope that it may also be adopted by the representatives of the Western
Cherokees. Ross and the New Settlers assumed that the issue revolved around modifying
the Cherokee Nations previous government to satisfy the Old Settlers.
He answered that by accepting the Old Settlers hand of friendship both symbolically and
literally the settled Cherokees had provided a great deal of assistance to the survivors of
removal theEastern Cherokees had agreed to live as Western Cherokees. According to
Brown, the Cherokee Nation proper had disappeared. Brown and his fellow chiefs, then
dissolved the meeting with Ross and the others, leaving them to contemplate the idea that
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their government and their positions might suddenly have ceased to exist. Ross was
unprepared for this Old Settler position and greatly concerned about what it meant for the
Eastern Cherokees: the Old Settlers require the unconditional submission of the whole
body of the people who have lately arrived, to laws and regulations in the making of which
they have had no voice. The mediator that emerged between the Western and the Eastern
Cherokees, salvaged the June summit between Old Settlers and New Settlers, despite his
own ambiguous vision of Cherokee civilization. As a revered figure from both sides,
Sequoyah had the name recognition with the Easterners and the credibility with the
Westerners to arbitrate between them. With his help, the two sides agreed to convene a
council, to form a new government. They would create something new.
In July, Western Chief George Lowrey and spokesman Sequoyah presided over the
conference at the Illinois Park Ground. The meeting drew interested Cherokees as well as
elected leadership, such as John Ross and Eastern Chief John Looney. Urging even more
to attend, Sequoyah wrote: "We, the old settlers, are here in council with the late emigrants
and we want you to come up without delay, that we may talk matters over like friends and
brothers. These people are here in great multitudes, and they are perfectly friendly towards
us"28. Solemn debates took place as the park ground transformed into a large-scale town
council with mass participation. Sequoyah noted that all seemed to recognize the import of
the sober deliberations: "there are upwards of two thousand people on the ground. .. .we
have no doubt but we can have all things amicably and satisfactorily settled". 29 Despite the
recent trend toward governmental centralization in the East and the disheartening exile in
the West, both sides rekindled the Cherokee love for political debate. The numbers grew.
The Illinois Park Ground conference yielded The Act of Union on July 12, 1839. This act
joined the Old Settlers and the Trail of Tears survivors into "one body politic" 30 known by
"the title of the Cherokee nation"31. It also set in motion the election of a national assembly
composed of Eastern and Western Cherokees and set the site of the new capital of the
nation, the centrally located town of Tahlequah, where it remains to this day. Despite
attention to issues of representation and parity, nothing could change the fact that the
Eastern Cherokees outnumbered the Old Settlers significantly. Historian Grace Steele
Woodward figures that the recent Trail of Tears survivors accounted for fully four-fifths of
the Cherokees in Indian Territory. It came as no surprise when the new mixed assembly
28
Amy H. Sturgis, Trail Of Tears and Indian Removal, Greenwood Press Westport CT,2007,p,69
29
Amy H. Sturgis, Trail Of Tears and Indian Removal, Greenwood Press Westport CT,2007,p 69
30
Amy H. Sturgis, Trail Of Tears and Indian Removal, Greenwood Press Westport CT,2007,p 70
31
Amy H. Sturgis, Trail Of Tears and Indian Removal, Greenwood Press Westport CT,2007 ,p70
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elected John Ross, even more popular among the Trail of Tears survivors after his
handling of removal, as the first principal chief of the new Cherokee Nation. Western
Cherokee David Vann, however, became assistant principal chief, the second highest
position in the nation. The mixed assembly with its mixed leadership undertook the
drafting of a new constitution.
This would not be the first constitution of the Cherokee Nation. The nation had written
and ratified a compact in 1827, which had served them until the state of Georgia declared
it null and void and U.S. President Andrew Jackson acquiesced. The national assembly in
1839 agreed to use this previous, pre-removal constitution as the template for the new
compact. Within a month, the assembly quickly wrote and ratified the constitution. Its
main departure from the 1827 compact, came in the election of the principal and assistant
principal chiefs. In the earlier compact, the legislature voted for these positions. In the
1839 constitution, the people elected them directly. Concern for legitimacy, particularly in
this delicate time between the Old and New Settlers, led to this change.
On September 6, 1839, the president of the National Convention, George Lowrey, signed
the document and pronounced it law. New elections followed. Once again, both Old and
New Settlers found representation; once again the people elected John Ross and David
Vann as principal chief and assistant principal chief, respectively. Old Settlers gained fully
one-third of the positions. Ross speculated that the Eastern Cherokees would vote for
respected Western Cherokee leaders, in many cases, as gestures of good will, because of
“the anxiety which exists to restore peace and quietude throughout the Country “ 32.Even
though, a vocal cultural purist minority took part in the convention, the constitution of
1839, like the 1827 compact it followed, reflected a conscious emulation of the U.S.
system.
In the articles and sections of the constitution, the Cherokee framers THE TRAIL OF
TEARS AND INDIAN REMOVAL, provided for a separation of powers between the
executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the government, with checks and balances
between them. The Cherokees provided for a bicameral legislature like the U.S. Congress.
A ten-point article like the U.S. Bill of Rights ended the document. The framers-namely
William Shorey Coodey, the man primarily responsible for writing the considered draft of
the document-also lifted many phrases and lines directly from the U.S. Constitution. Only
32
Amy H. Sturgis, Trail Of Tears and Indian Removal, Greenwood Press Westport CT,2007 ,p70
70
a few key differences separated the Cherokee constitution from the U.S. one. First, the
Cherokees made allowances for the unique status of their post-removal territory granted
by the U.S. federal government. The Cherokees would hold their land in Indian Territory
in common; they considered improvements on the land, however, like any other private
property and provided that they be protected as such.
Second, the 1839 document copied the 1827 constitution's restriction against black
political participation. This did not reflect simple anti-non-Cherokee sentiment. The
framers allowed full rights for the mixed-blood children, of unions with all other non-
Cherokee peoples-members, of other indigenous nations, whites, Spanish peoples, etc.-as
long as they lived within Cherokee national borders and maintained their Cherokee
citizenship. The constitution hindered only slaves, free blacks, or the mulatto descendants
of them, any "person who is negro and mulatto parentage"(Article III, Section 5)33.
Third, the Cherokees included a religious element not found in the U.S. Constitution. All
would-be officeholders had to pass a religious test, to ensure that "no person who denies
the being of a God or future state of reward and punishment shall hold any office" 34. The
framers also added direct statements of faith, "acknowledging, with humility and gratitude,
the goodness of the Sovereign Ruler of the Universe .. .and imploring His aid and
guidance"35. In the freedom of religion section, they deviated from the U.S. Constitution's
words and expanded the clause to read "The free exercise of religious worship, and
serving God without distinction, shall forever be enjoyed" (Article V, Section 1). 36 The
differences between the Cherokee National Constitution and the U.S. Constitution were
intentional. The issue of land owner- ship seems self-explanatory; the Cherokees had held
lands-specific, defined, finite lands-in common in the past, and recognized individual
property rights to all improvements. This became especially convenient again in Indian
Territory because the U.S. federal government tended to treat the Cherokees' land rights as
common anyway, at least prior to the Dawes Act of 1887.
The constitutional issue of race, or more accurately, the Cherokee concern with the black
race, stems from several sources. Obviously, the Cherokees sought to capture and preserve
one particular view of racial rank, one that did not place them at the bottom of the
hierarchy, one that actually gave them control over another race. The 1827 constitution in
33
Amy H. Sturgis, Trail Of Tears and Indian Removal, Greenwood Press Westport CT,2007,p71
34
35
36
71
fact confirmed the Cherokee position about the racial spectrum. It also suggests a
Cherokee desire to institutionalize the emerging plantation-slavery worldview of the
nineteenth century, another nod to Jefferson's civilization campaign and its many
corresponding forms of assimilation. By the time of the 1839 constitution, the Cherokees
did not need to prove their degree of acculturation by overtly embracing a system of racial
dominance. Perhaps, the need came from more internal sources. It is true that slavery
remained in Indian Territory. John Ross, for example, brought his slaves with him during
removal. But slavery no longer played the economic role it once had. Indeed, the Cherokee
economy, like so many Cherokees themselves, died on the so-called Trail of Tears.
The constitution and the Cherokee framers, intended to reassure themselves about their
place in the world. The recent Trail of Tears survivors , had experienced a violent
uprooting and coerced relocation. It had to be difficult to consider themselves a people
above others and apart from them, while enduring a cross-country forced march. Retaining
racial distinctions reminded them that, despite their misfortune, others still fared worse by
failing to be born Cherokee. Excluding blacks, remained one of the last means available to
them to assert (or reclaim) their corporate feelings of superiority and power. The religious
aspects of the Cherokee Constitution spoke to the widespread Christianization of the
Cherokees by the mid-nineteenth century. Although at first reluctant to accept Christianity,
the Cherokees eventually converted in mass numbers in a short amount of time, largely
because of mission schools and specific missionaries who worked in them. Despite their
traditional ways, many of the Old Settlers accepted Christianity, some even before their
journey west. The issue of religion, represented an area of consensus between both groups.
Samuel Worcester exemplified the importance of missionaries as political as well as
spiritual figures. His work with the Cherokees gained particular visibility with his steady
publication in The Cherokee Phoenix, usually on anthropological subjects, and his role in
Worcesterv. Georgia, as a legal advocate for the Cherokees. He relocated with the
Cherokees and continued his work with them after removal.
Missionaries such as Worcester blended religious teaching with political activism. Their
converts, it seems, did the same. Beyond simply espousing a broad monotheistic faith, the
Cherokee framers seemed anxious to preserve a certain moral order on the Indian Territory
frontier. The Preamble provides an immediate reminder of the Cherokees' debt to "the
Sovereign Ruler of the Universe," and the religious test assured that no official would fail
to believe in "Him". The freedom of religion section placed limits on Cherokees' liberty:
72
"provided, that this liberty of conscience shall not be construed as to excuse acts of
licentiousness, or justify practices inconsistent with the peace or safety of this
nation(Article V, Section 2)’37. It seems the framers hoped that a document infused with
the language of faith, might capture and preserve the moral fortitude necessary to help the
Cherokees rebuild their world again. Despite these differences, the Cherokee Constitution
of 1839 clearly reflected the organization, content, and language of the U.S. Constitution.
On the one hand, this similarity proves that the Eastern Cherokees, the survivors of forced
removal, won control over the Cherokee Nation's political structure. The same Cherokees,
had ratified the template for the 1839 constitution in 1827. These Cherokees had embraced
and largely achieved the goals of Jefferson's civilization campaign. Also they had, to use
Mary Young's phrase, mirrored the U.S. republic.
But the ratification of the constitution , also represented a new consensus, or at least the
beginnings of a new consensus, between the Old Settlers and the Eastern Cherokees. The
Western Cherokees accepted positions under the new constitution and shared power with
their emergent cousins. Although, violent disagreements would flare between the factions
until after the U.S. Civil War, the constitution of 1839 would survive the strife and
eventually unite all parties. Strife came not only from purist/assimilationist disagreements
between the Old Settlers and New Settlers, but also from the periphery, from the followers
of the assassinated Treaty Party leadership. In particular, Stand Watie younger brother of
Elias Boudinot, repeatedly challenged Ross and the Cherokee national government. Watie
went so far, as to appeal to U.S. President Van Buren to seek U.S. military aid in bringing
his brother's assassins (whom he believed to be Ross and the National Party leadership) to
justice. In the end, however, the document reaffirmed and maintained a Cherokee decision
to recognize the United States as the best model for Cherokee society, despite the recent
Cherokee experience of the Trail of Tears.
Memmi's model for indigenous behavior makes intuitive sense. If a native population tried
to emulate its colonizer's system, and the would rebel against the colonizer and the system
both. The Cherokees experienced this rebuke and denial in a twofold manner. First, their
successes failed to bring them acceptance as a civilization. Georgians declared their laws
invalid and their property forfeit. Despite the Cherokees' accomplishments, they could not
garner respect from the states. Second, the Cherokees watched the system they imitated
utterly fail. Although, the U.S. Supreme Court found in favor of the Cherokees, the
executive ignored the legislature and imposed illegal policy. If Georgia's disregard for the
37
73
Cherokee Nation did not shake the Cherokees' faith, then surely Jackson's disregard for the
U.S. government should have. Yet, after witnessing this failure on the part of the U.S.
system, and experiencing the Trail of Tears, the Cherokees adopted a structure similar to
the United States within months of arriving in Indian Territory.
In short, the Eastern Cherokees still believed in the system that had failed them. They
blamed individuals rather than the process. When John Ross addressed the new Cherokee
National Assembly on September 12, 1839, he advised its members to wait until the U.S.
system corrected itself and gave the Cherokees the justice owed to them.
Ross's faith in "the scales of justice upheld by the arm of the United States" 38,the Eastern
Cherokees' faith in their own similar constitution-reveals the degree to which the Cherokee
identity, now rested upon Euro-U.S. foundations. But those foundations survived, only
because they rested on even earlier and more ancient ones: the Cherokee emphasis on
consensus, the rule of law, open debate, and civic participation. Or, to turn phrases in on
themselves, the Cherokees followed the U.S. model because it was so Cherokee. The
constitution of 1839 did not solve the problems of the Cherokee Nation. It did, however,
survive them. Under this compact the Cherokee Nation, an ambiguous blend of the
traditional and the assimilated, reknit after the Trail of Tears, endured for nearly 140 years.
Conclusion
38
74
Native American has been living in North America for a long period of time. It is not truly
known on how they got there or even when. The most generally acknowledged theory
expresses that tribal Native Americans sauntered over the Nearing Straight when frozen
sea conditions made an area span among what is the Siberia and Gold country. That may
have happened about 15,000 to 40,000 or more years. A few people estimated that even
without an area span, traditional individuals may have crossed the Bering Strait by boats.
In the late 1400’s the European set foot on a large and uncharted territory that was already
occupied by the Natives, but before this time the Native Americans divided themselves
into multiple tribes with similarities and dissimilarities. They were greatly influenced by
the land, the weather and other tribes they had contact with.
The Native Americans had no basic religion, they had no general mythology. The large
number of tribes each built up their own particular stories about the formation of the earth,
the happening to the first individuals, and the lives and doings of divinities and legends.
Before investigating the mythology of North America, it is valuable to consider the
topography and atmosphere of the landmass in light of the fact that, as Geronimo and
Luther Standing Bear so relevantly clarified the join between the Native American and the
earth is total. In managing the limitless mythology of North America contemporary
anthropologists, for accommodation, sort out myths by topography to create nine or so
primary society zones. Those zones are the Artic, the Subarctic, the North-West Coast,
California, South-West, the Great Basin, the Plain, South-East and North-East.
These stories also present the disagreement between the Native American and the
European Colonist. Beside this stories there can be found historical documents regarding
these conflicts.
Bibliography
75
1. Dennis Yvonne Wakin, Hirschfelder Arlene, Flynn Shannon Rotherberger, Native
American Almanac: More than 50,000 Years of the Cultures and Histories of
Indigenous People, Visible Ink Press ,Canton ,MI, 2016;
2. Spence Lewis, Native Americans Myths and Legends, Constable and Robison
Ltd,London,2013;
3. Pritzker Barry M., History, Culture and People, Volume I, ABC-CLIO Inc, Santa
Barbara, California, 1998;
4. Sturgis Amy H.,The Trail of Tears and Indian Removal, Greenwood Press,
Westport,CT.,2007;
5. Waldman Carl, Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes, Checkmark Books, New
York,NY,2006;
6. Churchill Ward, Struggle for the Land: Native North American Resistance to
Genocide, Egocide and Colonization, City Lights Books, San Francisco,CA,2002;
7. Lunch Patricia Ann, Native American Mythology A to Z Facts on File, New
York,NY,2004;
8. Hamman Joё, Far West, Editura Pentru Literatură Universală, Bucureşti,1966;
9. Grigorescu Dan, la nord de rio grande:Introducere in Arta Amerindienilor, Editura
Merindiane, Bucureşti,1985;
10. Stingl Miloslav, Aventrura Marillor Căpetenii Indine , Editura Merindiane,
Bucureşti,1974;
Appendage
Cultural and geographical map of North America that present the system of categorizing
Indian people.
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UNIVERSITATEA DE PETROL GAZE DIN PLOIEȘTI

FACULTATEA DE LITERE ȘI ȘTIINTE

SPECIALIZAREA LIMBA ȘI LITERATURA ROMÂNĂ ȘI

Chapter I. Brief History of Native Americans 5

I.1 Time Line for North America 5

I.2 Historical Facts 6

Chapter II. Native American Tribes 12

II.1.1 Way of Life 14

II.2.2 Way of Life 16

II.3.1 Way of Life 18

II.4.1 Way of Life 20

II.6 Pueblo Indians 23

II.6.2 Contact with the Spanish 25

II.6.3 The Rebellion and Later History 26

II.7.1 Sioux Branches 27

Chapter III Myths and Legends 29

III.2 Cultural Hero 35

III.4 Origin Stories 42

IV.2 The Trail of Tears 58

IV.2.1 The Removal 60

IV.2.3 Tsali and how the Cherokee Rose 63

IV.2.4 The Afertmath in the U.S. 65

IV.2.5 The Afermath in the Indian Territory 66

I.1 Time Line for North America

”Confederacies such as the Creek and Iroquois developed particularly sophisticated

Indian and Inuit groups experienced non-natives as tremendously unique circumstances.

II.Native Americans Tribes

Native American tribes are classified into:

II.2.2 Way of life

2.3.1 Way of life

2.4.1 Way of life

2.6 Pueblo Indians

2.6.1 Way of life

2.6.2 Contact with the Spanish

2.7 SIOUX (DAKOTA, LAKOTA, NAKOTA)

2.7.1 Sioux Branches

2.7.2 Way of life

1. Myths and Legends

3.2 Cultural hero

3.4 Origin Stories

IV.The Effect of the “White Man” on Native Americans

The Grattan Affair

The War for the Black Hills

IV.2 The Trail of Tears

IV.2.1. The Removal

IV.2.3. Tsali and How the Cherokee Rose

IV.2.4. The Aftermath in the U.S

IV.2.5 .The Aftermath in the Indian Territory

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