Based on Darcy’s low:

𝑸𝒊𝒏 = 𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑸𝒊𝒏

𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕
Example
Stresses in Soil
 Learning Objectives;

 An understand of capillary phenomenon

 Knowledge of effective stress

 An ability to compute pore water pressure, effective stress, and

total stress at any given point in a soil layer.

 Stress and volume change properties in terms of total stress,

pore water pressure, and effective stress.

 Total stress – Pore Water Pressure=Effective Stress.

 Effective stress is approximately the force per unit area

carried by the soil skeleton.
Stresses in Soil
 Soil consists of: solids, water and/or air
 The engineer needs to know the distribution of stresses at any point in the
soil mass to analyze problems such as:
• Settlement of soils
• Bearing capacity of foundations
• Stability of slopes
• Lateral pressure on retaining walls
Components of Stresses in Soil
1. Existing overburden pressure due to soil self weight)
σv = vertical normal overburden pressure
σh = horizontal normal overburden pressure = kσv
since, σv ≠ σh
τ = shear stresses accompanying σv and σh

2. Added loads and/or excavation

 Stresses due to Existing Overburden Pressure
 For a saturated soil deposit (γ ) with
groundwater table above
• The total vertical stress (σ) at depth (z) equals the

weight of solids and water per unit area above

that depth:

𝝈 = 𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 𝒛 + 𝜸𝒘 𝒉𝒘

 The total vertical stress (σ) is divided into 2 parts:

1. Portion carried by water in voids =
pore‐water pressure (u)
2- Portion carried by solids at their
point of contact = effective stress (σ’)
The total vertical stress (σ) can be expressed as:
𝜎 = 𝑢 + 𝜎′
 The pore‐water pressure hydrostatic) at depth z:

𝒖 = 𝜸𝒘 𝒉𝒘 + 𝒛

 The effective vertical stress at depth z:

𝝈′ = 𝝈 − 𝒖
=𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 𝒛 + 𝜸𝒘 𝒉𝒘 − 𝜸𝒘 𝒉𝒘 + 𝒛
=(𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 −𝜸𝒘 )𝒛
=𝜸𝒔𝒖𝒃 𝒛 = 𝜸′ 𝒛

NOTE: σ, u, and σ’ all vary linearly with depth.

Overburden Stress Distribution with Depth
Total Stress at Po int O    h1 d  h 2  sat
where :
h1  thickness of the dry soil layer
h2  thickness of the saturated soil layer
 d  Dry Unit Weight
 sat  Saturated Unit Weight

Total Stress at Po int O      u

where :
  Effective Stress
u  Pore Water Pr essure  h2 w

Effective Stress at Po int O      u

 h1 d  h2 ( sat   w )  h1 d  h2 
where :
   Submerged Unit Weight
Capillary Rise
Considering the equilibrium of water
rise in the capillary tube:
Weight of water column = vertical
component of surface tensile force

𝝅𝒅𝟐
𝒉𝒄 𝜸𝒘 = 𝝅 𝒅 𝑻 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶
𝟒
 The capillary phenomenon and its effects in soil
 The capillary phenomenon is the presence of water above the ground
water table held by surface tension forces.

 Since capillary water has a negative pore water pressure (held in

tension), capillary phenomenon causes an increase in effective stress.

 The thickness of the capillary zone depends on the size of the soil pores
which is related to permeability.
 Example: For the subsoil conditions shown in fig. below draw
the total, effective stress diagrams upto a depth of 8 m.
Neglect capillary flow.
Unit Weight of the partially saturated sand above the water table
Gs  S e 2.65  0.4  0.6
 t ( sand )  w   10  18 kN / m 3 ( w 10kN / m 3 )
1 e 1  0.6
Unit Weight of saturated sand
Gs  (1) e 2.65  1 0.6
 sat ( sand )  w   10  20.3 kN / m 3 ( w 10kN / m 3 )
1 e 1  0.6
Unit Weight of saturated clay
Gs (1  w) 2.70(1  0.45)
 sat ( clay )  w   10  17.67 kN / m 3
1  w Gs 1  0.45  2.70
(e  w G when S  1.  w 10kN / m 3 )
At elevation  3 m :
  3 18  54 kN / m 2 , u  0,      u  54 kN / m 2
At elevation  5 m :
  3 18  2  20.3  94.6 kN / m 2
u  2  10  20 kN / m 2 𝑮𝒔 = 𝟐. 𝟕
𝒘 = 𝟒𝟓%
     u  74.6 kN / m 2
At elevation  8 m :
  94.6  3 17.67  147.6 kN / m 2
u  5  10  50 kN / m 2
     u  97.6 kN / m 2
For previous example, if the water table rises upto the ground surface, what
is the change in effective stress at elevation -8m?
At elevation  8m :
  5  20.3  3 17.67  154.4 kN / m 2
u  8 10  80 kN / m 2
     u  154.4  80  74.5 kN / m 2
The effective stress has decreased by 97.6  74.5  23.1 kN / m 2 .
What is the change in effective stress at elevation -8m, if in previous
example, the water table is lowered by 2 m?

At elevation  8m :
  5  18  3  17.67  147.6 kN / m 2
u  3  10  30 kN / m 2 (sin ce the Water Table is now at elevation  5m.)
   147.6  30  117 .6 kN / m 2

The effective stress has increased by 117 .6  97.6  20 kN / m 2 .

 In general, it can be understood that a rise in position of

water table results in a decrease in effective stress while a
lowering of the water table brings about an increase in
effective stress.
 This effect has an important fact on bearing capacity and
settlement of foundations.
 Example: For the subsoil conditions shown in fig. below what are the
effective stress values at 1m, 2m, and 4m depth? Assume unit weight of
water = 10 kN/m3.
Gs  e 2.6  0.6
 sat ( sand )  w   10  20 kN / m 2
1 e 1  0.6
The sand is saturated by gravity flow belowW .T . and
by capillary flow upto a height of 2m above W .T .
Elevation  1m :
  1  20  20 kN / m 2
(total stress is the same
whether the soil is saturated by gravity flow or capillary flow.)
u  1  10  10 kN / m 2
Elevation  2m :
  2  20  40 kN / m 2
u  0 ( pore water pressure  0 at W .T .)
   40 kN / m 2
Elevation  4m :
  4  20  80 kN / m 2
u  2  10  20 kN / m 2
   80  20  60 kN / m 2
At Elevation 0m :
 0
u  2  10  20 kN / m 2
     u  0  (20)  20 kN / m 2
Example: For the soil formation shown plot the variation of the vertical
shown, total and effective stresses as well as the pore water pressure with
depth.
1

4
Stresses in Saturated Soil without Seepage

Water level is the same on both sides, no flow, static

case
• At point X:
σ = γwhw + γsatz
u = γw(hw + z)
σ’ = σ – u
= γ’z

Stresses in Saturated‐Downward Seepage

σ = γwhw + γsatz (as for static case)
u = γwhw + γw(L‐hL)(z/L)
u = γwhw + γw(z – iz)
=γw( hw + z) ‐ γwiz )

Reduction due to flow

σ’ = σ – u
Water level is not the same on both sides,
upward flow

• At point X:
σ = γwhw + γsatz
u= γwhw + γw (L+hL )(z/L)
= γwhw + γw(z + iz)
=γw(hw + z) + γwiz

Increase due to flow

σ’ = σ – u
Quick Condition

σ’ = σ – u
= γ’z – γw iz
= γw z (γ’/γw– i)

Critical hydraulic gradient ic

• If i > ic, σ’ negative, no inter‐granular contact, failure.

Quick Condition
 Boiling in sands
 Heave in clays