Bezig Met E-Mailen Micromachines-11-00214-V2

micromachines
Review
Review of MEMS Based Fourier
Transform Spectrometers
Junyu Chai 1,2,3 , Kun Zhang 4 , Yuan Xue 5 , Wenguang Liu 1,2,3, *, Tian Chen 1,2,3 , Yao Lu 1,2,3 and
Guomin Zhao 1,2,3
1 College of Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha
410073, China; junyuchai@nudt.edu.cn (J.C.); cht_eve@163.com (T.C.); luyao14@nudt.edu.cn (Y.L.);
gmzhao@nudt.edu.cn (G.Z.)
2 State Key Laboratory of Pulsed Power Laser Technology, Changsha 410073, China
3 Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of High Energy Laser Technology, Changsha 410073, China
4 College of Computer Science, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China;
kun.zhang.cc@foxmail.com
5 Wuxi WiO Technologies Co., Ltd., Wuxi 214000, China; yxue@wiotek.com
* Correspondence: Lwg.kevin@163.com; Tel.: +86-1318-706-5510

Received: 31 January 2020; Accepted: 18 February 2020; Published: 20 February 2020
Abstract: Fourier transform spectrometers (FTS), mostly working in infrared (IR) or near infrared
(NIR) range, provide a variety of chemical or material analysis with high sensitivity and accuracy
and are widely used in public safety, environmental monitoring and national border security, such as
explosive detection. However, because of being bulky and expensive, they are usually used in test
centers and research laboratories. Miniaturized FTS have been developed rapidly in recent years, due
to the increasing demands. Using micro-electromechanical system (MEMS) micromirrors to replace
the movable mirror in a conventional FTS system becomes a new realm. This paper first introduces
the principles and common applications of conventional FTS, and then reviews various MEMS based
FTS devices.
Keywords: Fourier transform spectrometers; Fourier transform infrared spectrometers (FTIR);

micro-electromechanical system; micromirror; microactuator
1. Introduction
Fourier transform infrared spectrometers (FTIR, or more generally FTS) are a type of powerful
instruments for chemical and biological sensing. An FTS obtains spectrograms through the Fourier
transform of the interferograms generated by an interferometer (Michelson interferometer and lamellar
grating interferometer as the two main types) [1]. The spectral ranges of FTS systems can extend from
visible to NIR or even MIR. Compared to other spectrometers, such as those based on Fabry-Perot
interferometers or gratings, FTS have unparalleled advantages: (1) Multiplexing, so called Fellgett
advantage [2], i.e., using only one single photodetector can acquire the full spectral range spectra
without the need of any dispersive components and photodetector arrays, greatly reducing the
product’s cost and form factor; (2) high throughput, namely Jacquinot advantage [3], resulting from
the fact that no slits in the system lead to a higher signal-to-noise ratio (SNR); and (3) linearity, namely
Connes advantage [4], so that stable gas lasers, such as a He-Ne laser can be introduced as a reference
light source to tackle the interference distortion.
Currently, FTS are no longer restricted to laboratory applications. Microelectromechanical
systems (MEMS) technology has been successfully employed to make FTS portable, inexpensive and
miniaturized [5,6], so these portable FTS devices can be used for real-time, on-site measurement and
Micromachines 2020, 11, 214; doi:10.3390/mi11020214 www.mdpi.com/journal/micromachines

Micromachines 2020, 11, 214 2 of 28
analysis. The key to realizing miniature FTS is to replace the bulky scanning mirror module in a
conventional FTS with a MEMS mirror. Various MEMS based FTS devices have been developed using
electrostatic, electromagnetic and electrothermal microactuators [7–9].
This paper is organized as follows. The working principles and applications of conventional
FTS are reviewed in Section 2. Several miniaturized FTS utilizing various MEMS based actuation
mechanisms are introduced in Section 3.
2. Theoretical Background of Fourier Transform Spectrometers
2.1. Fourier Transform Spectroscopy and Its Applications

Fourier transform infrared (IR) spectroscopy reflects the transitions of electrons among the
vibrational energy states upon absorbing light [4]. The absorption occurs when an incoming photon
excites a molecule to a higher energy state. The transitions between the vibrational states of the
molecule occur in the IR range. The wavelength of each IR absorbance peak is dependent on the
specific physical and chemical properties of the corresponding molecule, which is a fingerprint of that
functional group [10].
Fourier transform spectroscopy analysis has benefits of rapid analysis, minimum sample
preparation, noninvasive and nondestructive operation, no reagents needed, simultaneous
multicomponent analysis, and compatibility with fiber optics. FTS can also be used to test and
characterize optical components, such as light sources, filters, detectors, and fiber-optic components [11].
FTS has been widely used in quality and process control, color measurement, and chemical
analysis [4,12]. Compact FTS systems are needed in various fields, such as environmental monitoring,
food industry, medical diagnostics, life science, and telecommunication [13–15].
2.2. Working Principles

Micromachines 2020, 11, x 3 of 26
2.2.1. Michelson Interferometer-Based FTS
As the core of commonly-used FTS systems, Michelson 1 interferometers (see Figure 1a) are typically
𝛽 (4)
employed to obtain Fourier Transform spectra [16]. 20 As
∙ 𝐷 shown
∙𝜈 in Figure 1a, the sample light is split by
awhere
beam D splitter
is theinto two lightofbeams:
diameter the beamOne is
anddirected
νmax isinto
thea wavenumber
fixed mirror, while theshortest
of the other is incident to a
wavelength
movable mirror. The two reflected light beams recombine at the beam splitter and generate interference
component of the light source. For example, if D is 0.1 cm and νmax is 15,800 cm−1, a tilting angle must
signals
be less that
thanare detected
0.002°. by athe
Hence, photodetector.
extension of The interferogram
the travel range andsignal
the picked up by the
compensation of photodetector
the tilting are
varies with the piston movement of the movable mirror.
two key factors that can improve the spectral resolution.
(a) (b)
Figure 1.
1. Schematic
Schematic of a Michelson interferometer: (a) (a) An ideal Michelson interferometer; (b) a
Michelson interferometer
interferometer with
with the
the movable
movable mirror
mirror tilting.
tilting.
2.2.2.When the sample

Lamellar Gratingabsorbs a specific wavelength,
Interferometer-Based FTS the interference signal I(δ) can be expressed as,
A lamellar grating interferometer, which Z +∞is basically a binary grating with a variable depth that
I ( δ ) = B(υ) cos
operates in the zeroth order of the diffraction pattern, is (also )dυ
2πδυapplied as a FTS [18]. Compared with(1)a
−∞
Michelson interferometer, which splits the wave amplitude via a beam splitter, a lamellar grating
interferometer divides the wave front. The lamellar grating (see Figure 2) is made of two sets of facets:
One fixed, and the other actuated to move up and down, producing an OPD between two coherent
light beams which are reflected off the top surfaces of the two sets of facets. The intensity I of the
diffraction pattern is given by Reference [19]
where δ is the optical path difference (OPD), υ is the wave number, and B(υ) is the spectral power
density. B(υ) can be obtained by performing Fourier transform on I(δ), as shown in Equation (2):
Z +∞
B(υ) = I (δ)e−i2πδ dδ (2)
−∞
For the FTS system, the theoretical spectral resolution, ∆σ, is given by Equation (3):
1 1
∆σ = = (3)
2 × ∆Zmax δmax
where ∆Zmax is the maximum displacement of the movable mirror. As shown in Equation (3), the
spectral resolution of the FTS is determined by the displacement of the movable micromirror. The
resolution increases as the displacement extends. On the other hand, the movable mirror requires to
remain in good alignment during the motion. However, in practice, it is difficult to achieve because
tilting always exists when the mirror is moving. The tilting of the mirror significantly deteriorates
the interferogram (see Figure 1b), thus, causing a reduction of the usable displacement range and
degradation of spectral resolution [4]. Therefore, the maximum tilt angle, βmax , without degrading the
resolution needs to satisfy the following relationship [17]:
1
βmax < (4)
20·D·νmax
where D is the diameter of the beam and νmax is the wavenumber of the shortest wavelength component
of the light source. For example, if D is 0.1 cm and νmax is 15,800 cm−1 , a tilting angle must be less than
0.002◦ . Hence, the extension of the travel range and the compensation of the tilting are two key factors
that can improve the spectral resolution.
2.2.2. Lamellar Grating Interferometer-Based FTS

A lamellar grating interferometer, which is basically a binary grating with a variable depth that
operates in the zeroth order of the diffraction pattern, is also applied as a FTS [18]. Compared with
a Michelson interferometer, which splits the wave amplitude via a beam splitter, a lamellar grating
interferometer divides the wave front. The lamellar grating (see Figure 2) is made of two sets of facets:
One fixed, and the other actuated to move up and down, producing an OPD between two coherent
light beams which are reflected off the top surfaces of the two sets of facets. The intensity I of the
diffraction pattern is given by Reference [19]
sin2nK 2 2 ϕ
2
sinK

I∝ cos (5)
K sin2K 2
where K = (πa) sinα/(2λ), λ is the incident wavelength, a is the grating period, and n is the number of
illuminated periods. The diffraction angle α and the phase difference ϕ are described as follows:
mλ

α = arcsin ,
a (6)
2π
ϕ= δ,
λ
where m is the diffraction order, and δ is the OPD, given by δ = d (1 + cosα + asinα/ (2d)), which is the
sum of distances AB, BC, and CD in Figure 2 [19]. When m = 0 and α = 0, the intensity I(δ) of the zeroth
diffraction order at different OPDs is picked to retrieve the spectrum using Equation (2).
𝛼 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 ,
(6)
𝜑= 𝛿,
where m is the diffraction order, and δ is the OPD, given by δ = d (1 + cosα + asinα/(2d)), which is the
sum of distances AB, BC, and CD in Figure 2 [19]. When m = 0 and α = 0, the intensity I(δ) of the zeroth
diffraction order at different OPDs is picked to retrieve the spectrum using Equation (2).
Figure 2. Schematic of a lamellar grating interferometer. (Reprinted with permission from Reference [19]
Figure 2. Schematic of a lamellar grating interferometer. (Reprinted with permission from Reference
The Optical Society).
[19] The Optical Society).
3. Fourier Transform Spectrometers Based on MEMS Mirrors
Using MEMS micromirrors to replace the movable mirror modules in conventional Michelson
interferometer-based FTS systems is a common solution for miniaturizing FTS. MEMS micromirrors
are driven by microactuators. Currently, there are mainly three types of MEMS micromirrors, namely,
electrostatic, electromagnetic and electrothermal, that have been used for FTS miniaturization. Another
type of micromirrors driven by piezoelectric actuation has also been developed [20,21], but not applied
for FTS miniaturization so far, due to the fact that piezoelectric MEMS mirrors tend to have limited
piston motion [22,23].
According to the requirements of chemical analysis applications, the resolutions of MEMS based
FTS must be 100 cm−1 or better [24]. Equation (3) yields that the needed OPD has to be over 100 µm,
thus, corresponding the movable mirror needs to travel more than 50 µm, which is a big challenge for
MEMS microactuators. On the other hand, the form factor of a MEMS based FTS is also crucial, which
directly affects the application range. Therefore, the miniaturization of MEMS based FTS is currently
focused on increasing the travel range of the micromirror and reducing its overall size.
3.1. Electrostatic MEMS Based FTS

Electrostatic actuation, widely used in the MEMS world for its high speed, low power consumption
and easy fabrication, is realized by applying a varying potential difference in the device structure to
produce a changing electrostatic force. For example, the digital micromirror device (DMD) (Texas
Instruments) that have been successfully commercialized in projection displays is based on electrostatic
actuation [25,26].
The essence of an electrostatic actuator is a capacitor, which is broadly defined as two conductors
that can hold the same or opposite charges. When the distance and the relative position between two
conductors change via stimulus, the capacitance value will change accordingly. When a voltage is
applied across two conductors, an electrostatic force will be generated between them [27].
Parallel-plate and interdigitated fingers (comb drives) are two types of electrostatic actuators
available to generate in-plane motions and out-of-plane motions. Two electrodes are involved in each
type of electrostatic actuators: One is fixed on the substrate, and the other is suspended and free to
move in the desired direction. The parallel-plate structure (see Figure 3a) has planar electrodes facing
each other, and the two parallel plates can move with respect to each other in two ways: Normal
displacement or parallel sliding displacement [27]. Parallel-plate actuators were applied to form
MEMS FTS by VTT [28], where multiple reflections between the two parallel mirror plates were used to
increase the OPD (13 reflections at 45◦ angle, producing a 275 µm OPD). However, the mirror surface
had a curvature of up to 200 nm, leading to serious wavefront distortion as the wavefront distortion
was amplified upon every reflection. Moreover, the reflection loss would be quite high, due to the
multiple reflections. Hence, comb-drive electrostatic actuators are more commonly applied in FTS.
MEMS FTS by VTT [28], where multiple reflections between the two parallel mirror plates were used
to increase the OPD (13 reflections at 45° angle, producing a 275 μm OPD). However, the mirror
surface had a curvature of up to 200 nm, leading to serious wavefront distortion as the wavefront
distortion was amplified upon every reflection. Moreover, the reflection loss would be quite high,
due to the multiple
Micromachines reflections. Hence, comb-drive electrostatic actuators are more commonly applied
2020, 11, 214 5 of 28
in FTS.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 3.3. Various

Figure Various configurations
configurations of electrostatic
electrostatic actuation:
actuation: (a)
(a) Parallel-plate
Parallel-platestructure
structure(out-of-plane
(out-of-plane
motion and
motion and in-plane
in-plane motion);
motion); (b) transverse
transverse motion
motion comb
comb structure;
structure;(c)
(c)longitudinal
longitudinalmotion
motioncomb
comb
structure; (d) out-of-plane motion
structure; (d) out-of-plane motion comb structure.
A comb drive consists of two sets of electrodes placed in the same plane parallel to the substrate,
which is usually actuated via three operation modes: Transverse, longitudinal and out-of-plane (see
Figure 3b–d. (1) Transverse comb drives: The set of free fingers moves in a perpendicular direction to
the longitudinal axis of comb fingers; (2) longitudinal comb drives: The direction of relative movement
is along the longitudinal axis of the fingers, allowable by the suspension; and (3) Comb drives designed
to produce out-of-plane displacement: They are initially located at the same plane and actuated by
the fringe capacitance fields. The comb drives, which are commonly used in MEMS FTS, have large
length-to-width aspect ratio and rectangular shape viewed from the top and side. The amplitude of
the displacement of a comb drive under DC or quasi-static biasing is rather limited. Large piston
displacement can be generated from resonant actuation. Several in-plane and out-of-plane electrostatic
comb drive MEMS micromirrors and FTS are introduced below.
3.1.1. In-Plane Electrostatic MEMS Micromirrors and FTS

A MEMS micromirror driven by an in-plane electrostatic comb was successfully verified in FTS
in 1999 by Manzardo et al. [7]. They developed a voltage-movable MEMS mirror to replace the
moving mirror in a Michelson interferometer (see Figure 4a). In a conventional comb actuator, the
voltage-induced force relied on the square of the control voltage. To overcome this, two identical
comb-drive A and B were placed opposite to each other, which could generate a linear movement
with variable voltage. The mirror surface was formed by silicon sidewall via deep reactive ion etching
(DRIE) (see Figure 4b). When applying a 10 V-amplitude control voltage, the mirror could generate a
maximum vertical placement of 77 µm, leading to an OPD of 154 µm. The estimated spectral resolution
for He-Ne laser was 5.2 nm. Repeatability of ± 25 nm for the MEMS mirror position from the OPD was
measured. However, the mirror size was only about 75 µm × 500 µm, which was much smaller than
the size of the entire MEMS device (5 mm × 4 mm). Since the device was based on silicon-on-insulator
(SOI) wafer processing, the sidewall mirror surface height was limited by the device layer thickness of
the SOI wafer, and thus, greatly limited the FTS system’s luminous flux.
An in-plane electrostatically-actuated Lamellar grating interferometer was also proposed in 2004
by Manzardo et al. (see Figure 5) [19]. The actuator was fabricated using DRIE on an SOI wafer.
The height of the mirrors was 75 µm, and the number of the illustrated periods of the grating was
12, where the grating period was 90 µm. The whole silicon chip measures at 5 mm × 5 mm. In the
experiment, a maximum displacement of 145 µm was achieved with 65 V control voltage, corresponding
to a theoretical resolution of 70 cm−1 . The wavelength range extending from 380 nm to 1100 nm, due
to no reflection coating on the silicon mirrors.
a maximum vertical placement of 77 μm, leading to an OPD of 154 μm. The estimated spectral
resolution for He-Ne laser was 5.2 nm. Repeatability of ± 25 nm for the MEMS mirror position from
the OPD was measured. However, the mirror size was only about 75 μm × 500 μm, which was much
smaller than the size of the entire MEMS device (5 mm × 4 mm). Since the device was based on silicon-
on-insulator (SOI)
Micromachines 2020, 11, wafer
214 processing, the sidewall mirror surface height was limited by the device
6 of 28
layer thickness of the SOI wafer, and thus, greatly limited the FTS system’s luminous flux.
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 4.
4. An
An in-plane
in-plane electrostatic
electrostatic comb
comb micro-electromechanical
micro-electromechanical system
system (MEMS)
(MEMS) based
based Fourier
Fourier
transform
transformspectrometers
spectrometers(FTS):
(FTS):(a)
(a)Schematic
SchematicofofFTS;
FTS; (b)
(b) scanning
scanning electron
electron microscope
microscope (SEM)
(SEM) of
of the
the
MEMS mirror. (Reprinted with permission from Reference [7] The Optical Society).
MEMS mirror. (Reprinted with permission from Reference [7] The Optical Society).
An in-plane electrostatically-actuated Lamellar grating interferometer was also proposed in 2004
by Manzardo et al. (see Figure 5) [19]. The actuator was fabricated using DRIE on an SOI wafer. The
height of the mirrors was 75 μm, and the number of the illustrated periods of the grating was 12,
where the grating period was 90 μm. The whole silicon chip measures at 5 mm × 5 mm. In the
experiment, a maximum displacement of 145 μm was achieved with 65 V control voltage,
corresponding to a theoretical resolution of 70 cm−1. The wavelength range extending from 380 nm to
1100 nm, due to no reflection coating on the silicon mirrors.
Figure 5.
Figure SEM of
5. SEM of an
an in-plane
electrostatic actuated
actuated Lamellar
Lamellar grating
grating interferometer.
interferometer. (Reprinted
(Reprinted with
with
Figure 5. SEM of an in-plane electrostatic actuated Lamellar grating interferometer. (Reprinted with
permission from Reference [19] The Optical Society).
Based on
Based on this
this actuator,
actuator, a aminiature
miniatureFTS FTSwaswasdesigned
designed byby Briand
Briand et al.
et al. in 2007in 2007 [29].
[29]. The
The Based on this module
interferometric actuator,involved
a miniatureMEMS, FTSactuation
was designed by Briand
electronics to driveet the
al. inMEMS2007 and
[29].give
The
interferometric module involved MEMS, actuation electronics to drive the MEMS and give a feedback
ainterferometric
of feedback of the
the motion,
module
motion,
optical
involved
component
MEMS, actuation
optical component
to bring thetolight
bringelectronics
the light
onto
to drive
onto
the surface the the MEMS
of surface
the MEMS of and
the give a feedback
MEMS
mirrors, mirrors,
and two
of
and the
two motion,
fibers optical
for component
in-coupling and to bring
out-couplingthe light
the onto
light the
(see surface
Figure of
6). the
The MEMS
instrument mirrors,
was and two
compact
fibers for in-coupling and out-coupling the light (see Figure 6). The instrument was compact and
fibers
and for in-coupling
portable, and out-coupling the lightto(see Figure 6). The instrument was compact and
portable, and and in principle,
in principle, easily
easily upgradeable
upgradeable to anyany wavelength
wavelength above
above 2.62.6μm
µmup uptoto55μm, which
µm, which
portable,
depended on and in
on the principle, easily
the photodetector.
photodetector. In upgradeable
In their to any
their experiment, wavelength
experiment, aa single
single InGaAsabove 2.6
InGaAs photodiode μm
photodiode wasup to 5 μm,
was appliedwhich
applied to
to
depended
depended
record the on the photodetector.
spectra. This FTS was In their
able to experiment,
measure 400 a single
spectra per InGaAs
second. photodiode was applied to
record the spectra. This FTS was able to measure 400 spectra per second.
record the spectra. This FTS was able to measure 400 spectra per second.
Figure 6. A miniature FTS, including driving electronics, MEMS and fibers. (Reprinted with
Figure6.6.A A
Figure miniature
miniature FTS,FTS, including
including driving
driving electronics,
electronics, MEMS
MEMS and fibers.and fibers. (Reprinted
(Reprinted with
with permission
permission from Reference [29] IEEE).
permission
from from
Reference Reference
[29] IEEE). [29] IEEE).
Further, FTS systems for near-infrared (ARCspectro ANIR) and mid-infrared (ARCspectro
Further,FTS
Further, FTSsystems
systemsforfor near-infrared
near-infrared (ARCspectro
(ARCspectro ANIR) ANIR) and mid-infrared
and mid-infrared (ARCspectro
(ARCspectro AMIR)
AMIR) were developed based on this type of MEMS by Merenda et al. in 2010 [30]. The new design
AMIR)
were were developed
developed based onbased on this
this type of type of by
MEMS MEMS by Merenda
Merenda et al. inet al. in
2010 2010
[30]. [30].
The newThe new design
design had a
had a pitch of 100 μm and an2 8 mm2 2active area. This FTS consisted of an interferometer, a VCSEL
had aofpitch
pitch of 100
100 µm andμm
an 8and
mmanactive
8 mmarea.
active area.
This FTSThis FTS consisted
consisted of an interferometer,
of an interferometer, a VCSEL adiode
VCSEL
to
diode to control the grating movement, and USB communication on a single PCB (see Figure 7). The
diode to control the grating movement, and USB communication on a single PCB (see Figure 7). The
overall size was 10 cm × 15 cm × 7 cm and the weight was 850 g. It could generate a maximal OPD of
overall size was 10 cm × 15 cm × 7 cm and the weight was 850 g. It could generate a maximal OPD of
more than 1 mm, corresponding to a spectral resolution of fewer than 8 cm−1−1. The wavelength stability
more than 1 mm, corresponding to a spectral resolution of fewer than 8 cm . The wavelength stability
was <0.5 nm at 1500 nm at stable conditions.
Figure 6. A miniature FTS, including driving electronics, MEMS and fibers. (Reprinted with
permission from Reference [29] IEEE).

Further, FTS systems for near-infrared (ARCspectro ANIR) and mid-infrared (ARCspectro
AMIR) were developed based on this type of MEMS by Merenda et al. in 2010 [30]. The new design
had a pitch
control of 100 μm
the grating and an 8and
movement, mmUSB2 active area. This FTS consisted of an interferometer, a VCSEL
communication on a single PCB (see Figure 7). The overall
diode to control
size was 10 cm ×the15 grating movement,
cm × 7 cm and USB
and the weight communication
was 850 g. It couldon a singleaPCB
generate (see Figure
maximal OPD of7).more
The
overall size was 10 cm × 15 cm × 7 cm and the weight was 850 g. It could
−1 generate a maximal
than 1 mm, corresponding to a spectral resolution of fewer than 8 cm . The wavelength stability was OPD of
more than 1 mm, corresponding to a
<0.5 nm at 1500 nm at stable conditions.spectral resolution of fewer than 8 cm −1. The wavelength stability
Figure 7.
7. Portable
PortableFTS
FTSfor
fornear-infrared/mid-infrared
near-infrared/mid-infrared (ARCspectro
(ARCspectro ANIR/AMIR)
ANIR/AMIR) utilizing an in-plane
in-plane
electrostatic MEMS lamellar grating. (Reprinted
(Reprinted with permission from Reference [30] SPIE).
An in-plane integrated FTS microsystem was implemented based on another sidewall

electrostatically driven MEMS micromirror by Yu et al. in 2006 [31]. The system integrated a
MEMS movable mirror, a fixed mirror, a beam splitter, and fiber U-grooves into a single SOI wafer (see
Figure 8a). The U-grooves were used for passive alignment of optical fibers. All the components were
made of the (110) silicon device layer of SOI wafers. The fabrication process combined deep reactive
ion etching (DRIE) with wet potassium hydroxide KOH etching, realizing a good surface quality
of the sidewall. The crystallographic (110) silicon device layer only allows two possible directions,
which makes the mirrors oriented at 70.53◦ not typical 45◦ . Figure 8b,c show the details of the fixed
mirror and the movable mirror, respectively. The fixed mirror had a large surface roughness as it
could only be fabricated by DRIE. The device realized in-plane integration of the FTS system, and the
overall size was only 4 mm × 8 mm × 0.6 mm, but the area of the comb drive structure occupied about
4 mm × 4 mm. The maximum displacement of the movable mirror was about 25 µm under 150 V
at a frequency of 5 Hz. The corresponding maximum OPD was 50 µm, and the spectral resolution
measured at a wavelength of 1500 nm was about 45 nm.
Khalil et al. successively proposed two fiber-coupled in-plane integration FTS systems based
on the classical Michelson interferometer and Mach-Zehnder interferometer in 2009 and 2011,
respectively [32,33]. All of the optical components were located on a single SOI chip. A platform, which
was called silicon-integrated micro-optical system technology (SiMOSTTM , Si-Ware Systems, Cairo,
Egypt) [34], was developed and utilized in the manufacturing process. The Michelson interferometer
system (see Figure 9a) was realized by applying a special single-medium interface (silicon-air) beam
and a vertical comb-based translational mirror. The reflective surfaces of both the moving mirror and
fixed mirror could either be metal-coated or an air-silicon Bragg mirror using DIRE. The comb-drive
actuator had 126 fingers which could achieve a vertical displacement of 48 µm at resonance. This
MEMS chip was mounted on a printed circuit board, and mixed laser sources of 1310 nm and 1550 nm
were inserted to the FTS using an optical fiber.
mirror and the movable mirror, respectively. The fixed mirror had a large surface roughness as it
could only be fabricated by DRIE. The device realized in-plane integration of the FTS system, and the
overall size was only 4 mm × 8 mm × 0.6 mm, but the area of the comb drive structure occupied about
4 mm × 4 mm. The maximum displacement of the movable mirror was about 25 μm under 150 V at a
frequency of 11,
Micromachines 2020, 5 214
Hz. The corresponding maximum OPD was 50 μm, and the spectral resolution 8 of 28
measured at a wavelength of 1500 nm was about 45 nm.
(b)
(a)
(c)
Figure
Figure
Micromachines 8. 8. 11,
An
2020, An xin-plane
electrostatic comb-based
comb-based FTS:
FTS: (a) (a)
SEMSEM of the
of the micromachined
micromachined FTS;
FTS; (b) (b)
SEMSEM of 26
of8 of
thethe movable
movable micromirror
micromirror withwith
thethe sidewall
sidewall obtained
obtained by potassium
by potassium hydroxide
hydroxide (KOH)
(KOH) etching;
etching; (c) SEM
(c) SEM
of of
thethe fixed
fixed mirror
mirror with
with the the sidewall
sidewall defined
defined by by deep
deep reactive
reactive ionion etching
etching (DRIE).
(DRIE). (Reprinted
(Reprinted
DIRE. The comb-drive actuator had 126 fingers which could achieve a vertical displacement of 48 withwith
μm
permission
permission fromfrom Reference
Reference [31] [31] Elsevier).
Elsevier).
at resonance. This MEMS chip was mounted on a printed circuit board, and mixed laser sources of
1310 nm and 1550 nm were inserted to the FTS using an optical fiber.
Khalil et al. successively proposed two fiber-coupled in-plane integration FTS systems based on
the classical Michelson interferometer and Mach-Zehnder interferometer in 2009 and 2011,
respectively [32,33]. All of the optical components were located on a single SOI chip. A platform,
which was called silicon-integrated micro-optical system technology (SiMOSTTM, Si-Ware Systems,
Cairo, Egypt) [34], was developed and utilized in the manufacturing process. The Michelson
interferometer system (see Figure 9a) was realized by applying a special single-medium interface
(silicon-air) beam and a vertical comb-based translational mirror. The reflective surfaces of both the
moving mirror and fixed mirror could either be metal-coated or an air-silicon Bragg mirror using
(a) (b)
Figure 9. In
In plane-integrated
plane-integrated FTS:
FTS: (a)
(a) Classical
Classical Michelson
interferometer configuration;
configuration; (b)
(b) Mach-
Mach-
Zehnder configuration. (Reprinted with permission from Reference [33] SPIE).
The Mach-Zehnder interferometer (see Figure Figure 9b) reported

reported by Khalil et al. had two transmission
outputs that were
were utilized
utilized to
tocancel
cancelthe
thesource
sourcefluctuation
fluctuationnoise
noiseand
andincrease the
increase theSNR.
SNR. Two
Twosilicon-air
silicon-
air beam splitters and two metallic mirrors were used in the system. The overall size of the chip only
beam splitters and two metallic mirrors were used in the system. The overall size of the chip was was
mm1 ×mm
1only 2 mm. When
× 2 mm. applying
When a voltage
applying of 70of
a voltage V, 70
theV,micromirror couldcould
the micromirror achieve a maximum
achieve a maximumOPD
displacement
OPD of 135ofµm
displacement 135atμm
resonance, and the
at resonance, andmeasured spectral
the measured resolution
spectral of 1550ofnm
resolution was
1550 nmabout
was
25 nm.
about 25 nm.
Mortada et al. presented another on-chip Michelson interferometer based FTS in 2014 [35]. This
MEMS actuator (see Figure 10a) was working in a push-pull condition to produce a large
displacement. A double folded flexure structure was applied to reduce the parasitic torque usually
happened in fabrication tolerance. The whole FTS device comprised a half-plane beam splitter, fixed
mirror, moving mirror attached to the MEMS actuator, and fiber grooves employed for optical fiber
insertion in an alignment-free manner (see Figure 10b). Etching depth larger than 300 μm was
The Mach-Zehnder interferometer (see Figure 9b) reported by Khalil et al. had two transmission
outputs that were utilized to cancel the source fluctuation noise and increase the SNR. Two silicon-
air beam splitters and two metallic mirrors were used in the system. The overall size of the chip was
only 1 mm 2020,
Micromachines × 2 mm.
11, 214When applying a voltage of 70 V, the micromirror could achieve a maximum 9 of 28
OPD displacement of 135 μm at resonance, and the measured spectral resolution of 1550 nm was
about 25 nm.
Mortada
Mortada et et al.
al.presented
presented another
another on-chip
on-chip Michelson
interferometer basedbased
FTS FTS in 2014
in 2014 [35].
[35]. This
This MEMS actuator (see Figure 10a) was working in a push-pull
MEMS actuator (see Figure 10a) was working in a push-pull condition to produce a large condition to produce a large
displacement.
displacement. A A double
double folded
folded flexure
flexure structure
structure waswas applied
applied toto reduce
reduce thethe parasitic
parasitic torque
torque usually
usually
happened
happened in fabrication tolerance. The whole FTS device comprised a half-plane beambeam
in fabrication tolerance. The whole FTS device comprised a half-plane splitter,
splitter, fixed
fixed mirror, moving mirror attached to the MEMS actuator, and fiber grooves
mirror, moving mirror attached to the MEMS actuator, and fiber grooves employed for optical fiber employed for optical
fiber insertion
insertion in aninalignment-free
an alignment-free manner
manner (see(see Figure
Figure 10b).
10b). Etching
Etching depthlarger
depth largerthan
than300
300 μm
µm was was
achieved with vertical surface angle and scalloping depth smaller than 0.1 ◦ and 60 nm, respectively. To
achieved with vertical surface angle and scalloping depth smaller than 0.1° and 60 nm, respectively.
demonstrate
To demonstrate the improvement
the improvement withwith
largerlarger
depth, multi-mode
depth, opticaloptical
multi-mode fibers fibers
with core
with diameters of 62.5
core diameters
µm and 200 µm were applied to transmit the white light to SOI chips with 90
of 62.5 μm and 200 μm were applied to transmit the white light to SOI chips with 90 μm and 200 μmµm and 200 µm device
layer
deviceheights. Experimental
layer heights. results showed
Experimental resultsthere was there
showed a 12 dB increase
was a 12 dBin the interference
increase in thesignal, which
interference
was a significant
signal, which wasboost for the SNR.
a significant boost for the SNR.
(a) (b)
Figure 10.
10. On-chip
On-chip in-plane
electrostatic comb-based
comb-based FTS:
FTS: (a) Comb-drive actuator; (b) optical
components. (Reprinted with permission from Reference [35] IEEE).
Eltagoury et al. developed a cascaded low-finesse Fabry-Perot interferometers based FTS (see
Figure
Figure 11)
11)inin 2016 [36].
2016 TwoTwo
[36]. Fabry-Perot interferometers
Fabry-Perot were applied
interferometers to replace
were applied toa replace
traditional Michelson
a traditional
interferometer in this system. A fixed Fabry-Perot interferometer was a silicon block
Michelson interferometer in this system. A fixed Fabry-Perot interferometer was a silicon block that could generate
that
spectral modulation,
could generate
Micromachines 11, x and
2020,spectral thus, creating
modulation, andathus,
shifted version
creating of the interferogram
a shifted version of theaway from the point
interferogram away
9 of 26
of zero spacing between the two mirrors. The interferogram was then produced by the scanning
from the point
Fabry-Perot of zero spacing
interferometer between
attached the two mirrors.
to a relatively The electrostatic
large-stroke interferogram was then actuator.
comb-drive producedThis by
the scanning
compact Fabry-Perot
device interferometer
was fabricated on an SOIattached to ausing
substrate relatively
DRIElarge-stroke
with a simpleelectrostatic comb-drive
MEMS process flow.
actuator. This compact
The Fabry-Perot device was
interferometer fabricated on
configuration an SOI
simply substrate
arranged theusing
mirrors DRIE
in awith
line, amaking
simpleitMEMS
much
process
tolerant flow.
to theThe Fabry-Peroterrors.
misalignment interferometer configuration
This cascaded Fabry-Perotsimply arranged the
interferometer mirrors
based FTS in
hasa been
line,
making it muchreliably
demonstrated tolerantthrough
to the misalignment
a narrow laser errors.
sourceThis
of cascaded
1550 nm Fabry-Perot
and a wide bandinterferometer based
spectral source
FTS has been
composed of ademonstrated
SLED centeredreliably
around through
1300 nm.a narrow laser source of 1550 nm and a wide band
spectral source composed of a SLED centered around 1300 nm.
Figure 11.
Figure Cascaded FP
11. Cascaded FP interferometers
interferometers based
based FTS.
FTS. (Reprinted
(Reprinted with
with permission
permission from
from Reference
Reference [36]
[36]
SPIE).
SPIE).
3.1.2. Out-of-Plane Electrostatic MEMS Micromirrors and FTS

The in-plane electrostatic MEMS micromirrors have good movement stability without tilting
problems. However, the mirror quality is commonly poor and unable to coat gold, aluminum, silicon
Figure 11.
Micromachines Cascaded
2020, 11, 214 FP interferometers based FTS. (Reprinted with permission from Reference [36]10 of 28
SPIE).
3.1.2. Out-of-Plane
3.1.2. Out-of-PlaneElectrostatic
Electrostatic MEMS
MEMS Micromirrors
Micromirrors and
and FTS
FTS
The in-plane
The in-plane electrostatic
electrostatic MEMS
MEMS micromirrors
micromirrors havehave good
good movement
movement stability
stability without
without tilting
tilting
problems. However, the mirror quality is commonly poor and unable to coat gold,
problems. However, the mirror quality is commonly poor and unable to coat gold, aluminum, silicon aluminum, silicon
film which
film which have
have high
high reflectance
reflectance toto near
near infrared
infrared light.
light. The
The FTS
FTS system’s
system’sluminous
luminousfluxfluxisis limited,
limited,
due to the height of the mirrors determined by the device layer thickness of the
due to the height of the mirrors determined by the device layer thickness of the SOI wafer, and theSOI wafer, and the
displacement is also restricted. Thus, out-of-plane electrostatic MEMS designs have
displacement is also restricted. Thus, out-of-plane electrostatic MEMS designs have been explored. been explored.
Sandner et
Sandner et al.
al. designed
designed anan out-of-plane
out-of-plane moving
moving electrostatic
electrostatic translational
translational MEMS
MEMS micromirror
micromirror
(type A design) in 2007, which was composed of the central mirror, long cantilever
(type A design) in 2007, which was composed of the central mirror, long cantilever and comb-drive and comb-drive
components (see Figure 12) [37]. The actual mirror was suspended on two long
components (see Figure 12) [37]. The actual mirror was suspended on two long bending springs. Thebending springs. The
chip size
chip size was
was 1.8 mm ××99mm,
1.8 mm mm,andandthethemirror
mirror size
size was
was 1.5 mm ××1.1
1.5 mm 1.1mm.
mm.TheThemirror
mirrorwas
washermetically
hermetically
packaged in a 100 Pa vacuum chamber to reduce the impact of air damping,
packaged in a 100 Pa vacuum chamber to reduce the impact of air damping, and thus, achieved and thus, achieved aa
maximum vertical
maximum vertical displacement
displacementof of 200
200 μm with 40
µm with 40 VV driving
driving voltage
voltage at
at 55 kHz
kHz resonance.
resonance. It It could
could
produce a spectral resolution of 25 cm −1 theoretically.
produce a spectral resolution of 25 cm theoretically.
−1
(a)
(b)
Figure
Figure 12.
12.Layout
Layout(a)
(a)and
andSEM
SEMimage
image(b)
(b)of
ofaatype
typeAAtranslational
translationalMEMS
MEMSmicromirror,
micromirror,using
using two
twolong
long
bending springs as mirror suspension. (Reprinted with permission from Reference
bending springs as mirror suspension. (Reprinted with permission from Reference [37] SPIE).
Type A translational
Type translational MEMS
MEMS micromirror
micromirror waswas integrated
integrated into
into aa small
small vacuum
vacuum chamber
chamber with
with
opticalwindows
optical windowslocated
locatedparallel
paralleltotothe
the front
front and
and back
back side
side of this
of this MEMS MEMS mirror.
mirror. A compact
A compact FTS
FTS was
was fabricated using type A MEMS micromirror (see Figure 13) in 2007. This MEMS
fabricated using type A MEMS micromirror (see Figure 13) in 2007. This MEMS micromirror was micromirror
was operated at 100 Pa in a vacuum chamber. A Peltier cooled IR detector was applied for recording
interference signals. A temperature-controlled VCSEL diode monitored the position and velocity of the
MEMS mirror in real time to increase the spectral accuracy. This MEMS FTS could produce a resolution
of 35 cm−1 for a wavelength range of 2.22 µm to 5.55 µm. The measured polystyrene spectrum was
consistent with the standard data.
Based on the design of type A translation MEMS micromirror, an improved design of type B,
applying two pantograph-like spring mechanisms for mirror suspension was realized (see Figure 14)
in 2007. In order to acquire a sufficiently large aperture for optical throughput, circular shape of 3
mm diameter was chosen for this mirror plate. A reduced resonance frequency of 500 Hz was chosen
to improve the SNR. This actuator was designed for a stroke of 500 µm, greatly increasing spectral
resolution to 10 cm−1 theoretically. However, only 280 µm displacement could be measured at a
maximum under the influence of superimposed parasitic torsional oscillation modes.
operated at 100 Pa in a vacuum chamber. A Peltier cooled IR detector was applied for recording
interference signals. A temperature-controlled VCSEL diode monitored the position and velocity of
the MEMS mirror in real time to increase the spectral accuracy. This MEMS FTS could produce a
Micromachinesof
resolution 35 11,
2020, cm 214 11 of 28
-1 for a wavelength range of 2.22 μm to 5.55 μm. The measured polystyrene
spectrum was consistent with the standard data.
Figure 13. A compact FTS using type A MEMS micromirror. (Reprinted with permission from
Reference [37] SPIE).
Figure 13.
to improve A compact
the SNR. FTS usingwas
This actuator typedesigned
A MEMSfor
micromirror.
a stroke of (Reprinted with permission
500 μm, greatly increasingfrom
spectral
Figure 13.[37]
Reference A compact
SPIE). FTS using type A MEMS micromirror. (Reprinted with permission from
resolution to 10 cm theoretically. However, only 280 μm displacement could be measured at a
-1
Reference [37] SPIE).
to improve the SNR. This actuator was designed for a stroke of 500 μm, greatly increasing spectral
resolution to 10 cm-1 theoretically. However, only 280 μm displacement could be measured at a
Figure 14.
Figure SEM
14.SEM and suspension
and suspension layoutlayout
of type of type B translational
B translational MEMS micromirror,
MEMS micromirror, using
using pantograph-
pantograph-type suspensions. (Reprinted with permission from Reference
type suspensions. (Reprinted with permission from Reference [37] SPIE). [37] SPIE).
An optimized translator MEMS with a new version of pantograph design was later developed
An optimized translator MEMS with a new version of pantograph design was later developed
by Sandner et al. in 2014 with a displacement of 1.2 mm at 30 Pa and 50 V environment [38]. It
by Sandner et al. in 2014 with a displacement of 1.2 mm at 30 Pa and 50 V environment [38]. It was
was designed to enable a spectral resolution of−18 cm−1 for a wavelength range 2.5 µm to 16 µm at
designed to enable a spectral resolution of 8 cm for a wavelength range 2.5 μm to 16 μm at 500 Hz
500 Hz scan rate using a 5 mm diameter round micromirror. The modified translatory MEMS actuator
scan rate using a 5 mm diameter round micromirror. The modified translatory MEMS actuator was
was made up of four pantograph suspensions in the fourfold rotationally symmetric configuration
made up of four pantograph suspensions in the fourfold rotationally symmetric configuration in
Figure 14.
in contrast to SEM
two and suspension used
pantographs layoutfor
of type B translational
previous type B MEMS
designmicromirror,
(see Figureusing
15a).pantograph-
It was driven
contrast to two pantographs used for previous type B design (see Figure 15a). It was driven
type suspensions. (Reprinted with permission from Reference [37] SPIE).
electrostatically at resonance by in-plane vertical comb drives placed at each of the four pantographs to
increase the driving efficiency (see Figure 15b). This MEMS device has been encapsulated in a hybrid
Anvacuum
optical optimized translator
package (seeMEMS
Figure with a new
15c) to reduceversion of pantograph
the significant design
viscous gas was later developed
damping in normal
by
ambient. While at the normal atmospheric pressure, the driving voltage of 40 V could only[38].
Sandner et al. in 2014 with a displacement of 1.2 mm at 30 Pa and 50 V environment It wasa
produce
designed to enable
displacement a spectral
of about 160 µm resolution
at resonance.of 8The
cmlarge
−1 for size
a wavelength range 2.5
of the electrostatic μm tomicromirror
MEMS 16 μm at 500 Hz
could
scan rate using a 5 mm diameter round micromirror. The modified translatory
be helpful in improving the displacement output. However, a large mirror of 5 mm produced 200 nm MEMS actuator was
made up of
distortion infour pantograph
the driving suspensions
process, in the the
which affected fourfold rotationally
divergence symmetric
of the light beam. configuration
In addition, thein
contrast to twousually
comb structure pantographs
occupiedused for space
a large previous type B design
and seriously affected(see
the Figure 15a).
fill-factor It micromirror,
of the was driven
which also indicated that the displacement generated by the unit drive area was relatively low.
produce a displacement of about 160 μm at resonance. The large size of the electrostatic MEMS
micromirror could be helpful in improving the displacement output. However, a large mirror of 5
mm produced 200 nm distortion in the driving process, which affected the divergence of the light
beam. In addition, the comb structure usually occupied a large space and seriously affected the fill-
factor of the2020,
Micromachines micromirror,
11, 214 which also indicated that the displacement generated by the unit drive
12area
of 28
was relatively low.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 15.
15.AA large
large displacement
displacement vertical
vertical electrostatic
electrostatic comb-driven
comb-driven MEMS micromirrors:
MEMS micromirrors: (a)
(a) Photograph
Photograph
of new MEMS of device
new MEMS
at 400 device at 400 μm
µm mechanical mechanical(b)
predeflected; predeflected; (b) modified
modified MEMS MEMS
design with D =design
5 mm
and aDstroke
with = 5 mm ofand
1 mm; (c) MEMS
a stroke vacuum
of 1 mm; package
(c) MEMS vacuumwithpackage
ZnSe window.
with ZnSe(Reprinted
window.with permission
(Reprinted with
from Reference
permission from[38] SPIE). [38] SPIE).
Reference
Ataman et
Ataman et al.
al. reported
reported AnAn out-of-plane
out-of-plane vertical
vertical comb-drive
comb-drive actuator
actuator for
for Lamellar
Lamellar grating
grating based
based
FTS in 2006 [39,40]. Two sets of electrostatic comb fingers were simultaneously
FTS in 2006 [39,40]. Two sets of electrostatic comb fingers were simultaneously applied as an actuatorapplied as an actuator
and aa variable
and depth diffraction
variable depth diffraction grating
grating (see
(see Figure
Figure 16a–c). In order
16a–c). In order toto enhance
enhance the
the robustness,
robustness, the the
comb fingers were symmetrically placed on a rigid backbone. The
comb fingers were symmetrically placed on a rigid backbone. The length and width of the comblength and width of the comb
fingers for
fingers for both
bothstatic
staticand
andmovable
movablewere were 1.21.2
mm mm andand 70 µm, respectively,
70 μm, where
respectively, the gap
where thebetween
gap betweenthem
was 5 was
them µm. 5Aμm.highAwidth-to-gap of the comb
high width-to-gap of thefingers
comb realized a high filla factor
fingers realized andfactor
high fill well optical
and well efficiency,
optical
but the grating period was also increased, which led to smaller separation
efficiency, but the grating period was also increased, which led to smaller separation between between diffraction orders.
The movable
diffraction fingers
orders. Thewere carried
movable by 250
fingers wide H-shaped
µm carried
were by 250 μm backbone connected
wide H-shaped to the fixed
backbone frame
connected
to the fixed frame through four folded flexure beam. The folded flexure structure (see Figurestress
through four folded flexure beam. The folded flexure structure (see Figure 16d) had uniform 16d)
distribution
had uniformand could
stress provide low
distribution stiffness
and couldwithin
provide a compact structure
low stiffness by varying
within the cross-sectional
a compact structure by
width. Only
varying the moving partwidth.
the cross-sectional of the MEMS
Only the device
moving was the
partresonating
of the MEMS structure. Out-of-plane
device resonant
was the resonating
mode operation of the comb actuator could generate a peak-to-peak 106
structure. Out-of-plane resonant mode operation of the comb actuator could generate a peak-to-peakµm deflection in ambient
106 μm deflection in ambient pressure under 28 V square-wave excitation, and could provide×a3large
pressure under 28 V square-wave excitation, and could provide a large clear aperture of 3 mm mm
for the
clear incident
aperture of beam.
3 mm ×The 3 mm Lamellar grating beam.
for the incident based The FTSLamellar
was constructed by employing
grating based the MEMS
FTS was constructed
device, a single detector, and an electronic circuit for processing the detector
by employing the MEMS device, a single detector, and an electronic circuit for processing the output. The theoretical
detector
spectral The
output. resolution of this
theoretical FTS was
spectral 0.4 nm inofthe
resolution thisvisible
FTS was range
0.4and
nm 3.2 nm visible
in the at telecom
rangewavelengths.
and 3.2 nm at
telecomSeren et al. implemented another out-of-plane resonant mode electrostatic MEMS for Lamellar
wavelengths.
grating based FTS in 2010 [41]. The device had a clear aperture of 10 mm × 10 mm. The fabricated
MEMS consisted of fixed and movable parallel fingers, which operated as a variable depth grating (see
Figure 17). This actuator transferred the motion to micromirror through four pantograph structures.
Two comb structures were carried by either side of each pantograph to motivate the device. In addition,
the width of fingers and gap between fingers for grating were kept constant. This device was actuated
through both comb fingers and grating fingers which were placed at the pantographs to make the
electrostatic force maximization. A maximum peak to peak deflection of 355 µm was achieved under
76 V and 971 Hz excitation environment.
(a)
(b) (c)
(d)
(a)
Figure 16. An electrostatic actuator for Lamellar grating
(b) based FTS: (a) FTS structure schematic:
(c) (1)
Fixed fingers, (2) Movable fingers, (3) Rigid backbone, (4) Folded flexures; (b) fabricated MEMS
device; (c) packaged device; (d) closed-up view of the serpentine flexure. (Reprinted with permission
from References [39,40] IOP Publishing, Ltd.).
Seren et al. implemented another out-of-plane resonant mode electrostatic MEMS for Lamellar
MEMS consisted of fixed and movable parallel fingers, which operated as a variable depth grating
(see Figure 17). This actuator transferred the motion to micromirror (d) through four pantograph
structures.
Figure
TwoAn comb structures
electrostatic actuator
werefor
actuator for
carried by grating
either side
Lamellargrating
ofFTS:
basedFTS:
each(a)pantograph
FTS structure
toschematic:
motivate the
Figure16.16. electrostatic Lamellar based (a) FTS structure schematic: (1)
device.
(1) In addition,
Fixed
Fixed
the width
fingers,(2)(2)Movable
fingers,
of fingers
Movablefingers, and
fingers,(3) gap
(3)Rigid between
Rigid backbone, fingers for grating
backbone, (4) Folded flexures; were
flexures; (b)
kept constant.
(b)fabricated
fabricatedMEMS
MEMS
This
device was (c)
device;
device; actuated
(c)packaged
packaged through
device; both
device;(d)
(d) comb view
closed-up
closed-up fingers and
viewofofthe
the gratingflexure.
serpentine
serpentine fingers
flexure. which were
(Reprinted
(Reprinted with placed
withpermissionat the
permission
pantographs
from to
fromReferences make
References[39,40]the electrostatic
[39,40]IOP
IOPPublishing, force maximization.
Publishing,Ltd.).
Ltd.). A maximum peak to peak deflection of
355 μm was achieved under 76 V and 971 Hz excitation environment.
Seren et al. implemented another out-of-plane resonant mode electrostatic MEMS for Lamellar
MEMS consisted of fixed and movable parallel fingers, which operated as a variable depth grating
(see Figure 17). This actuator transferred the motion to micromirror through four pantograph
structures. Two comb structures were carried by either side of each pantograph to motivate the
device. In addition, the width of fingers and gap between fingers for grating were kept constant. This
device was actuated through both comb fingers and grating fingers which were placed at the
pantographs to make the electrostatic force maximization. A maximum peak to peak deflection of
355 μm was achieved under 76 V and 971 Hz excitation environment.
Figure 17. SEM picture of the fabricated deflected device. (Reprinted with permission from
Figure 17. SEM picture of the fabricated deflected device. (Reprinted with permission from Reference
Reference [41] IEEE).
[41] IEEE).
3.1.3. Summary
3.1.3. Summary
Table 1 summarizes several parameters of electrostatic MEMS micromirrors and FTS.
Table 1 summarizes
The electrostatic several
actuators have fast parameters of electrostatic
response speed. However, high MEMS micromirrors
voltage is required,and FTS. The
and hundreds
electrostatic
of volts onlyactuators
producehave fasttens
several response speed. However,
of micrometers. high voltage
Moreover, is required,
high voltage and hundreds
introduces of
electronics
volts only produce
complexity several
and material tens of micrometers.
compatibility issues. The Moreover,
electrostatichigh voltage introduces
mechanisms commonly electronics
operate in
resonant frequency and vacuum encapsulation to increase the displacement. On the other hand, pull-in
occurs in electrostatic actuators, which may lead to irreversible damages for short circuit, arcing and
Figure
surface 17. SEM
bonding. picture
The of the
pull-in fabricated
behavior deflectedthe
prevents device. (Reprinted with
displacement of anpermission
actuator from
fromReference
reaching its
[41] IEEE).
full-gap allowable range, so that only 1/3 of the initial gap size could be used.
3.1.3. Summary
Table 1 summarizes several parameters of electrostatic MEMS micromirrors and FTS. The
electrostatic actuators have fast response speed. However, high voltage is required, and hundreds of
volts only produce several tens of micrometers. Moreover, high voltage introduces electronics
Table 1. Comparison of electrostatic micro-electromechanical system (MEMS) micromirrors and Fourier transform spectrometers (FTS).
Authors Institution Actuation Type Core of FTS Displacement Work Condition Device Size Reference
MEMS chip: 5 × 4 mm2
Manzardo et al. UniNE In-plane MI 77 µm 10 V–amplitude [7]
(Mirror: 75 × 500 µm2 )
Manzardo et al. UniNE In-plane LGI 145 µm 65 V MEMS chip: 5 × 5 mm2 [19]
ARCoptix and
Merenda et al. In-plane LGI >500 µm − Entire FTS: 10 × 15 × 7 cm3 [30]
EPFL
SNU, Stanford,
Yu et al In-plane MI 25 µm 150 V @ 5 Hz Entire FTS: 4 × 8 × 0.6 mm3 [31]
and SNL
Khalil et al. ASU and SWS In-plane MI 48 µm @ resonance - [32,33]
Khalil et al. ASU and SWS In-plane MZI 62.5 µm 70 V @ resonance Entire FTS: 1 × 2 mm2 [33]
Mortada et al. SWS, EP, and ASU In-plane MI 62.5 µm or 200 µm − − [35]
Eltagoury et al. ASU and SWS In-plane FPI − − − [36]
40 V @ 100 Pa MEMS chip: 1.8 × 9 mm2
Sandner et al. IPMS Out-of-plane − 200 µm [37]
vacuum, 5 kHz (Mirror: 1.5 × 1.1 mm2 )
Sandner et al. IPMS Out-of-plane − 500 µm 500 Hz Aperture: 3 mm in diameter [37]
50 V @ 30 Pa
Sandner et al. IPMS Out-of-plane − 1.2 mm Aperture: 5 mm in diameter [38]
vacuum, 500 Hz
Ataman et al. KU and IPMS Out-of-plane LGI 106 µm 28 V @ resonance Aperture: 3 × 3 mm2 [39,40]
Seren et al. KU and IPMS Out-of-plane LGI 355 µm 76 V @ 971 Hz Aperture: 10 × 10 mm2 [41]
(UniNE: University of Neuchâtel; EPFL: Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne; SNU: Seoul National University; SNL: Sandia National Lab; ASU: Ain-Shams University; SWS:
Si-Ware Systems; EP: ESIEE Paris; IPMS: Fraunhofer Institute for Photonic Microsystems; KU: Koc University; MI: Michelson Interferometer; LGI: Lamellar Grating Interferometer; MZI:
Mach-Zehnder Interferometer; FPI: Fabry-Perot Interferometer).
3.2. Electromagnetic MEMS Based FTS

Electromagnetic based MEMS mirrors typically have such characteristics as relatively large
displacement, low voltage, and high speed [27]. Magnetization is a phenomenon when a magnetic
field causes internal magnetic polarization of a piece of magnetic material within the field. A piece of
magnetic material comprises magnetic domains. Each magnetic domain involves a magnetic dipole.
The intensity of the internal magnetization of the magnetic material relies on the ordering of these
domains. A net internal magnetic field of the magnetic material is produced via these domains, if
they are slightly aligned. The magnetic field may come from a permanent magnet, an integrated coil,
an external solenoid, or their hybrid manner. Ferromagnetic materials (e.g., iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), or
permalloy (Fe-Ni)) are often applied in MEMS actuators [27]. The force-generating structure of an
electromagnetic microactuator is commonly placed on a chip, which can be a permanent magnet (hard
ferromagnet), a soft ferromagnet, or an integrated coil. When an external magnetic field is present, an
internal magnetization is generated in the ferromagnet. Hard ferromagnets can retain certain magnetic
polarization when there is no external magnetic driving field, while soft ferromagnets can exhibit
internal magnetization only when it is placed in a biasing, external magnetic field. Lorentz-type
and magnetic pole type are two kinds of electromagnetic MEMS micromirrors for FTS, which are
detailed below.
3.2.1. Lorentz-Type Electromagnetic MEMS Micromirrors and FTS
3.2.1. Lorentz-Type Electromagnetic MEMS Micromirrors and FTS
When a current is injected into a conductive coil which is perpendicular to an external magnetic
field,When a current
the coil is injected
will experience into a conductive
a magnetic coil which
force (Lorenz is perpendicular
force). to an external
The magnetic force magnetic
can be applied to
field, the coil will experience a magnetic force (Lorenz force). The magnetic force can be applied
produce either in-plane or out-of-plane linear motion. The Lorenz force varies with the input current. to
produce either
Coil-based in-plane
magnetic or out-of-plane
actuation linear
can generate motion.
either Themotion
piston Lorenzorforce varies
rotation with the input
depending on thecurrent.
spring
Coil-based magnetic actuation can generate either piston motion
design and the external magnetic field direction (see Figure 18). or rotation depending on the spring
design and the external magnetic field direction (see Figure 18).
Figure 18. Coil-based magnetic actuators.

Figure 18. Coil-based magnetic actuators.
Wallrabe et al. reported an electromagnetic actuator driven large displacement movable

Wallrabe et al. reported an electromagnetic actuator driven large displacement movable
micromirror using a LIGA fabrication process in 2005 [42]. This electromagnetic micromirror, a
collimator, a photodetector and other optical elements were integrated together on a single substrate
(see Figure 19) [8,43], forming a miniature FTS optical platform with a footprint of 11.5 mm × 9.4 mm.
The actuator had two assembled microcoils with soft magnetic Fe-Ni alloy cores. The movable plunger
The actuator had two assembled microcoils with soft magnetic Fe-Ni alloy cores. The movable
was suspended by a set of four folded cantilever beams, and the coils were employed at either end of
plunger was suspended by a set of four folded cantilever beams, and the coils were employed at
the plunger. The plunger could be pulled in both directions, thus, doubling the travel range.
either end of the plunger. The plunger could be pulled in both directions, thus, doubling the travel
The produced magnetic force was related to the number of windings in the coil. With 300 windings,
range.
the maximum displacement was about 110 µm at 12 mW. When the input power exceeds 12 mW, the
actuator started to exhibit instability, due to the occurrence of pull-in behavior, which greatly limited
the useful displacement of the movable mirror. The available displacement of the actuator was only
54 µm, and an 850 nm laser was applied to measure the mirror displacement. The spectral resolution of
this FTS was 24.5 nm at 1540 nm. Although this electromagnetic actuator achieved a large scan range
and large optical aperture, due to the presence of a pull-in behavior, only a fraction of the full scan
range could be used. In addition, the LIGA process is very expensive and difficult to access.
Figure 19. Top view of an electromagnetically actuated miniature FTS using the LIGA process.
The actuator had two assembled microcoils with soft magnetic Fe-Ni alloy cores. The movable
plunger was suspended by a set of four folded cantilever beams, and the coils were employed at
either end of the plunger. The plunger could be pulled in both directions, thus, doubling the travel
range.
Figure 19.
Figure Top view
19. Top view of
of an
an electromagnetically actuated miniature
electromagnetically actuated miniature FTS
FTS using
using the
the LIGA
LIGA process.
process.
(Reprinted with permission from Reference [43] Elsevier).
(Reprinted with permission from Reference [43] Elsevier).
An electromagnetically
The produced magnetic driven
forceLamellar grating
was related to based FTS wasofdeveloped
the number windingsby inYutheet coil.
al. inWith
2008 [44].
300
The electromagnetic actuator was applied to drive the movable surfaces
windings, the maximum displacement was about 110 μm at 12 mW. When the input power exceeds of the lamellar grating to
move bi-directionally (see Figure 20a,b). The size of the permanent magnet was
12 mW, the actuator started to exhibit instability, due to the occurrence of pull-in behavior, which 700 µm × 700 µm
× 500 µm,
greatly which
limited was placed perpendicular to the central platform. The actuation of this FTS of was
Micromachines 2020,the
11, xuseful displacement of the movable mirror. The available displacement 15 the
of 26
achieved by a driving coil positioned under the device. When applying 129 mA-amplitude
actuator was only 54 μm, and an 850 nm laser was applied to measure the mirror displacement. The currents to
the actuation
spectral coil, a of
resolution large deflectionwasof24.5
125 nm
µm was produced.Although
The resultant force varied linearly with
to the actuation coil, a this
largeFTS
deflection at 1540
of 125 μm was nm. this electromagnetic
produced. The resultant force variedactuator
linearly
the injecting
achieved current,
a large scan which greatly
rangewhich
and largesimplified
optical control procedures.
aperture, due to the Moreover,
presence ofthis designbehavior,
a pull-in avoids pull-in
only
with the injecting current, greatly simplified control procedures. Moreover, this design avoids
instability
apull-in
fraction so that
of the fulllarger deflections
scanlarger (hundreds
rangedeflections
could be used. of microns)
In addition, can be
the LIGAgenerated
process only
is veryby increasing the
instability so that (hundreds of microns) can be generated onlyexpensive and
by increasing
applied
difficult current.
to access. The measured spectral resolution was 3.8 nm at 632.8 nm and 3.44 nm at 532 nm.
the applied current. The measured spectral resolution was 3.8 nm at 632.8 nm and 3.44 nm at 532 nm.
An electromagnetically driven Lamellar grating based FTS was developed by Yu et al. in 2008
[44]. The electromagnetic actuator was applied to drive the movable surfaces of the lamellar grating
to move bi-directionally (see Figure 20a,b). The size of the permanent magnet was 700 μm × 700 μm
× 500 μm, which was placed perpendicular to the central platform. The actuation of this FTS was
achieved by a driving coil positioned under the device. When applying 129 mA-amplitude currents
(a) (b)
Figure 20. An electromagnetically

electromagnetically driven
driven Lamellar
Lamellar grating
grating based
based FTS:
FTS: (a)
(a) SEM;
SEM; (b)
(b) microscope
microscope image.
image.
Reference [44]
(Reprinted with permission from Reference [44] IOP
IOP Publishing,
Publishing, Ltd.).
Ltd.).
proposed an
Baran et al. proposed an electromagnetically
electromagnetically actuated
actuated Flame-retardant-4
Flame-retardant-4 (FR4) scanner replacing
the movable mirror in Michelson interferometer in 2011 [45]. FR4 was a composite material which
has been used for PCB with well-engineered electrical, mechanical and thermal properties. The FR4
actuator (see Figure 21a) could enhance the out-of-plane translation when applying two opposing
magnets approach to suppress the torsion effects. The central movable movable part was anchored via four
flexures to produce out-of-plane resonance frequency (see Figure 21b). The serpentine shape flexures
were used to increase torsion mode stiffness, and and decrease
decrease out-of-plane
out-of-plane mode stiffness. The mirror
reflector. This actuator could generate ±
tilting was suppressed by applying a corner cube reflector. µm
± 162.8 μm
out-of-plane translation
out-of-plane translationatat149 HzHz
149 resonate mode
resonate modewithwith
120 mVpp applied
120 mVpp voltage,
applied leadingleading
voltage, to a spectral
to a
resolution
spectral <1 nm. The
resolution whole
<1 nm. Thedevice
wholewas
device × 8 cm
7 cm was with
7 cm × 8a cm
mirror
withsize × 1 of
of 1 cmsize
a mirror cm1 (see
cm ×Figure
1 cm 21c).
(see
However,
Figure since
21c). the FR4 since
However, material
the was
FR4 extremely soft,extremely
material was the actuator could
soft, the not stop under
actuator couldsuch big current
not stop under
and could
such not come
big current andback to the
could notoriginal point,
come back to which dramatically
the original decreases
point, which the accuracy.
dramatically decreases the
accuracy.
(a)
tilting was suppressed by applying a corner cube reflector. This actuator could generate ± 162.8 μm
out-of-plane translation at 149 Hz resonate mode with 120 mVpp applied voltage, leading to a
spectral resolution <1 nm. The whole device was 7 cm × 8 cm with a mirror size of 1 cm × 1 cm (see
Figure 21c). However, since the FR4 material was extremely soft, the actuator could not stop under
such big current
Micromachines 2020, 11,and
214 could not come back to the original point, which dramatically decreases
17 ofthe
28
accuracy.
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure
Micromachines 21.
2020,21.
Figure Design
11,Design
x ofofthe
theFR4
FR4 Lorentz-type
Lorentz-type electromagnetic
electromagnetic actuator:
actuator: (a) (a)
SideSide view
view of system;
of the the system; (b)
(b) top 16 of 26
top view
view of theofsystem;
the system; (c)assembled
(c) fully fully assembled
device.device. (Reprinted
(Reprinted with permission
with permission from Reference
from Reference [45] AMER[45]
AMER
SOC
3.2.2. Magnetic SOC MECHANICAL
MECHANICAL
Pole-Type ENGINEERS).
ENGINEERS).
Electromagnetic MEMS Micromirors and FTS
3.2.2. Magnetic
Magnetic Pole-Type
pole-type ElectromagneticMEMS
electromagnetic MEMS Micromirors
actuators (seeand FTS
Figure 22) with magnetic materials
are deposited on the
Magnetic movable
pole-type parts. TheMEMS
electromagnetic magnetic poles
actuators (seeare generated
Figure 22) withat the ends
magnetic of theare
materials magnetic
deposited on the movable parts. The magnetic poles are generated at the ends of the magnetic
material coated movable part when an external magnetic field is applied. An interactive force, either material
coatedormovable
attractive partforce,
repulsive when isanthen
external magneticbetween
generated field is applied. An interactive
the movable part andforce,
theeither attractive
magnetic field. Such
or repulsive force, is then generated between the movable part and the magnetic field. Such actuation
actuation can be in-plane or out-of-plane regarding the external field direction.
can be in-plane or out-of-plane regarding the external field direction.
Figure 22. Electromagnetic actuators with magnetic materials formed on the movable structure.
Xue et al. introduced a large displacement with high surface quality in-plane electromagnetically
Figure 22. Electromagnetic actuators with magnetic materials formed on the movable structure.
actuated translation micromirror for FTS in 2016 [46]. The actuator comprised a nickel film (see
Figure 23a) fabricated by MetalMUMPs [47], and a solenoid located underneath the film. The nickel
Xue et al. introduced a large displacement with high surface quality in-plane electromagnetically
film could curve up via the residual stress gradient and a curve-up mechanism, including four
actuated translation
trapezoidal platesmicromirror
and anchoringfor FTS inA2016
springs. [46].
size of The×actuator
2 mm comprised
2 mm mirror plate wasaconnected
nickel film
to (see
the Figure
23a) fabricated
central ring by MetalMUMPs
of the nickel film (see[47], and
Figure a solenoid
23b). located
The translation wasunderneath
realized by a the film.attracting
solenoid The nickel film
couldthe
curve upfilm
nickel viaalong
the residual
with thestress
mirrorgradient and a curve-up
plate downwards. mechanism,
A quasi-static including
displacement of 123four
µm trapezoidal
was
generated at 400 mA. The mirror achieved a high surface quality with 15.6 nm
plates and anchoring springs. A size of 2 mm × 2 mm mirror plate was connected to the centralcurvature radius and ring
2 nm surface roughness.
of the nickel film (see Figure23b). The translation was realized by a solenoid attracting the nickel film
along with the mirror plate downwards. A quasi-static displacement of 123 μm was generated at 400
mA. The mirror achieved a high surface quality with 15.6 nm curvature radius and 2 nm surface
roughness.
plates and anchoring springs. A size of 2 mm × 2 mm mirror plate was connected to the central ring
of the nickel film (see Figure23b). The translation was realized by a solenoid attracting the nickel film
along with the mirror plate downwards. A quasi-static displacement of 123 μm was generated at 400
mA. The mirror 2020,
Micromachines achieved
11, 214 a high surface quality with 15.6 nm curvature radius and 2 18nm
of 28surface
roughness.
(a) (b)
FigureFigure
23. Prototype pf the
23. Prototype translation
pf the translationmicromirror: (a)Nickel
micromirror: (a) Nickelfilm;
film;
(b)(b) nickel
nickel film film bonded
bonded with the
with the
mirror plate. (Reprinted with permission from Reference [46] IOP Publishing,
mirror plate. (Reprinted with permission from Reference [46] IOP Publishing, Ltd.). Ltd.).
A repulsive magnetic force driven out-of-plane micromirror with large displacement and high
Asurface
repulsive magnetic force driven out-of-plane micromirror with large displacement and high
quality was later developed for FTS by Xue et al. in 2017 [48]. This design did not need the
surfaceresidual
qualitystress
wasgradients
later developed formoving
to curl up the FTS byfilm.
XueIt et al. ina2017
applied [48]. This
permanent magnet design did not
ring above and anneed the
residual stress gradients
electromagnet to curl
underneath theup the moving
moving film (seefilm. It 24b)
Figure applied a permanent
to generate repulsivemagnet
magneticring
forceabove
for and
an electromagnet underneath the moving film (see Figure 24b) to generate repulsive magnetic force
moving the film to generate out-of-plane motion. The moving film (fabricated by MetalMUMPs [47])
was connected
for moving mm × 2 mm
the filmtotoa 2generate mirror plate motion.
out-of-plane using non-touching
The moving bonding
filmtechnology
(fabricated(seeby
Figure 24a).
MetalMUMPs
The micromirror had a radius of curvature of 9.2 m and surface roughness
[47]) was connected to a 2 mm × 2 mm mirror plate using non-touching bonding technology (see of 12 nm. The maximum
displacement of 144 µm was achieved when 140 mA was injected into the electromagnet. However,
Figure 24a). The micromirror had a radius of curvature◦ of 9.2 m and surface roughness of 12 nm. The
only 30 µm translation could be used in FTS, due to 0.3 tilting. The measurement accuracy of 2.19 %
maximum displacement
for a 532 nm11,laser
of 144 μm was achieved when 140 mA was injected into the electromagnet.
Micromachines 2020, x beam was obtained. 17 of 26
However, only 30 μm translation could be used in FTS, due to 0.3° tilting. The measurement accuracy
of 2.19 % for a 532 nm laser beam was obtained.
(a) (b)
FigureFigure
24. Concept of the
24. Concept micromirror:
of the micromirror:(a)
(a)Moving filmofofthethe
Moving film micromirror;
micromirror; (b) structure
(b) structure of the of the
micromirror. (Reprinted with permission from Reference [48] IOP Publishing,
micromirror. (Reprinted with permission from Reference [48] IOP Publishing, Ltd.). Ltd.).
3.2.3. Summary
3.2.3. Summary
Table 2 summarizes several parameters of electromagnetic MEMS micromirrors and FTS.
Table 2 summarizes
Electromagnetic several
actuators parameters
designed of electromagnetic
for FTS exhibit larger displacementMEMS micromirrors
and lower response speedand FTS.
Electromagnetic
compared toactuators designed
electrostatic actuators.for FTS exhibit
However, larger displacement
electromagnetic and have
actuators typically lower response
larger device speed
size to
compared tohold the external
electrostatic electromagnetic
actuators. However,field,electromagnetic
thus, reducing its compactness. At the same
actuators typically havetime, the device
larger
fabrication may cause asymmetry of the electromagnetic actuation structure, and the magnetic
size to hold the external electromagnetic field, thus, reducing its compactness. At the same time, the field
encapsulation is not precisely coaxial, leading to the tilting of the MEMS micromirror.
fabrication may cause asymmetry of the electromagnetic actuation structure, and the magnetic field
encapsulation is not precisely coaxial, leading to the tilting of the MEMS micromirror.
Table 2. Comparison of electromagnetic MEMS micromirrors and FTS.
Actuation Core of Work

Authors Institution Displacement Device Size Reference
Type FTS Condition
Wallrabe Uni Freiburg Lorentz- Entire FTS:
MI 110 μm 12 mW [8,43]
et al. and FK type 11.5 × 9.4 mm2
NUS and Lorentz- 129 mA–
Table 2. Comparison of electromagnetic MEMS micromirrors and FTS.
Actuation Work Device

Authors Institution Core of FTS Displacement Reference
Type Condition Size
Entire FTS:
Uni Freiburg
Wallrabe et al. Lorentz-type MI 110 µm 12 mW 11.5 × 9.4 [8,43]
and FK
mm2
129
Yu et al. NUS and DSI Lorentz-type LGI 125 µm − [44]
mA–amplitude
MEMS
chip: 7 × 8
120 mVpp @
Baran et al. KU Lorentz-type MI 325.6 µm cm2 [45]
149 Hz
(Mirror: 1
× 1 cm2 )
Magnetic Mirror: 2
Xue et al. RU − 123 µm 400 mA. [46]
pole-type × 2 mm2
Magnetic Mirror: 2
Xue et al. RU − 144 µm 140 mA [48]
pole-type × 2 mm2
(Uni Freiburg: University of Freiburg; FK: Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe; NUS: National University of Singapore;
DSI: Data Storage Institute of Singapore; KU: Koc University; RU: Ryerson University).
3.3. Electrothermal Actuation MEMS Based FTS

Electrothermal actuators are generally based on electrothermal bimorph actuation which is
realized by temperature variable via Joule heating induced from injecting an electrical current to a
resistive heater embedded in a bimorph beam. A bimorph structure (see Figure 25) comprises two
layers of materials with different coefficients of thermal expansion (CTEs). When the temperature
changes, thermal stress is generated, due to the difference of the CTEs of the two bimorph layers. The
beam curls toward the layer with a lower CTE value when the temperature rises; then, a transverse
beam bending is generated [9]. The electrothermal MEMS micromirrors designed for FTS can also
produce in-plane
Micromachines and
2020, 11, x out-of-plane motions, which are described below. 18 of 26
Figure 25. Electrothermal

Figure25. Electrothermal bimorph
bimorph structure.
structure.
3.3.1.
3.3.1. In-Plane
In-Plane Electrothermal
Electrothermal MEMS
MEMS Micromirror
Micromirrorand
andFTS
FTS
Sin
Sin et
et al.
al. proposed
proposed aa micro
micro FTS
FTS based
based on
onin-plane
in-plane electrothermal
electrothermal actuator
actuator in in 2006
2006 [49].
[49]. All
All the
the
optical components were fabricated on a micro-optical bench using the DRIE process
optical components were fabricated on a micro-optical bench using the DRIE process on an SOI wafer. on an SOI wafer.
V-beam
V-beam shape
shape structures
structures were
were applied
applied asas an
an electrothermal
electrothermal actuator.
actuator. The
Thestroke
strokewaswasamplified
amplifiedby bya
alever
levermechanism
mechanismconnected
connected to the end of the actuator (see Figure 26a). A symmetric
to the end of the actuator (see Figure 26a). A symmetric structure of two structure of
two actuators
actuators andand twotwo lever
lever mechanisms
mechanisms were
were employedtotoenhance
employed enhancethetheforce
force and
and eliminate
eliminate thethe stage
stage
rotation. The sockets were female mechanical flexure structure that enables
rotation. The sockets were female mechanical flexure structure that enables a precise mirrora precise mirror assembly.
The mirror The
assembly. could be picked
mirror couldupbeby a passive
picked up bymicrogripper by insertingby
a passive microgripper theinserting
gripper the
tip into the flexure
gripper tip into
structure.
the flexure The overall size
structure. Theofoverall
this interference
size of thisplatform was only
interference 10 mmwas
platform × 10only
mm10(see mmFigure
× 1026b),
mm and(see
the area26b),
Figure of theandmicromirror
the area ofwastheabout 0.5 mm ×
micromirror was0.45 mm. 0.5
about A ball
mmlens wasmm.
× 0.45 used Ato collimate
ball lens was incoming
used to
light whenincoming
collimate the micro FTSwhen
light was the
combined with
micro FTS wasa fiber light source
combined (see Figure
with a fiber 26c). (see
light source TheFigure
maximum 26c).
displacement
The maximum displacement of the movable mirror, driven by a voltage of 22 V was about 30toμm,
of the movable mirror, driven by a voltage of 22 V was about 30 µm, corresponding 60
corresponding to 60 μm OPD. The tilting angles of the mirror were from −2.5° to 0.8° during several
experiments. The measured spectral resolution of this micro FTS was about 25 nm at 632 nm.
actuators and two lever mechanisms were employed to enhance the force and eliminate the stage
rotation. The sockets were female mechanical flexure structure that enables a precise mirror
assembly. The mirror could be picked up by a passive microgripper by inserting the gripper tip into
the flexure structure. The overall size of this interference platform was only 10 mm × 10 mm (see
Figure 26b),2020,
Micromachines and11,the
214area of the micromirror was about 0.5 mm × 0.45 mm. A ball lens was used
20 of to
28
collimate incoming light when the micro FTS was combined with a fiber light source (see Figure 26c).
The maximum displacement of the movable mirror, driven by a voltage of 22 V was about 30 μm,
µm OPD. The tilting angles of the mirror were from −2.5◦ to 0.8◦ during several experiments. The
corresponding to 60 μm OPD. The tilting angles of the mirror were from −2.5° to 0.8° during several
measured spectral resolution of this micro FTS was about 25 nm at 632 nm.
experiments. The measured spectral resolution of this micro FTS was about 25 nm at 632 nm.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 26. (a)

(a) An
An electrothermal
electrothermal scanning
scanning mechanism
mechanism with aa lever
lever mechanism;
mechanism; (b)
(b) an
an assembled
assembled FTS;
FTS;
ball lens.
(c) an assembled FTS with a ball lens. (Reprinted with permission from Reference
Reference [49]
[49] SPIE).
SPIE).
Based on on this
this micro
microFTS,
FTS,another
anotherin-plane
in-planeelectrothermal
electrothermal actuator
actuator based
based FTSFTS
waswas developed
developed by
by Das et al. in 2008 [50,51]. The whole device was still fabricated on a 10 mm
Das et al. in 2008 [50,51]. The whole device was still fabricated on a 10 mm × 10 mm die. The actuator × 10 mm die.
The actuator
involved involved
5 beams 5 beams
of 100 μm × 12 of 100
μm µm × 12
× 503 × 503 µm,agenerating
µmgenerating
μm, displacementa displacement
of 45 μm underof 4545µmV
under
driving45voltage
V driving
and thevoltage andplaced
vertical the vertical
assemblyplaced assemblymirror
gold-coated gold-coated
was 1000mirror
μm ×was800 1000
μm inµm ×
size.
800 µm in size. The components of this FTS (see Figure 27) were different from
The components of this FTS (see Figure 27) were different from the previous design, including two the previous design,
including
MEMS mirrors,two MEMStwo MEMSmirrors, two MEMS
holders holders
for ball lenses,for ball
two lenses, two
spherical spherical
glass glassbeam
lenses, one lenses, one beam
splitter, one
splitter, one single-mode
single-mode optical fiber, optical
and fiber, and optionally,
optionally, one SMTone SMT detector
detector and oneand one VCSEL
VCSEL laser laser source.
source. The
The assembled
assembled FTSFTSwaswas carried
carried outout with
with precision
precision usingμµ3 3automated
robotsusing
robots automatedmicro-assembly
micro-assembly station
(having 19 precision degreesdegrees ofof freedom).
freedom). The new design was capable of two FTS instruments: instruments: One
for the visible range (400–750 nm), the other other for
for near
near infrared
infrared range
range (700–1800
(700–1800 nm).
nm). The calculated
spectral resolution of two FTS devices was about 3.6 nm at 600 nm wavelength and 12 nm at 1100 nm
wavelength,2020,
Micromachines respectively.
11, x
respectively. 19 of 26
Figure 27. Fully assembled electrothermal actuator-based FTS. (Reprinted with permission from
Figure 27. Fully assembled electrothermal actuator-based FTS. (Reprinted with permission from
Another miniature FTS was realized via in-plane thermal actuator by Reyes et al. (see Figure 28a)
Another miniature FTS was realized via in-plane thermal actuator by Reyes et al. (see Figure 28a)
in 2008 [52,53]. A special monolithic silicon MEMS solution based on SUMMiT-V technology [54] was
in 2008 [52,53]. A special monolithic silicon MEMS solution based on SUMMiT-V technology [54] was
used to fabricate the key structures. Compared with the traditional SOI platform having only one
used to fabricate the key structures. Compared with the traditional SOI platform having only one
device layer, it could make complex multilayer structures of silicon oxide and polysilicon. After the
device layer, it could make complex multilayer structures of silicon oxide and polysilicon. After the
release was completed, the mirror plate was connected to the bottom movable base via a hinge (see
release was completed, the mirror plate was connected to the bottom movable base via a hinge (see
Figure 28b). The micromirror was erected by the external force field, and the left and right structures of
Figure 28b). The micromirror was erected by the external force field, and the left and right structures
the mirror plate were raised to form a bracket, thus, locking and keeping the micromirror perpendicular
of the mirror plate were raised to form a bracket, thus, locking and keeping the micromirror
to the base. The movable base was connected to the micro-gear via a connecting rod (see Figure 28c).
perpendicular to the base. The movable base was connected to the micro-gear via a connecting rod
The transmission structure formed by the micro-gear and the crankshaft was connected to an in-plane
(see Figure 28c). The transmission structure formed by the micro-gear and the crankshaft was
thermal actuator via ratchet teeth. The actuator motion could drive the micro-gear to rotate in a specific
connected to an in-plane thermal actuator via ratchet teeth. The actuator motion could drive the
direction and then drive the connecting rod. A displacement of 600 µm was generated with an open
micro-gear to rotate in a specific direction and then drive the connecting rod. A displacement of 600
μm was generated with an open loop stepwise control of the gear system, producing a spectral
resolution of 8 cm-1. The complete mirror cycle was performed with 225 steps. However, the erection
of the components was done manually rather than automatic self-assembly, causing high operating
complexity. Moreover, the thin mirror caused mirror warping after metallization, and the curvature
was measured at 600 nm. This actuator could only realize stepwise scanning, which limited its
Figure 28b). The micromirror was erected by the external force field, and the left and right structures
of the mirror plate were raised to form a bracket, thus, locking and keeping the micromirror
perpendicular to the base. The movable base was connected to the micro-gear via a connecting rod
(see Figure 28c). The transmission structure formed by the micro-gear and the crankshaft was
connected to
Micromachines an11,in-plane
2020, 214 thermal actuator via ratchet teeth. The actuator motion could drive
21 ofthe
28
micro-gear to rotate in a specific direction and then drive the connecting rod. A displacement of 600
μm was generated with an open loop stepwise control of the gear system, producing a spectral
loop stepwise control of the gear system, producing a spectral resolution of 8 cm−1 . The complete
resolution of 8 cm-1. The complete mirror cycle was performed with 225 steps. However, the erection
mirror cycle was performed with 225 steps. However, the erection of the components was done
of the components was done manually rather than automatic self-assembly, causing high operating
manually rather than automatic self-assembly, causing high operating complexity. Moreover, the thin
complexity. Moreover, the thin mirror caused mirror warping after metallization, and the curvature
mirror caused mirror warping after metallization, and the curvature was measured at 600 nm. This
was measured at 600 nm. This actuator could only realize stepwise scanning, which limited its
actuator could only realize stepwise scanning, which limited its application in the short wavelength.
application in the short wavelength.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 28.
Figure 28.AA three-dimensional
three-dimensional miniature
miniature FTS on
FTS based based on thermal
thermal actuator: actuator: (a) Aftercompletion;
(a) After assembly assembly
completion; (b) before assembly; (c) actuator structure. (Reprinted with permission from References
(b) before assembly; (c) actuator structure. (Reprinted with permission from References [52,53] SPIE).
[52,53] SPIE).
3.3.2. Out-of-Plane Electrothermal MEMS Micromirror and FTS
3.3.2.Since
Out-of-Plane
the in-plane Electrothermal
electrothermalMEMSMEMS Micromirror
micromirrors andsustain
FTS limited displacement, out-of-plane
electrothermal
Since the MEMSin-planeconfigurations
electrothermalhave MEMS beenmicromirrors
proposed successively. Wu et
sustain limited al. demonstrated
displacement, out-of- a
lateral-shift-free
plane electrothermal (LSF)MEMSlarge-vertical-displacement
configurations have been (LVD) actuator
proposed based electrothermal
successively. micromirror
Wu et al. demonstrated
in 2008 [55] (see Figure 29), whose mirror plate size was 0.8 mm × 0.8
a lateral-shift-free (LSF) large-vertical-displacement (LVD) actuator based electrothermalmm. The LSF-LVD actuator
comprised two rigid frames and three aluminum (Al)/silicon
micromirror in 2008 [55] (see Figure 29), whose mirror plate size was 0.8 mm dioxide (SiO ) bimorph beams,
2 × 0.8 mm. The LSF-LVDwhich
could
actuatorcompensate
comprisedthe twolateral shift. Itand
rigid frames could generate
three aluminum a maximum vertical
(Al)/silicon displacement
dioxide (SiO2) bimorphof 620
beams,µm
under 5.3 V driving voltage in an FTS. The scanning tilting of the micromirror was as high as 0.7 ◦ , due
Micromachines 2020, 11, x
which could compensate the lateral shift. It could generate a maximum vertical displacement of 620 20 of 26
to the response difference of each driving arm. The displacement was increased to
μm under 5.3 V driving voltage in an FTS. The scanning tilting of the micromirror was as high as 0.7°, 1 mm in the later
due to the response
experiments [56], butdifference
the usableofscan
eachrange
driving
wasarm.
onlyThe displacement
70 µm <0.06
with tiltingwas increased
◦. to 1 mm in the
later experiments [56], but the usable scan range was only 70 μm with tilting <0.06°.
29. AnAn
Figure 29. out-of-plane
out-of-plane electrothermal
electrothermal MEMSMEMS
mirror.mirror. (Reprinted
(Reprinted with permission
with permission from
from Reference
Reference [55] Elsevier).
[55] Elsevier).
A
A mirror-tilt-insensitive
mirror-tilt-insensitive (MTI)
(MTI) FTSFTS based
based onon this
this MEMS
MEMS was was presented
presented subsequently
subsequently by by Wu
Wu et et
al.
al. in 2009 (see Figure 30a) [57]. It comprised one corner-cube retroreflector and one fixed mirror in
in 2009 (see Figure 30a) [57]. It comprised one corner-cube retroreflector and one fixed mirror in
each
each arm
arm ofof the
the Michelson
Michelson interferometer.
interferometer. Both Both light
light beams
beams from
from beam
beam splitter
splitter were
were directed
directed to
to the
the
dual-reflective MEMS mirror, which could compensate the tilting of the scanning
dual-reflective MEMS mirror, which could compensate the tilting of the scanning mirror. The actual mirror. The actual
OPD
OPD of of this MIT FTS
this MIT FTS was
was four
four times
times ofof the
the physical
physical vertical
vertical displacement;
displacement; thus,thus, the
the spectral
spectral resolution
resolution
could
could bebe enhanced
enhancedwith
withthe
theincrease
increaseofofthe OPD.
the OPD. The whole
The wholedevice sizesize
device waswas
about 12 ×
12 cm
about cm × 5×
5 cm cm5 cm
×5
(see Figure 30b), which could be decreased by reducing the size of optical components.
cm (see Figure 30b), which could be decreased by reducing the size of optical components. It could It could achieve
spectral
achieve resolutions of 19.2 cm−1
spectral resolutions of and
19.28.1cmcm −1 , which were obtained by the vertical displacement of
−1 and 8.1 cm−1, which were obtained by the vertical
131 µm and 308 µm, respectively.
displacement of 131 μm and 308 μm, respectively.
dual-reflective MEMS mirror, which could compensate the tilting of the scanning mirror. The actual
OPD of this MIT FTS was four times of the physical vertical displacement; thus, the spectral resolution
could be enhanced with the increase of the OPD. The whole device size was about 12 cm × 5 cm × 5
cm (see Figure 30b), which could be decreased by reducing the size of optical components. It could
Micromachines 2020, 11,resolutions
achieve spectral 214 of 19.2 cm−1 and 8.1 cm−1, which were obtained by the vertical22 of 28
displacement of 131 μm and 308 μm, respectively.
(a) (b)
Figure 30.
30.Dual-reflective MEMS
Dual-reflective MEMS mirror-based FTS: (a)
mirror-based System
FTS: Schematic;
(a) System (b) a picture
Schematic; (b) of
a mirror-tilt-
picture of
insensitive (MTI)-FTS demonstration
mirror-tilt-insensitive setup. CCR: Corner-cube
(MTI)-FTS demonstration setup. CCR: retroreflector.
Corner-cube PD:retroreflector.
Photodetector. PD:
BS:
Photodetector. BS: Beam
Beam splitter. MM: MEMSsplitter. MM: MEMS
micromirror. FM: micromirror.
Fixed mirror. FM:
LS: Fixed
Light mirror.
source. LS: Light source.
(Reprinted with
(Reprinted
permissionwith
frompermission fromIEEE).
Reference [57] Reference [57] IEEE).
Wang
Wang et et al. designed an
al. designed an extended-beam
extended-beam LSF LSF electrothermal
electrothermal MEMS MEMS mirror
mirror to to realize
realize large
large
displacement
displacement and and small
small tilting
tilting in in 2016
2016 (see
(see Figure
Figure 31a)
31a) [58].
[58]. The
The MEMS
MEMS device
device was
was fabricated
fabricated using
using
SOI
SOI wafers
wafers viavia bulk
bulk and
and surface
surface micromachining.
micromachining. The The bimorph
bimorph waswas made
made of of Al/SiO
Al/SiO22,, and
and aa platinum
platinum
(Pt)
(Pt) layer
layer was
wasembedded
embeddedinto intothethebimorph
bimorph asas
a heater. The
a heater. sizesize
The of the MEMS
of the MEMSdevice waswas
device about 4.3 mm
about 4.3
×
mm3.1 ×mm,
3.1 where the mirror
mm, where the plate
mirror wasplate
aboutwas
1.1 mm
about× 1.1
1.1 mm.
mm The× 1.1maximum
mm. The vertical
maximumdisplacement
vertical
could reach 550 µm under 7 V μmDC under
driving7 voltage. The tilt angle was ◦ at 3.5 V, which was
displacement could reach 550 V DC driving voltage. The about 0.15was
tilt angle about 0.15° at 3.5
controlled
V, which was 0.002◦ under
at ±controlled at ±closed-loop
0.002° undercontrol. The H-shaped
closed-loop control. Theelectrothermal MEMS mirrorMEMS
H-shaped electrothermal based
FTS system (see Figure 31b) could generate 860 µm OPD. The measured
mirror based FTS system (see Figure 31b) could generate 860 μm OPD. The measured spectralspectral resolution was about
19.4 cm −1 .
resolution was
Micromachines 2020,about
11, x 19.4 cm .
−1
21 of 26
(a) (b)
Figure 31. H-shaped LSF electrothermal

electrothermalMEMS
MEMSbased
basedFTS:
FTS:(a)
(a)AASEM
SEMofofMEMS
MEMS mirror;
mirror; (b)(b) a picture
a picture of
of
FTSFTS system.
system. (Reprinted
(Reprinted with
with permission
permission from
from Reference
Reference [58]
[58] MDPI).
MDPI).
Samuelson et et al.
al. reported
reportedaafolded-dual-S-shaped-bimorph
folded-dual-S-shaped-bimorph(FDSB) (FDSB)electrothermal
electrothermal micromirror
micromirror in
2014 [59]. This micromirror had a footprint of 1.9 mm × 1.9 mm with a mirror
in 2014 [59]. This micromirror had a footprint of 1.9 mm × 1.9 mm with a mirror aperture of 1 mm aperture of 1 mm (see
Figure
(see 32). The
Figure 32). FDSB
The FDSB design consisted
design of two
consisted ofseparate inverted
two separate series series
inverted connected (ISC) actuators,
connected which
(ISC) actuators,
were
whichconnected by a joint
were connected by aorjoint
a hinge. Each S-shaped-bimorph
or a hinge. Each S-shaped-bimorph was composed of three
was composed of segments made
three segments
of Al/SiO ,
made of Al/SiO
2 SiO /Al/SiO
22, SiO2/Al/SiO
2 , and SiO
2, and /Al, respectively. A Pt layer was embedded into the bimorph
2 SiO2/Al, respectively. A Pt layer was embedded into the bimorph as a
heater.
as Six pairs
a heater. of FDSB
Six pairs of FDSB actuators
actuatorswerewere
placed on the
placed onopposing
the opposingsidessides
of the
ofcentral mirror
the central plate.plate.
mirror The
multi-actuators
The multi-actuators were were
applied to compensate
applied for thefor
to compensate response difference
the response of each actuator
difference and decrease
of each actuator and
the scan tilting
decrease the scanangle. Theangle.
tilting FDSBThemicromirror was fabricated
FDSB micromirror was on SOI wafers
fabricated via awafers
on SOI combined
via asurface
combinedand
bulk micromachining
surface process. Theprocess.
and bulk micromachining maximum Thedisplacement of 90 µm wasofgenerated
maximum displacement 90 μm was with <0.25 tilt
generated
◦ at
with
1.2 V DC.
<0.25° tilt at 1.2 V DC.
made of Al/SiO2, SiO2/Al/SiO2, and SiO2/Al, respectively. A Pt layer was embedded into the bimorph
as a heater. Six pairs of FDSB actuators were placed on the opposing sides of the central mirror plate.
The multi-actuators were applied to compensate for the response difference of each actuator and
decrease the scan tilting angle. The FDSB micromirror was fabricated on SOI wafers via a combined
surface and2020,
Micromachines bulk11,micromachining
214 process. The maximum displacement of 90 μm was generated with
23 of 28
<0.25° tilt at 1.2 V DC.
Figure32.
Figure 32.SEM
SEMofofan
anactuator
actuatorarray
arraywith
withan
anelevated
elevatedmirror
mirrorplate.
plate.(Reprinted
(Reprintedwith
withpermission
permissionfrom
from
Reference[59]
Reference [59]IEEE).
IEEE).
Chai
Chaietetal.
al.presented
presentedaaportable
portableFTSFTSusing
usingan anH-shaped
H-shapedelectrothermal
electrothermalMEMS MEMSmirror
mirror[9].
[9].The
The
mirror
mirrorplate
platewas
wasconnected
connectedto toaaunique
uniqueH-shaped
H-shapedframe framesupported
supportedby bysymmetrically
symmetricallydistributed
distributed
thirty-two
thirty-twopairs
pairsofofinnovative
innovativethree-level-ladder
three-level-ladderFDSB FDSBactuators
actuators(see(seeFigure
Figure33a).
33a).Each
Eachbimorph
bimorphwas was
S-shaped,
S-shaped, including three segments:
including three segments:Al/SiO
Al/SiO 2 film
2 film layer,
layer, SiOSiO 2 /Al/SiO
2/Al/SiO 2 film
2 film layer,
layer, and and 2 /Allayer.
SiOfilm
SiO2/Al film
layer. titanium
titanium (Ti) layer
(Ti) layer was embedded
was embedded into
into the the S-shaped
S-shaped bimorphbimorph
actuatoractuator as a resistor.
as a resistor. The MEMS
The MEMS mirror
mirror
(Entire(Entire
chip: chip:
3.65 mm 3.65 ×mm
11.4× 11.4
mm;mm; Mirror
Mirror plate:
plate: 1.4 1.4
mm mm × 1.2
× 1.2 mm)could
mm) couldgenerate
generate about
about 200200 µm
μm
displacement ◦ without using any
displacementat at55Hz Hzwith
withonly
only55Vpp
Vppandandmaintain
maintainaavery
verysmall
smalltilting
tiltingof of0.029
0.029° without using any
complex
complexcompensation
compensationor orclosed-loop
closed-loopcontrol.
control. AnAnInGaAs
InGaAs photodetector
photodetector was was applied
applied to
torecord
recordthe the
interferogram,
interferogram,and andaa1310
1310nmnmlaser
laserwas
wasused
usedtotomonitor
monitorthe theMEMS
MEMSmotion.motion.This ThisFTS
FTScould
couldcover
coveraa
wide −1−1 was achieved for this MEMS
widespectral
spectralrange
rangeofof1000–2500
1000–2500nm. nm.AAspectral
spectralresolution
resolutionofof64.1
64.1cmcm was achieved for this MEMS
FTS
FTS(see
(seeFigure
Micromachines 2020,33b).
Figure 33b).
11, x 22 of 26
(a) (b)
Figure 33. The scan stability H-shaped electrothermal MEMS based FTS: (a) MEMS mirror; (b) FTS
system. (Reprinted with permission from Reference [9] IOP Publishing, Ltd.).
3.3.3. Summary
3.3.3. Summary
Table
Table 33 summarizes
summarizesseveral
severalparameters
parametersof of electrothermal
electrothermal MEMS
MEMS micromirrors
micromirrors and and
FTS. FTS.
The
The electrothermal
electrothermal actuators
actuators havehave a relatively
a relatively large
large rangeofofmovement,
range movement,compared
compared to to electrostatic
electrostatic
actuators
actuators andand electromagnetic
electromagnetic actuators. For comparable
actuators. For comparable displacement,
displacement, much
much smaller
smaller footprints
footprints are
are
used in electrothermal actuators. On the other hand, electrothermal actuators require moderate
used in electrothermal actuators. On the other hand, electrothermal actuators require moderate power
as electrical
power currentcurrent
as electrical is applied to generate
is applied Joule heating,
to generate and they
Joule heating, andhave
theyrelatively low response
have relatively speed
low response
since the time constant is controlled by thermal heating and dissipation.
speed since the time constant is controlled by thermal heating and dissipation.
Table 3. Comparison of electrothermal MEMS micromirrors and FTS.
Actuation Core of Work

Authors Institution Displacement Device Size Reference
Type FTS Condition
Entire FTS:
10 × 10 mm2
Sin et al. UTA In-plane MI 30 μm 22 V [49]
(Mirror: 0.5 ×
0.45 mm2)
Entire FTS: 10 ×
Table 3. Comparison of electrothermal MEMS micromirrors and FTS.
Actuation Work
Authors Institution Core of FTS Displacement Device Size Reference
Type Condition
Entire FTS: 10 × 10
Sin et al. UTA In-plane MI 30 µm 22 V mm2 (Mirror: 0.5 × [49]
0.45 mm2 )
Entire FTS: 10 × 10
Das et al. UTA In-plane MI 45 µm 45 V mm2 (Mirror: 1 × [50,51]
0.8 mm2 )
Reyes et al. BML In-plane MI 600 nm − − [52,53]
Wu et al. UF Out-of-plane − 620 µm 5.3 V. − [55]
131 µm and Entire FTS: 12 × 5 ×
Wu et al. UF Out-of-plane MI − [57]
308 µm 5 cm3
MEMS chip: 4.3 ×
Wang et al. SJTU and UF Out-of-plane MI 550 µm 7 V DC 3.1 mm2 (Mirror: 1.1 [58]
× 1.1 mm2 )
MEMS chip: 1.9 ×
Samuelson
UF Out-of-plane − 90 µm 1.2 V DC 1.9 mm2 (Mirror [59]
et al.
Aperture: 1mm)
MEMS chip: 3.65 ×
USST, WiO 5 Vpp @ 5
Chai et al. Out-of-plane MI 200 µm 11.4 mm2 (Mirror: [9]
Tech, and UF Hz
1.4 × 1.2 mm2 )
(UTA: The University of Texas at Arlington; BML: Block MEMS LCC; UF: University of Florida; SJTU: Shanghai Jiao
Tong University; USST: The University of Shanghai for Science and Technology; WiO Tech: Wuxi WiO Technologies
Co., Ltd.).
3.4. Summary of Electrostatic, Electromagnetic, and Electrothermal Actuators for MEMS FTS
As discussed in this section, electrostatic, electromagnetic, and electrothermal actuators have
been applied in the miniaturization of FTS devices. Relative advantages and disadvantages of an
electrostatic actuator, electromagnetic actuator, and electrothermal actuator are summarized in Table 4.
Table 4. Comparison of various actuators.
Various Actuators Advantages Disadvantages

Vacuum package and resonance
Fast response
operation
Electrostatic actuators
Limited displacement
Low power consumption
Pull-in behavior
External magnetic field needed
Electromagnetic actuators Moderately large displacement
Large size
Large displacement Large power consumption
Electrothermal actuators Sensitivity to environmental
Moderately fast response
temperature changes
Electrostatic actuators have high speed and low power consumption, but it is difficult to obtain
large scan displacement. Even though there are reports about large piston displacement with
electrostatic actuation, those designs require vacuum packaging and resonance operation, which
dramatically increase the cost and overall device size. Electromagnetic actuators usually need an
external magnetic field, which is not conducive to system integration and may cause electromagnetic
interference problems. Electrothermal actuators can reach about 1 mm scan range at a low voltage
without the need of a resonant operation, which is highly preferred for FTS applications. Promising
results have been achieved from electrothermally-actuated MEMS FTS.
For an FTS application, the accuracy and repeatability of the acquired spectra are of significance
too, which will have implications on the stability of the response and transferability of the calibration
models between instruments.
4. Conclusions
MEMS presents a huge potential in the miniaturization of FTS devices. With the markets of
MEMS based FTS growing rapidly, more demands for new applications are continually emerging.
A majority of MEMS based devices have become commercial products. In this article, we have
summarized MEMS based FTS systems for spectral analysis and material detection. The basics
and common applications of FTS are presented. Three types of MEMS FTS, including electrostatic,
electromagnetic and electrothermal, are introduced and shown with examples. The spectral resolution
is a key parameter used to evaluate the performance of a MEMS FTS. Besides that, the repeatability
and reliability are also two main issues for the commercialization of MEMS FTS to be further mature.
Author Contributions: Investigation, J.C., T.C. and Y.L.; resources, J.C., K.Z. and Y.X.; writing—original draft
preparation, J.C.; writing—review and editing, Y.X. and K.Z.; supervision, W.L. and G.Z. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
1. Ferhanoglu, O.; Seren, H.; Lüttjohann, S.; Urey, H. Lamellar grating optimization for miniaturized fourier
transform spectrometers. Opt. Express 2009, 17, 21289–21301. [CrossRef]
2. Fellgett, P.I. les principes généraux des méthodes nouvelles en spectroscopie interférentielle—A propos de la
théorie du spectromètre interférentiel multiplex. J. Phys. 1958, 19, 187–191. [CrossRef]
3. Jacquinot, P. New developments in interference spectroscopy. Rep. Prog. Phys. 1960, 23, 267–312. [CrossRef]
4. Griffiths, P.R.; James, A.D.H. Signal-to-noise ration. In Fourier transform infrared spectrometry, 2nd ed.; Wiley:
Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2007; pp. 161–175.
5. Xie, H.; Lan, S.; Wang, D.; Wang, W.; Sun, J.; Liu, H.; Cheng, J.; Ding, J.; Qin, Z.; Chen, Q.; et al. Miniature
fourier transform spectrometers based on electrothermal MEMS mirrors with large piston scan range. In
Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE SENSORS, Busan, Korea, 1–4 November 2015; pp. 1–4.
6. Ayerden, N.P.; Aygun, U.; Holmstrom, S.T.S.; Olcer, S.; Can, B.; Stehle, J.-L.; Urey, H. High-speed broadband
FTIR system using MEMS. Appl. Opt. 2014, 53, 7267–7272. [CrossRef]
7. Manzardo, O.; Herzig, H.P.; Marxer, C.R.; de Rooij, N.F. Miniaturized time-scanning Fourier transform
spectrometer based on silicon technology. Opt. Lett. 1999, 24, 1705–1707. [CrossRef]
8. Solf, C.; Mohr, J.; Wallrabe, U. Miniaturized LIGA Fourier transformation spectrometer. In Proceedings of
the IEEE Sensors 2003 (IEEE Cat. No.03CH37498), Toronto, ON, Canada, 22–24 October 2004; pp. 773–776.
9. Chai, J.; Jia, H.-Z.; Wang, D.; Liu, H.; Chen, Q.; Xie, H. A MEMS Based Fourier Transform Spectrometer and
Its Scan Stability Study. ECS J. Solid State Sci. Technol. 2018, 7, Q3025–Q3031. [CrossRef]
10. Chen, Y.; Zou, C.; Mastalerz, M.; Hu, S.; Gasaway, C.; Tao, X. Applications of Micro-Fourier Transform
Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) in the Geological Sciences—A Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16, 30223–30250.
[CrossRef]
11. Crocombe, R.A. Miniature optical spectrometers: The art of the possible, part IV: New near-infrared
technologies and spectrometers. Spectroscopy 2009, 23. Available online: http://www.spectroscopyonline.com/
miniature-optical-spectrometers-art-possible-part-iv-new-near-infrared-technologies-and-spectrometer
(accessed on 12 December 2019).
12. Watari, M. Applications of near-infrared spectroscopy to process analysis using fourier transform spectrometer.
Opt. Rev. 2010, 17, 317–322. [CrossRef]
13. Wadsworth, W.; Dybwad, J.P. Rugged high-speed rotary imaging Fourier transform spectrometer for
industrial use. In Proceedings of the Environmental and Industrial Sensing, Boston, MA, USA, 28–31 October
2001; pp. 83–88.
14. Kita, D.; Miranda, B.; Favela, D.; Bono, D.; Michon, J.; Lin, H.; Gu, T.; Hu, J. High-performance and scalable
on-chip digital Fourier transform spectroscopy. Nat. Commun. 2018, 9, 4405. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
15. Köhler, M.H.; Schardt, M.; Rauscher, M.S.; Koch, A. Gas Measurement Using Static Fourier Transform
Infrared Spectrometers. Sensors 2017, 17, 2612. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
16. Griffiths, P.; Hall, G.; Cohen, M. Fourier transform infrared spectrometry. Science 1983, 222, 297–302.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
17. Todd, S.; Xie, H. An Electrothermomechanical Lumped Element Model of an Electrothermal Bimorph
Actuator. J. Microelectromech. Syst. 2008, 17, 213–225. [CrossRef]
18. Strong, J.; Vanasse, G.A. Lamellar Grating Far-Infrared Interferomer. J. Opt. Soc. Am. 1960, 50, 113. [CrossRef]
19. Manzardo, O.; Michaely, R.; Schädelin, F.; Noell, W.; Overstolz, T.; De Rooij, N.; Herzig, H.P. Miniature
lamellar grating interferometer based on silicon technology. Opt. Lett. 2004, 29, 1437–1439. [CrossRef]
20. Oldham, K.; Pulskamp, J.S.; Polcawich, R.G.; Dubey, M. Thin-film PZT lateral actautors with extended stroke.
J. Microelectromech. Syst. 2008, 17, 890–899. [CrossRef]
21. Liu, W.; Zhu, K.; Jia, K.; Liao, W.; Tang, Y.; Wang, B.; Xie, H. A tip–tilt–piston micromirror with a double
S-shaped unimorph piezoelectric actuator. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 2014, 193, 121–128. [CrossRef]
22. Holmstrom, S.T.S.; Baran, U.; Urey, H. MEMS Laser Scanners: A Review. J. Microelectromech. Syst. 2014, 23,
259–275. [CrossRef]
23. Liu, W.; Liao, W.; Jia, K.; Zhu, Y.; Xie, H.; Wang, B.; Tang, Y. Hysteresis Property of Tip-Tilt-Piston Micromirror
Based on Tilt-and-Lateral Shift-Free Piezoelectric Unimorph Actuator. Integr. Ferroelectr. 2014, 150, 14–22.
[CrossRef]
24. Antila, J.; Tuohiniemi, M.; Rissanen, A.; Kantojärvi, U.; Lahti, M.; Viherkanto, K.; Kaarre, M.; Malinen, J.
MEMS-and MOEMS-based near-infrared spectrometers. In Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry; Meyers, R.A.,
Ed.; Wiley: New York, NY, USA, 2014; pp. 1–36.
25. Van Kessel, P.; Hornbeck, L.; Meier, R.; Douglass, M. A MEMS-based projection display; Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): Piscataway, NJ, USA, 1998; Volume 86, pp. 1687–1704.
26. Dudley, D.; Duncan, W.M.; Slaughter, J. Emerging digital micromirror device (DMD) applications. Micromach.
Microfabr. 2003, 4985, 14–25.
27. Liu, C. Foundations of MEMS, 2nd ed.; Gilfillan, A., Dworkin, A., Eds.; Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ,
USA, 2012.
28. Lamminpää, A.; Holmlund, C.; Mannila, R.; Saari, H. MEMS mirror for miniaturized Fourier transform
spectrometer. In Proceedings of the 6th ESA Round Table on Micro & Nano Technologies for Space
Applications, Noordwijk, The Netherlands, 8 October 2007; pp. 303–312.
29. Briand, D.; Manzardo, O.; De Rooij, N.F.; Hildenbrand, J.; Wollenstein, J. Gas Detection using a Micromachined
FTIR Spectrometer. In Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE SENSORS, Atlanta GA, USA, 28–31 October 2007;
pp. 1364–1367.
30. Merenda, F.; Bühler, S.; Farah, H.; Boer, G.; Scharf, T. Portable NIR/MIR Fourier-transform spectrometer
based on a common path lamellar grating interferometer. Proc. SPIE 2010, 7680. [CrossRef]
31. Yu, K.; Lee, D.; Krishnamoorthy, U.; Park, N.; Solgaard, O. Micromachined Fourier transform spectrometer
on silicon optical bench platform. Sensors Actuators A Phys. 2006, 130, 523–530. [CrossRef]
32. Saadany, B.; Omran, H.; Medhat, M.; Marty, F.; Khalil, D.; Bourouina, T. MEMS tunable Michelson
interferometer with robust beam splitting architecture. In Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE/LEOS International
Conference on Optical MEMS and Nanophotonics, Clearwater, FL, USA, 17–20 August 2009; pp. 49–50.
33. Khalil, D.; Sabry, Y.; Omran, H.; Medhat, M.; Hafez, A.; Saadany, B. Characterization of MEMS FTIR
spectrometer. Proc. SPIE 2011, 7930. [CrossRef]
34. Si-Ware Systems. SiMOSTTM. Available online: http://www.siware.com/uploads/simost_brochure.pdf
(accessed on 16 May 2019).
35. Mortada, B.; Sabry, Y.; Nagi, M.; Hassan, K.; Saadany, B.; Bourouina, T.; Khalil, D. High-throughput
deeply-etched scanning Michelson interferometer on-chip. In Proceedings of the 2014 International
Conference on Optical MEMS and Nanophotonics, Glasgow, UK, 17–21 August 2014; pp. 161–162.
36. Eltagoury, Y.M.; Sabry, Y.; Khalil, D. Novel Fourier transform infrared spectrometer architecture based on
cascaded Fabry-Perot interferometers. Proc. SPIE 2016, 9760, 97600.
37. Sandner, T.; Kenda, A.; Drabe, C.; Schenk, H.; Scherf, W. Miniaturized FTIR-spectrometer based on optical
MEMS translatory actuator. Proc. SPIE 2007, 6466, 646602.
38. Sandner, T.; Graßhoff, T.; Gaumont, E.; Schenk, H.; Kenda, A. Translatory MOEMS actuator and system
integration for miniaturized Fourier transform spectrometers. J. Micro/Nanolithogr. MEMS, MOEMS 2014, 13,
11115. [CrossRef]
39. Ataman, C.; Urey, H.; Wolter, A. A Fourier transform spectrometer using resonant vertical comb actuators. J.
Micromech. Microeng. 2006, 16, 2517–2523. [CrossRef]
40. Ataman, C.; Urey, H.; Isikman, S.O.; Wolter, A. A MEMS based visible-NIR Fourier transform
microspectrometer. Photonics Eur. 2006, 6186, 61860.
41. Seren, H.R.; Ayerden, N.P.; Sharma, J.; Holmstrom, S.T.; Sandner, T.; Grasshoff, T.; Schenk, H.; Urey, H.
Lamellar grating based MEMS Fourier Transform Spectrometer. In Proceedings of the 2010 International
Conference on Optical MEMS and Nanophotonics, Sapporo, Japan, 9–12 August 2010; pp. 105–106.
42. Solf, C.; Janssen, A.; Mohr, J.; Ruzzu, A.; Wallrabe, U. Incorporating design rules into the LIGA technology
applied to a fourier transformation spectrometer. Microsyst. Technol. 2004, 10, 706–710. [CrossRef]
43. Wallrabe, U.; Solf, C.; Mohr, J.; Korvink, J. Miniaturized Fourier Transform Spectrometer for the near infrared
wavelength regime incorporating an electromagnetic linear actuator. Sensors Actuators A Phys. 2005, 123,
459–467. [CrossRef]
44. Yu, H.B. An electromagnetically driven Lamellar grating based Fourier transform microspectrometer.
J. Micromech. Microeng. 2008, 18, 1–6.
45. Baran, U.; Hedili, K.; Olcer, S.; Urey, H. FR4 Electromagnetic Scanner Based Fourier Transform Spectrometer.
In Proceedings of the Volume 2: 31st Computers and Information in Engineering Conference, Parts A and B; ASME
International: New York, NY, USA, 2011; pp. 465–469.
46. Xue, Y.; He, S. A translation micromirror with large quasi-static displacement and high surface quality.
J. Micromech. Microeng. 2016, 27, 15009. [CrossRef]
47. Cowen, A.; Dudley, B.; Hill, E.; Walters, M.; Wood, R.; Johnson, S.; Wynands, H.; Hardy, B. 2009 MetalMUMPs
Design Handbook a MUMPs® Process; MEMScAP Inc.: Durham, NC, USA; pp. 1–39.
48. Xue, Y.; Zuo, H.; He, S. A repulsive magnetic force driven translation micromirror. J. Micromech. Microeng.
2007, 27, 1–10. [CrossRef]
49. Sin, J.; Lee, W.H.; Popa, D.; Stephanou, H.E. Assembled Fourier transform micro-spectrometer. Proc. SPIE
2006, 6109, 610904.
50. Das, A.N.; Sin, J.; Popa, D.O.; Stephanou, H.E. Design and Manufacturing of a Fourier Transform
Microspectrometer. In Proceedings of the 2008 8th IEEE Conference on Nanotechnology, Arlington,
TX, USA, 18–21 August 2008; pp. 837–840.
51. Das, A.N.; Popa, D.; Sin, J.; Stephanou, H.E. Precision alignment and assembly of a Fourier transform
microspectrometer. J. Micro-Nano Mechatron. 2009, 5, 15–28. [CrossRef]
52. Reyes, D.; Schildkraut, E.R.; Kim, J.; Connors, R.F.; Kotidis, P.; Cavicchio, D.J. A novel method of creating a
surface micromachined 3D optical assembly for MEMS-based miniaturized FTIR spectrometers. Proc. SPIE
2008, 6888, 68880.
53. Deutsch, E.R.; Reyes, D.; Schildkraut, E.R.; Kim, J. High-resolution miniature FTIR spectrometer enabled by
a large linear travel MEMS pop-up mirror. Proc. SPIE 2009, 7319, 73190.
54. Sandia National Laboratories. SUMMiT-V Overview. Available online: http://mems.sandia.gov/tech-info/
summit-v.html (accessed on 16 May 2019).
55. Wu, L.; Xie, H. A large vertical displacement electrothermal bimorph microactuator with very small lateral
shift. Sensors Actuators A Phys. 2008, 145, 371–379. [CrossRef]
56. Wu, L.; Pais, A.; Samuelson, S.R.; Guo, S.; Xie, H. A Miniature Fourier Transform Spectrometer by a
Large-Vertical-Displacement Microelectromechanical Mirror. In Proceedings of the Fourier Transform
Spectroscopy 2009, Vancouver, BC, Canada, 26–30 April 2009.
57. Wu, L.; Pais, A.; Samuelson, S.R.; Guo, S.; Xie, H. A mirror-tilt-insensitive Fourier transform spectrometer
based on a large vertical displacement micromirror with dual reflective surface. In Proceedings of the
TRANSDUCERS 2009—2009 International Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems Conference,
Denver, CO, USA, 21–25 June 2009; pp. 2090–2093.
58. Wang, W.; Chen, J.; Zivkovic, A.S.; Xie, H. A Fourier Transform Spectrometer Based on an Electrothermal
MEMS Mirror with Improved Linear Scan Range. Sensors 2016, 16, 1611. [CrossRef]
59. Samuelson, S.R.; Xie, H. A large displacement MEMS mirror with electrothermal ladder actuation arrays for
ultra-low tilt applications. J. Microelectromech. Syst. 2014, 23, 39–49. [CrossRef]
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Bezig Met E-Mailen Micromachines-11-00214-V2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bezig Met E-Mailen Micromachines-11-00214-V2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

micromachines

Keywords: Fourier transform spectrometers; Fourier transform infrared spectrometers (FTIR);

Micromachines 2020, 11, 214; doi:10.3390/mi11020214 www.mdpi.com/journal/micromachines

2. Theoretical Background of Fourier Transform Spectrometers

2.1. Fourier Transform Spectroscopy and Its Applications

2.2. Working Principles

2.2.2.When the sample

2.2.2. Lamellar Grating Interferometer-Based FTS

3.1. Electrostatic MEMS Based FTS

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 3.3. Various

3.1.1. In-Plane Electrostatic MEMS Micromirrors and FTS

Micromachines 2020, 11, 214 7 of 28

was <0.5 nm at 1500 nm at stable conditions.

An in-plane integrated FTS microsystem was implemented based on another sidewall

The Mach-Zehnder interferometer (see Figure Figure 9b) reported

3.1.2. Out-of-Plane Electrostatic MEMS Micromirrors and FTS

spectrum was consistent with the standard data.

(a) (b) (c)

3.2. Electromagnetic MEMS Based FTS

Figure 18. Coil-based magnetic actuators.

Wallrabe et al. reported an electromagnetic actuator driven large displacement movable

Figure 20. An electromagnetically

Table 2. Comparison of electromagnetic MEMS micromirrors and FTS.

Actuation Core of Work

Table 2. Comparison of electromagnetic MEMS micromirrors and FTS.

Actuation Work Device

3.3. Electrothermal Actuation MEMS Based FTS

Figure 25. Electrothermal

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 26. (a)

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 31. H-shaped LSF electrothermal

Table 3. Comparison of electrothermal MEMS micromirrors and FTS.

Actuation Core of Work

Table 3. Comparison of electrothermal MEMS micromirrors and FTS.

Table 4. Comparison of various actuators.

Various Actuators Advantages Disadvantages

You might also like