Subject: GEC 01-2018 Mathematics in the Modern World

1. Title of the Module: Counterexamples

Conclusions based on inductive reasoning may be incorrect. As an illustration, consider the circles
shown below. For each circle, all possible line segments have been drawn to connect each dot on the
circle with all the other dots on the circle.

For each circle, count the number of regions formed by the line segments that connect the dots on
the circle. Your results should agree with the results in the following table.

There appears to be a pattern. Each additional dot seems to double the number of regions. Guess
the maximum number of regions you expect for a circle with six dots. Check your guess by counting
the maximum number of regions formed by the line segments that connect six dots on a large circle.
Your drawing will show that for six dots, the maximum number of regions is 31 (see the figure
below), not 32 as you may have guessed. With seven dots the maximum number of regions is 57.
This is a good example to keep in mind. Just because a pattern holds true for a few cases, it does not
mean the pattern will continue. When you use inductive reasoning, you have no guarantee that your
conclusion is correct.

A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all cases. If you can find one case for which
a statement is not true, called a counterexample, then the statement is a false statement.
In Example 4 we verify that each statement is a false statement by finding a counterexample for
each.
Example 4: Find a counterexample
Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by finding a counterexample.
For all numbers x:

Solution:
A statement may have many counterexamples, but we need only find one counterexample to verify
that the statement is false.
a. Let x = 0. Then |0|= 0. Because 0 is not greater than 0, we have found a counterexample.
Thus “for all numbers x, |x| ˃ 0” is a false statement.
b. For x 2 = 1 we have 12 = 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1, we have found a counterexample.
Thus “for all numbers x, x 2 = x” is a false statement.
c. Consider x = -3. Then √(-3) 2 = √ 9 = 3. Since 3 is not equal to -3, we have found a
counterexample.
Thus “for all numbers x, √x 2 = x” is a false statement.
Activity No.3 Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by finding a
counterexample for each.
For all numbers x:

Use inductive reasoning to decide whether each statement is true or false.

Note: The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... are called counting numbers or natural numbers. Any counting
number n divided by 2 produces a remainder of 0 or 1. If n ÷ 2 has a remainder of 0, then n is an
even counting number. If n ÷2 has a remainder of 1, then n is an odd counting number.
Even counting numbers: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ...
Odd counting numbers: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ... 11.
d. The sum of any two even counting numbers is always an even counting number.
e. The product of an odd counting number and an even counting number is always an even counting
number.
f. The product of two odd counting numbers is always an odd counting number. 14. The sum of two
odd counting numbers is always an odd counting number.
g. Pick any counting number. Multiply the number by 6. Add 8 to the product. Divide the sum by 2.
Subtract 4 from the quotient. The resulting number is twice the original number.
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h. Pick any counting number. Multiply the number by 8. Subtract 4 from the product. Divide the
difference by 2. Add 2 to the quotient. The resulting number is four times the original number.