who'll Go?

A Review of Factors
Associated with Employee
Willingness to Work Overseas
Patricia C. Borstorff.Assistant Professor, College of Commerce and Business Administrationjacksonville State University,
Stanley G. Harris, Associate Professor of Management, Auburn University, Hubert S. Fei Id, Torch mark Professor of Management,
Auburn University, and William F. Giles, Professor of Management, Auburn University

U
.S. firms competing in inter-
national markets generally
employ individuals working
as expatriates, i.e., employees who
relocate overseas to work for their
organization for a specified time
period. However, expatriate
programs are frequently
unsuccessful, with signifi-
cant numbers of managers
returning prematurely
from their assignments.
Because of problems per-
ceived to be associated
with expatriate programs,
many employees are reluctant
to take expatriate assignments
when offered. Thus, a key ques-
tion facing many corporations is,
"Who is willing to accept expatri-
ate assignments?" Based on a
review of the hterature, this article
addresses this question and offers
guidelines for managers concerned
with expatriate program assign-
ment and success.

HUMAN RESOURCE PUNNING 29

 Relocating employees to work as expatriates
in overseas locations is a competitive strategy
adopted by many organizations. Developing high
potential managers, enhancing a firm's global
perspective, controlling overseas subsidiaries,
transferring technology, and setting up new
operations are some of the justifications given
for moving managers to international settings.
Because the trend toward expatriate use is an
expanding one (Black, Gregersen, & Mendenhall.
1992). mobile managers who are willing to move
internationally and work as expatriates are major
corporate assets (Brett, Stroh, & Reilly. 1993).
Such managers serve companies' requirements
for managers who can identify and relate to
headquarters what is needed for successfully
competing in the international arena (Tung &
Miller, 1990).
Problems in Expatriate Assignments
Although expatriates play an important role in a
firm's international strategy, failure of expatri-
ates, such as premature termination of the
assignment, is not uncommon. In fact, failure
rates have been estimated to range from 15%
to 70% (Copeland & Griggs, 1985; Fuchsberg,
1992; Mendenhall, Dunbar, & Oddou, 1987). and
associated costs for each failure estimated from
$55,000 to $250,000 (Copeland & Griggs, 1985;
Tung, 1982; Wederspahn, 1992; Zeira & Banal,
1985).
Even if their assignments do not end prema-
turely, expatriates who are unprepared or ill-adjust-
ed can make serious mistakes that reflect poorly on
the organization and damage the overseas opera-
tion (Tung, 1988). The indirect costs of expatriate
problems include loss of business and company
reputation, failed negotiations, expatriate depression
and loss of self-esteem, and family dysfunction
(Adler. 1991; Black, 1988; Kobrin. 1988).
Further evidence attests that the expatriate
experience is frequently a negative one. For exam-
ple, in a survey of repatriated managers. Black et
al. (1992) reported that 80% felt their global
knowledge and experience gained overseas were
not valued by their finns. Only 11% of American
expatriates studied by Oddou and Mendenhall
(1991) said they received a promotion upon
return to the U.S. In other studies, 77% of repa-
triates across industries reported a demotion in
their jobs, 50% had less autonomy, and 70% did
not know their specific job assignments upon
arriving in the U.S. (Black, 1992; Black &
Gregersen, 1991; Gomez-Mejia & Balkin, 1987).
30 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING
Expatriates have also noted a consistent
decrease in career development and promotion
opportunities upon repatriation {Oddou & Menden-
hall, 1991). Within a year of repatriation. 25%
leave their company (Black, 1988; Gregersen
& Black, 1990), and some estimate that organi-
zations lose almost half of their repatriates
within three years of their return to the U.S.
(Carter, 1989).
Employee Reluctance to Take Expatriate
Assignments
Problems associated with expatriate assignments
influence potential expatriates. They hear about
failures of their colleagues as well as stories
involving family dysfunction exacerbated by the
assignments. Occasionally, they see unimportant
jobs given to repatriates at reduced salaries,
confirming suspicions thai returning expatriates
are worse off now than when they left (Tung,
1988). The evidence clearly suggests thai
through their actions (or inactions), many organi-
zations may be seriously undermining the suc-
cess of their expatriate programs to the point that
the employees they want lo involve are reluctant
to participate. High-potential managers may
refuse expatriate assignments, often seeing them
as a detour or derailment of their careers (Feldman
& Thompson, 1992; Tung & Miller, 1990).
Practitioner and research literature has con-
firmed that a growing reluctance to accept job
transfers stems from considerations of financial
and career costs, family disruptions, spouses"
careers, a growing awareness of employee rights,
and personal stresses associated with moving
(Brett, 1984; Harvey, 1995; Magnus & Dodd,
1981; Pinder. 1981). Financial stresses of expa-
triation can include loss of a spouse's income,
selling and buying a new home, and the possibil-
ity of dual taxation. Familial stresses can include
career problems for spouses, disruption of chil-
dren's schooling, loss of friends and community
ties, restrictions on personal freedoms and
movement, boredom, isolation, and culture
shock (Stephens & Black, 1991).
Obviously, expatriate programs are threat-
ened with ineffectiveness if those targeted for
such assignments refuse to take them or take
them unwillingly. Employees refusing interna-
tional assignments could affect human resource
planning and the adoption of global strategies, as
well as add to the loss of international control
and coordination. Employees undertaking these
assignments unwillingly could be subject to even
more stresses than those normally encountered ingness to move domestically. Inversi; relation-
by employees willing to work in unfamiliar, ships (i.e., younger employees were more will-
international environments. Thus, a key question ing) were reported by Gould and Penley (1985),
facing many organizations making overseas Sell (1983). and Veiga( 1983), while Angle and
assignments is: Who is willing to accept expatri- Manz (1988), Brett and Reilly (I988\ and Brett
ate assignments (Stroh. Dennis. & Cramer. 1994)? et al. (1993) found no significant relationships.
In this paper, we review and summarize From an international perspective, no significant
research on factors associated with employee relationships were reported in two studies that
willingness to take expatriate assignments. examined age and employees' willingness to take
Where appropriate, research on ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ expatriate assignments (Brett et al.,
domestic relocation will also be ^ ^ ^ ^ 1993; Brett & Stroh. 1995).
cited to provide additional insights.
Because the trend
The study of employee relocation Sex. Employee sex has generally
decision-making processes should toward expatriate revealed a consistent pal tern of
help organizations reduce the num-
use is an expanding relationships for domestic moves;
ber of employees who reject reloca- females have tended to be less
tions or are dissatisfied once relocat- one, mobile man- willing to relocate (Anderson,
ed (Turban. Campion. & Eyring. agers who are Milkovich, & Tsui. 1981; Angle
1992). In addition, it may also assist & Manz, 1988; Markham. Macken,
those organizations attempting to willing to move Bonjean. & Corder. 198?; Markham
enhance employee adjustment and internationall/ & Pleck, 1986). However, from the
performance overseas. perspective of intemational relocation,
and work as expa- Brett and Stroh (1995) ieported a
In our review, we examine rela-
tionships of the following four fac- triates are major nonsignificant association between
tors with employees' willingness to employee sex and willingness to
corporate assets. relocate.
take expatriate assignments: (a)
employee personal characteristics
(e.g.. age. sex. marital status); (h) employee job Marital status and children. Single individu-
and relocation attitudes (e.g.. international inter- als would be expected to be more willing to
est, ethnocentrism, organizational commitment); move internationally than married individuals.
(c) spouse characteristics and attitudes toward Domestic transfer research (e.g.. Angle & Manz.
relocation; atid (d) organization relocation sup- 1988) as well as intemational transfe' studies
port activities (e.g., career planning, training, (e.g., Brett, Stroh, and Reilly, 1990) generally
repatriation support). Each of these factors support this notion. Perhaps more important than
appears to furnish relevant, unique information marital status, however, is the effect of children
toward the prediction of employee willingness on international mobility. Evans, Lank, and
for an expatriate assignment. For example, Farquhar (1981) reported that resistance to geo-
employee personal characteristics are easily graphic mobility peaks for families with teenage
assessed but less capable of change than reloca- children. Parents of teenage children have been
tion attitudes (whether those of the employee or more reluctant to relocate because of social and
spouse). Employee attitudes may be affected by educational disruptions (Gould & Penley, 1985).
spousal attitudes as well as impacted by demo- Married couples without children at home have
graphic characteristics and organization reloca- generally been more willing to move overseas
tion support activities. Clearly, the relocation than couples with children (Brett & Stroh, 1995;
support activities are those most under the control Brett, Stroh. & Reilly, 1990).
of the organization.
International experience. Prior intemational
Factors Associated with Employee experience has been suggested as being impor-
Willingness to Take Expatriate tant to employee adjustments during intemational
Assignments assignments as well as an attribute associated
with willingness to accept overseas assignments.
EMPLOYEE PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS Theorists (e.g., Torbiorn. 1982) have argued that
Age. In domestic transfer studies, employee age individuals initiate anticipatory adjustment to a
has shown mixed results when coupled with will- foreign culture before their actual arrival, and

HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 31

 their motivation to adjust strongly influences
their subsequent cross-cultural experience.
Because prior international experience is linked
to anticipatory adjustment as well as attitudes
toward international assignments (Black, 1988),
prior international experience should be related
to willingness to accept these assignments.
Previous international experience should lessen
the uncertainty normally associated with a relo-
cation, and reduced uncertainty should result in
higher willingness for international assignments.
Some work tends to support this suggestion.
Louis (1980) found that more realistic expecta-
tions regarding international assignments were
formed by those having had prior international
experience.
Ronen (1989) reported that employees with
previous international experience were more likely
to succeed in foreign assignments, even if their
previous experience was in a different country.
He concluded that exposure to multicultural
socialization processes improves individuals'
chances of success in an expatriate assignment.
Black's (1988) work suggested that previous
international experience predicted expatriate suc-
cess in work adjustment. Finally, other research
(Brett, 1982; Butler, McAllister, & Kaiser, 1973)
has suggested that many anticipated negative
outcomes of relocation do not actually occur in
practice. Therefore, if individuals do not experi-
ence anticipated negative outcomes, then having
had international experience may make them
less fearful and more willing to move overseas
in future assignments.
Employee Job and Relocation Attitudes
Because overseas job transfers interrupt important
learned behaviors and routines, they generate
feelings of loss, uncertainty, and lack of control
(Brett, 1982). Since foreign environments are
likely to hold significant amounts of uncertainty
for potential expatriates, their interests in and
attitudes toward working in a foreign country
would appear especially important to their will-
ingness to take a foreign assignment (Gregersen &
Black, 1992). Several such interests and attitudes
have been found to be particularly important.
international interests. Adier's (1986) survey
of over 1000 graduating MBA students revealed
that they listed opportunities for cross-cultural
experience and personal growth (i.e., wanting to
see other cultures, learn new languages, gain a
greater understanding of another way of life) as
32 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING
the primary reasons they would be willing to
accept international assignments. Similarly,
Miller and Cheng (1978) as well as Gonzalez
and Negahdhi (1967) discovered employees'
interests in living abroad and having overseas job
opportunities were associated with their accep-
tance of expatriate assignments.
Camithers and Pinder (1983) posited that
expectations regarding a new location have an
impact upon relocation decisions, and these
could be instrumental in influencing international
willingness. If employees perceive international
experiences to be something desirable, then it is
logically compelling to believe that employees
would be more willing to relocate. We would
anticipate that employees' interest in a specific
international destination would be particularly
important. Although not confirmed in an interna-
tional study context. Noe and Barber's work
(1993) supported such a result for domestic
transfers. Finally. Dunbar (1992) reported an
interest in culturally-specific information, and
cross-cultural social relations enhanced expatri-
ate adjustment and performance. As we have
suggested, a case could be made that this interest
could also influence willingness to take the
assignment as well.
Ethnocentrism. Hthnocentrism is the belief
that the values and attitudes held in one's culture
are superior to those held by people of other
cultures (Wortzel & Wortzel. 1985). Ethnocentric
individuals have tended to exhibit more adaptation
and adjustment problems and less overall success
in working abroad (Fumham & Bochner, 1989).
Although a specific link between employee ethno-
centrism and willingness to work internationally
has apparently not been studied, a negative rela-
tionship would be expected. That is, ethnocentric
individuals would probably have less interest in
working where people had views, beliefs, and
ways of behaving different (and perceived to be
inferior) from their own.
Career focus. Career focus concerns the extent
to which individuals focus on and plan specific
strategies for their careers. Research on domestic
transfers has confirmed that employees who are
committed to their careers are more willing to
relocate (Markham & Pleck, 1986). Individuals
who have a firm resolve about their career goals
and engage in greater career planning would
also be expected to consider more seriously
expatriate assignments. For example, Sugalski
and Greenhaus (1986) found that managers who to relocate domestically were more willing to
engaged in more extensive career exploration relocate internationally. They suggested these
and planning were more likely to have mobility- attitudes reflected the itiiportance of past reloca-
oriented career goals. In some of the earliest tion experiences.
expatriate research, (e.g., Cleveland, Mangone,
& Adams, 1960; Gonzalez & Negahdhi, 1967), Spouse Characteristics and Attitudes
career-focus variables (i.e., opportunity for Toward Relocation
advancement and recognition, opportunity to Spouses' attitudes have been found to play a
improve career mobility, preparation for advance- significant role in employees' transfer decisions
ment to top management positions) represented (Black & Gregersen, 1990, 1991; Black &
important predictors of relocation willingness. Stephens, 1989; Cetron et al., 1987), More
specifically, spousal attitudes toward job reloca-
Organizational commitment. The extent to tions (Minor, 1982) and encouragement from
which individuals believe in their organizations" family (Hill & Miller. 1981) have been shown
goals and values and are willing to exert effort to be strongly related to transfer decisions.
on the organizations' behalf is probably associated
with willingtiess to transfer overseas. Although a Spouse employment status. Over half of
number of domestic studies exist (e.g., Brett & all U.S. married couples have dual career
Reilly, 1988), no study has apparently investigat- status, with the number expected to increase
ed the relationship between organizational com- to almost two out of three by the yeat 2000
mitment and international transfer willingness. (Brett et al,, 1990). Research at Mobil Oil
As in domestic studies, we would ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ concluded that such a projected
expect that individuals holding high increase would lead to a 50%
levels of affective attachment to their refusal rate as well as a 20%
organization would be more willing The degree of
turnover rate among its employees
to move internationally. involvement spous- seeking to avoid relocation (Brett,
Stroh, & Reilly, 1992).
es have with their
Readiness for relocation. An The degree of involvement
employee's estimate of the likeli- work appears to spouses have with their work
hood an expatriate assignment will be particularly appears to be particularly important
be a negative experience is likely to relocation decisions. Cetron,
related to their assessment of their important to relo- Lucken, McFadden, and Weir
readiness for such an assigtiment. cation decisions. (1987) found that "spouse fears
Perceiving they are ready to under- career may be jeopardized" ratiked
take an international assignment as the sixth most importEmt reason
(that is, feeling the time is appropriate relative to for refusing a transfer. Brett's (1982; 1984) and
their career and fatnily situation; believing they Brett and Reilly's (1988) work on managers'
have been prepared for an intemational assignment job transfers showed that spouses'job involve-
through training in cultural and living-related skills; ment was negatively coiTelated with spouses'
believing they possess critical, job-related skills) and employees' willingness to move. That is,
would appear to be related to employee willing- the greater the involvement of spouses in
ness to relocate. Although empirical research their careers,, the less willing employt;es were
on this issue apparently has not appeared in the to move.
literature, Evans (1991) and his associates noted
that employees' readiness to be transferred was Spouses* attitudes toward movirig.
an important selection criterion for expatriates. The cross-cultural adjustment and job relocation
literature suggests that spouses' motivation to
Attitudes toward moving. In a study involv- make an international relocation has a signifi-
ing 405 managers working in 20 firms, Brett & cant impact on employees' efforts to adjust (Ratik,
Stroh (1995) reported that relocation attitudes 1982; Sharda & Nangle, 1981; Stephens & Black,
were the most important predictors of employee 1988). It might also be hypothesized that spouses'
willingness to take a foreign assignment. More favorable attitudes toward an intemiitional
specifically, managers having positive attitudes assignment would also be closely related to
toward moving in general and who were willitig employee willingness to take such ai assign-

HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 33

 ment. Forster's (1990) research, for example, especially important to employee willingness to
revealed that moves perceived to be disruptive accept an international assignment because of the
to spouses and children caused a reluctance to cross-cultural nature of the assignment and the
relocate among employees. Fox and Krausz unfamiliar managerial, organizational, and cul-
(1987) confirmed that spousal variables, i.e., tural contexts (Gregersen & Black, 1992).
work prospects of spouse and positive attitudes However, very little empirical research appears
of spouse, were most strongly correlated with to have been done on Ihe impact of such factors
employee willingness to relocate. on wiLingness to make an international relocation.
Brett and Stroh (1995) sought to determine Yet, the perceived importance of such factors
if spousal and employee attitudes toward inter- would seem most salient. With relocations, orga-
national relocation were reciprocally related. nizations intrude more directly into employees'
They posited that from a family systems perspec- lives than at any other time because the organiza-
tive, relationships between family members tion directs where and when people will relocate
tend to exist in equilibrium, with each member and what type of job awaits them (Pinder, 1981,
reciprocally affecting the psychological state of 1989). Intemational relocations are particularly
the other members. However, their investiga- stressful as they disrupt routines and are accom-
tion of 405 managers and their spouses showed panied by feelings of anxiety, uncertainty, and
that spouses' intentions regarding international lack oi' control. As a consequence, employees
relocation affected managers' relocation atti- fear what will happen to them, their families,
tudes, but managers' views did not affect those their careers, their extended families, and their
of spouses. Because of this "spillover effect" job skills while on a foreign assignment (Munton
of spouses' relocation attitudes onto employ- & Forster. 1990). Fears of failure, low visibility,
ees' views, they concluded that organizational and harmful impacts on spouse and families are
efforts to influence employee willingness preseni: due to an inability to predict, understand,
to work overseas should be concentrated on and control events (Black et al., 1992; Sutton &
spouses. ^^^^^m ^ ^ • ^ Kahn, 1987: Torbiom, 1982).
In addition, Brett and Stroh Therefore, to help allay such fears,
(1995) identified a profile of Decisions by employees search for tangible sup-
spouses supportive of intemational I port from their organizations.
employees concerh-
relocation. Spouses most willing Organizational activities and poli-
to relocate had the following pro- ing relocation arej cies offer ways to ameliorate these
file: older, well-educated, held concerns. Decisions by employees
not made in a '
positive attitudes toward relocating, concerning relocation are not made
willing to move domestically, and vacuum; corporate in a vacuum; corporate support
had no children at home. actions play a crucial role in the
support actions
development of employees' reloca-
Organization Relocation play a crucial role tion intent. This intent can be
Support Activities in the developmen dependent upon opportunities initiat-
Perceived organization support con- ed and managed by corporate policy.
of employees' Kirschenbaum's (1991) research, for
cerns employees' beliefs involving
the extent to which their organiza- relocation intent. example, suggested that organization-
tions value their contributions al practices are important variables
and care about their well-being in the transfer decision. For instance,
(Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchinson, & Sowa, organizations, recognizing potential work-family
1990). These beliefs are based on the perceived conflicts, could offer family counseling and
treatment of employees through actions taken assistance before, during, and after a move.
by organizations, such as giving pay raises for This assistance could, in tum, engender a posi-
relocating or providing cross-cultural training to tive decision. Similar approaches could also
employees and their families before an interna- be applicable in other organizational activities
tional move. Employees tend to reciprocate associated with expatriation. Rosenbaum (1979)
offers of perceived organizational support by contended that the ability to adjust in relocations
altering their eftbrts to meet organizational goals is relat<;d to the supportive character of the
(Eisenberger, Fasolo, & Davis-LaMastro, 1990). organization. Employees want to feel that their
Organizational support factors would appear actions and sacrifices are noted and appreciated

34 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING

by the organization. For example, research
shows thai expatriates want a return job, to
be informed, to be part of the decision making
process, to be trained, and to receive family
assistance (Black, 1990; Feldman, 1991; Harvey,
1989; Tung, 1988).
Following this line of reasoning, employees
in expatriate assignment situations, perceiving
that their organizations have given support in
areas important to them, may be more willing
to accept the assignment. The role of organiza-
tional support activities can run the gamut of
enhancing technical and social readiness, reduc-
ing perceived risks, compensating for inherent
risk, shaping relocation attitudes, and demon-
strating concern for both employees and their
spouses. In the process of providing both sub-
stantive and symbolic support for expatriates,
organizational support activities help generate
willingness to accept expatriate assignments and
increase the potential for the success of these
assignments.
In summary, when organizations are per-
ceived by employees as supportive, employees
respond by increased effort to meet goals and
expectations (Shore & Tetrick, 1991). In the
international relocation arena, supportive
actions of organizations valuing international
experience have been found to be related to
both expatriate adjustment (Stroh et al., 1994)
and satisfaction with expatriate and repatriate
experiences (Gomez-Mejia & Balkin, 1987).
Such actions when perceived by both employ-
ees and their spouses would also be expected
to exert positive influences on employees'
willingness to work overseas as well (Brett &
Stroh, 1995).
There are many organizational practices that
can influence employees' perceptions of support
and encouragement. Brett (1980) suggested
addressing those issues in relocation that have
the greatest impact. Support practices related to
employees' careers, family, repatriation, mentor-
ing, selection, compensation, and training seem
particularly important. Each practice represents
an important factor associated with employees'
perceptions of corporate support to work over-
seas. Because of their important tie to support
perceptions, these practices are very likely to be
critical in affecting employees' willingness to
be an expatriate. Each of the following practices
may potentially serve as a means of reducing,
or compensating for, the risks incurred in an
international assignment.
Career planning support. Uncertainty regard-
ing one's career has been a concern ot expatriates
(Black & Gregersen, 1991; Black & Mendenhall,
1990; Oddou & Mendenhall, 1991). A major
fear of expatriates is that foreign assignments
will be a "career cul-de-sac" that derails their
progress on the path to higher management
positions (Feldman & Thomas, 1992). Feldman
and Thomas (1992) and Gomez-Mejia and Balkin
(1987) reported that employees' seeing a connec-
tion between their expatriate assignments and
planning for their careers was strongly related
to their job performance, intent to remain in the
assignments, positive job attitudes, and develop-
ment of constructive relationships with host The importance of
national colleagues. If employees perceive the
selection to subsequent
organization has provided opportunii:ies for
advancement, meaningful development assign- expatriate success
ments, and information regarding career prospects,
suggests that employees'
they will likely be more willing to relocate
and trust that the relocation will have positive perceptions of selection
career benefits (Lajidau, Shamir, & Artiur, 1992). practices may be
Therefore, a well-organized career planning
program would seem to offer substantive and critical to expatriate
symbolic encouragement for accepting an expa- willingness.
triate assignment.
Selection support. Much of the international
literature has pointed to poor selection practices
as a major cause of high expatriate turnover
(e.g., Mendenhall et al., 1987; Zeira & Banai,
1985). The importance of selection to subsequent
expatriate success suggests that empkiyees' per-
ceptions of selection practices may be critical
to expatriate willingness. Employees, feeling
expatriate assignments were fairly determined
and appropriate criteria used, are more likely to
perceive organization support for theii- selection.
In addition, effective selection procedures are
likely to enhance the feelings of readiness and
efficacy for those selected.
Beer, Spector, Lawrence, Mills, and Walton
(1984) stressed that employee beliefs that they
have been treated fairly are instrumental to
organizational commitment. Feldman and Thomas
(1992) reported that free choice concerning
expatriate assignments and realistic job previews
were related to subsequent success aid adjust-
ment in expatriate assignments. Perceptions
of care and fairness in selection decisions are
salient to employees relinquishing control in a
relocation; employees need to feel the organiza-
tion has a rational selection procedure, rather than
just sending anyone to fill a spot. Believing the
HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 35
 organization has carefully chosen the right persons
for the assignments could reduce some uncertainty
and anxiety associated with foreign transfers.
Adequate lead time. Pinder (1981) has con-
cluded that much of the bittemess toward reloca-
tion decisions is due to a lack of time to prepare
for the moves. People perceive little organiza-
tional support when insufficient warning is given
that a transfer is required. Employees may infer
that lack of time indicates little consideration for
them as well as little career-based foresight.
Burke (1974) found the amount of lead time was
positively associated with feeling important to
the organization in domestic job transfers.
Haslberger and Stroh (1992) surveyed pub-
licly held multinational corporations and found
over 50% of the companies provided one or two
month's notice for international assignments.
Forster's (1990) study revealed roughly 30% of
relocated employees had less than four weeks
notice between selection and starting a new job.
He found the longer the period of notice to
employees, the more positive job changes were
perceived, and the quicker employees settled into
new jobs. Extra time permits employees to logi-
cally plan the move. It also produces a greater
sense of control over their situation. In addition,
extra time can be used for anticipatory adjustment
that helps to reduce uncertainty and stress. Expa-
triates' perceptions that they have a reasonable
period of time between selection and transfer
provide a sign of organizational support. These
perceptions should have positive associations
with taking expatriate jobs.
Training support. Lack of employee and spouse
training for expatriate assignments has been a
concem of expatriates (e.g.. Black & Gregersen,
1991; Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Feldman
& Thomas, 1992; Oddou & Mendenhall. 1991).
One indication of organizations' support of
expatriates is pre-departure training that reflects
visible support for expatriate success.
Although relevant to successful intemational
assignments, use of cross-cultural training to
prepare managers for assignments abroad is very
limited (Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Mendenhall
et ah. 1987). Earley's (1987) study confirmed a
positive association between training and adjust-
ment to expatriate relocations. However, only
30% of the companies operating abroad in the
late 1980s sponsored training before relocation,
and often the training consisted of superficial
36 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING
environmental briefings (Black & Mendenhall.
1990). In contrast, 69%i of European and 57%
of Japanese firms surveyed offered training for
overseas work (Tung, 1988).
Gregersen and Black (1992) reported that
managers saw pre-departure, culture-related train-
ing as an important form of company support.
Because training offers a visible sign of organi-
zations' commitment to expatriates' readiness
and ultimate success, it should be positively
related to acceptance of foreign assignments.
Mentor support. An additional aspect of organi-
zational support is the use of mentors or domestic
sponsors who can relate current domestic events,
look out for expatriates' careers, and offer assis-
tance with problems (Harvey, 1989). Again, this
form ol' visible support shows the organization
is committed to facilitating expatriate success.
Gregersen and Black's (1990) study found
employee attitudes were related to intent to stay
and suggested that mentors are one way to sus-
tain this commitment. Similarly. Feldman and
Thomas (1992) reported, in a study involving
expatriate managers, that use of mentors was
related to subsequent success and adjustment in
expatriate assignments. Research by Black and
others (Black, 1988. 1990; Black & Gregersen,
1991) has also provided evidence of the rela-
tionship between social support and expatriate
adjustment. Perception of support has been
found to be empirically linked to the develop-
ment of organizational commitment (Mowday,
Porter, & Steers, 1982).
Contact between expatriates and the home
office helps employees feel that they are part of
the home organization and reduces the anxiety
and uncertainty associated with "out of sight,
out of mind" fears (Tung, 1988). Having a men-
tor at the home office to watch over expatriates'
careers and keep them from being derailed
can be very important (Feldman, 1991). Ideally,
expatriates who will be moving overseas should
have a substantial role in selecting their mentors.
Research (Chao. Walz. & Gardner. 1992) has
shown ihat informal mentorships (those that
develop "on their own") produce more successful
outcomes than forma! ones (where the mentor is
assignee by the organization). A mentor is both a
subst^tive and symbolic demonstration of organi-
zational support. Knowing that the organization,
via the mentor, is interested in employees' well-
being, needs, and aspirations should encourage
intemational work assignment acceptance.
Compensation support. Suitable compensa- relocated (Brett et al., 1990; Harvey, 1995).
tion demonstrates to employees that the organi- Motorola noted that their expatriates wanted
zation realizes the risks and sacrifices involved preparation for dealing with culture shock,
in an international assignment for both employee in-country assistance, and information on daily
and family and is willing to compensate employ- life activities (Brett et al.. 1992). These pro-
ees for incurring these. It also gives employees a grams would reflect a visible commitment by the
sense of their worth to the company and demon- organization to not only enhancing the family's
strates the value placed on expatriate assignments. transition and subsequent successful adjustment
When the compensation offered rewards mobility but also to lessening uncertainty associated
and allows employees to maintain their current with relocation.
lifestyle, employees perceive a commitment from Other forms of family assistance (e.g., social
the organization to facilitate their performance in support from fellow home citizens who are on
expatriate assignments (Hobart, 1990). location and support of host nationals) have also
Ahhough salary and supplemental costs for been found to facilitate adjustment (Black, 1990;
expatriate assignments generally run three times Black & Gregersen, 1991) and to reduce stress
that of domestic transfers, a recent study (Black (Arkin. 1993). Implementation of family support
& Gregersen. 1991) showed 77% of expatriate programs should enhance perceived organizational
managers were dissatisfied with their ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ support. Enhanced organizational
expatriate salaries and benefits. An support, in turn, should encourage
adequate compensation package employee willingness to be an
would include meeting specific needs A contributing expatriate.
of the family life cycle (i.e., birth of factor of expatri-
children, children going to school, Repatriation support.
children returning to the U.S. for col- ate turnover is Repatriation refers to the transition
lege, elder care, travel back to the the lack of atten- from the foreign country back into
U.S.), any cost-of-living adjustments one's home country and home
tion to problems
for the particular international loca- organization (Black, 1990). Potential
tion, and facilitating reentry to the expatriates expatriates recognize overseas
U.S. and the domestic organization assignments are accompanied
encounter upon
(Harvey, 1985). by career risks, such as missed
repatriation, and opportunities for advancement
Family assistance support. these problems back home, possible failure in the
Support mechanisms are necessary assignment, and uncertainty over
influence managers' their place within the company
for successful adjustment of the
entire family in a transfer. Gregersen willingness to take after the assignment (Black &
and Black (1990) showed adjustment Gregersen, 1991). Harvey (1989)
foreign assignments. has argued that a contributing
to a foreign culture positively corre-
lated with intent to stay. They pro- factor of expatriate turnover is
posed it is important for organizations to facili- the lack of attention to problems expatriates
tate cultural adjustment through support in the encounter upon repatriation, and these problems
areas of housing, education, and spouse job- influence managers' willingness to take foreign
search assistance. Detailed information about the assignments.
new location, financial and career assistance for When employees see a repatriate given a
spouses of transferred employees, and orientation demotion, a job with little responsibility, or a lat-
workshops are examples of support offered by eral position, the message is sent that expatriate
Pinder and Walter (1984). Other studies (e.g., assignments hurt one's career. Many expatriates
Tung, 1988) have suggested similar assistance. have expressed concern over expatriate assign-
However, less than 10% of firms in the late ments and subsequent repatriation (Adier 1986;
1980s offered job-finding assistance for expatri- Harvey, 1989; Kendall, 1981). They are aware
ate spouses even though over half of the spouses promotions are often decided at headquarters and
were employed before expatriation (Black & being visible helps promotion chances. Focusing
Stephens, 1989). on, and planning for, repatriation is a visible
In general, American companies have not had sign the organization supports expatriates and
successful support policies for families being attempts to contribute to employee success in the

HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 37

 assignment. This emphasis would encourage • Individuals most committed to their profes-
expatriates to feel their best interests were sional careers (e.g.. viewing an expatriate
being taken care of while on assignment. assignment as an opportunity for advancement)
Tung (1988) found career advancement and to their employing organizations are prone
opportunities, or lack thereof, and geographic to be more willing to work as expatriates.
relocation upon return to be two problems asso- Individuals with positive attitudes toward mov-
ciated with repatriation. She noted that the atti- ing are also more likely to consider moving
tude of top management toward international intemationally.
experience was a major component in the ease • Careers and attitudes of spouses will likely
or difficulty of the reabsorption. Harvey (1989) have a significant impact on employee willing-
suggested that dealing with the repatriation ness to move overseas. The more involved a
process before the return home can reduce some spouse is in his or her own career, the greater
of the stress and anxiety associated with repatria- the reluctance to miike a move. Further, spousal
tion and can provide a sense of expatriate stability. attitudes toward intemational relocation will also
Tf a clear repatriation plan is present, the play an important role in employee willingness
plan could assist in uncertainty ^^^^^ toward moving. Organizations
reduction and increase willingness. should consider developing pro-
Repatriation activities that provide a Focusing on, and grams to assist spouses having a
comparable position or a promotion strong career focus. Such programs
from the job held before repatriation planning for,
might include offering spouses
and assistance for the employee repatriation is a assistance in locating a suitable job.
and family in assimilating back into
visible sign the • Employee and spouse percep-
their home culture demonstrates
supportiveness. tions of organizational support for
organization sup-
expatriates are critical to etnployee
ports expatriates willingness to work overseas.
Summary and Conclusions
and attempts to Organizations should adopt practices
Our review suggests several guidelines that foster positive perceptions of
regarding employee willingness to contribute to organizational support. Such prac-
accept expatriate assignments. For tices include (a) explaining how and
employee success
some of these guidelines, there is why employees were chosen; (b)
empirical evidence regarding their in the assignment. allowing appropriate time between
association with willingness to work employees' selection and their actual
as an expatriate. For others, our guidelines serve moves; (c) ensuring employees do not suffer
more as hypotheses concerning employee willing financially in making a move by providing suit-
ness for expatriate work. The guidelines include able compensation; (d) offering cross-cultural
the following: training and counseling to employees and their
• Employees more willing to serve are likely families before, during, and after a move; (e)
to be single. Married couples without children showing employees how the move will fit into
at home or those with non-teenage children will their career progress; (f) having a meaningful job
probably be most willing to move. available upon their retum; and (g) encouraging
employees to secure mentors or sponsors at their
• Prior international experience appears
domestic organization who can help with prob-
associated with willingness to work as an expa-
lems and keep employees informed as to what is
triate. In selecting individuals for expatriate
going on in the domestic organization.
assignments, consider previous international
experience (i.e., intemational travel as well as Because of continuing intemationalization
prior work assignments). Intemational experi- of U.S. corporations and freer foreign markets,
ence is likely a particularly important factor expatriate programs will continue to expand.
if it has been a positive one for the employee. However, past success rates of corporate expatri-
Similarly, employee interest in taking an intema- ate programs have not been impressive, and
tional assignment is probably also significant. many employees are not only skeptical but
Individuals having positive expectations about unwilling to participate in these programs.
overseas assignments will probably be more If attracting employees to such programs is
interested in serving. important, companies either having or initiating

38 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING

expatriate programs would be wise to consider
carefully the issues presented here as they imple-
ment these programs.
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