The Quantum World

y  z)
( x  y  z)
( x  y  z)
 Early Hints: Electromagnetic Spectra
Free moving charges emit a continuous Maxwell-Boltzmann type elm. spectrum
reflecting spectrum of particle velocities (Blackbody: thermal equilibrium).
Observation of dark lines in transmitted Sun light, bright lines in secondary
light. (Spectrum = Intensity vs. color or wave length).

Blackbody Sun Looking at Sun through gas

2

Puzzle #2
Blackbody
Sun l→
molecules
Intro QM Summary

Spectrometer

Puzzle #3
Puzzle #1
l→ l→
Looking directly at gas
Looking directly at Sun
W. Udo Schröder, 2019
 Planck’s Radiation Law: Photon Energy Quanta
Problem: How to understand experimental
electromagnetic energy spectrum emitted
by a “black” body in equilibrium at temp.
T.  E 
Max Planck P(E )  exp − 
Mean oscillator/ k
 B T
(1900)
radiation energy

Trial: Use oscillator energies En = n·e n=0,1,2,..

“quantum” for n : e = h· n (h= fit parameter)
Statistical mechanics :

 ( n  hn ) e
− nhn kBT
n =0 hn
En = =

 e
− nhn kBT e hn kBT
−1
n =0

8 hn 3
Planck (n , T ) = En n =
c 3 e hn kBT
−1

Best fit h = 6.62618  10−34 J  s  0

Planck’s energy density good at all T, h≠0 → Elm energy is quantized
for any given frequency/wavelength
 Characteristic Emission and Absorption Spectra
Unbound (free) electric charges such as electrons in a
macroscopic, hot mass (“blackbody”) of ionized gas (e.g.,
Sun) emit and absorb electromagnetic spectra with
continuous wavelengths (frequencies, photon energies).

Sun Bound (spatially confined) electric charges (e.g., electrons

4

in atoms, molecules) emit and absorb discrete (“line”)

energy (wavelength) spectra (solves Puzzles #2, #3).

Energy transfer by photons in bound Ionization Energy

Intro QM Summary

systems: Absorption or emission of

light quanta occurs in (reversible)
transitions between discrete energy
levels. Characteristic spacing → DE
DE

−DE
spectr. ID
Also: Excitation in chemical rxns. Ground State

|DE| = hn = hc/l
h = 6.62606957 × 10-34 m2 kg / s
Planck’s constant

W. Udo Schröder, 2019

 Characteristic Emission And Absorption Spectra
Reversible transitions between discrete energy levels
Unbound electric charges such as electrons in a hot body
(“blackbody”) of ionized gas (e.g., Sun) emit and absorb
electromagnetic spectra with continuous wavelengths
(frequencies, photon energies).
Ionization Energy
Sun Bound electric charges (e.g., electrons in atoms, molecules)
5

emit and absorb discrete (“line”) energy (wavelength)

spectra.

Energy transfer by photons in bound

DE
Intro QM Summary

systems: Absorption or emission of

light occurs in transitions between
discrete energy levels. Characteristic
spacing → spectr. ID
DE

−DE
Also: ExcitationGround State
in chemical rxns. Ground State

Characteristic Characteristic

|DEnm| = hnnm = hc/lnm discrete n,m

W. Udo Schröder, 2019
h = 6.62606957 × 10-34 m2 kg / s Planck’s constant
 Photons As Particles (The Photoelectric Effect)
Physical effect (discovered 1878 by Heinrich Hertz) was explained
1905 by Einstein:
Illuminated metal plate emits electrons with a fixed kinetic energy
K(n)= eV(n) >0 and momentum p = 2mK.

K is independent of light intensity but depends on color (n) of light.

Albert Einstein (1922)
detected if K > - Vg
Einstein: transfer of light-energy packet E=hn (photon) to bound
electron K = hn-hn0 with work function (bond energy) hn0

Light consist of
photons,
I
photons have
momentum, like
particles!
 Dual Wave-Particle Properties of Photons
X-ray diffraction
at Al crystal X rays are diffracted by
crystal lattices. Characteristic
diffraction patterns explained
by Bragg’s theory for elm.
waves. → Wave nature of
elm. fields.
7

Lessons from experiments on photo effect: Elm.

waves (photons) can transfer linear momentum,
also in small packages (“quanta”, “quanton”)
Energy transfer E = hn  → Ke + Wmetal
Intro QM Summary

Linear − momentum transfer

(
pe  c = hn  − Wmetal ) c
Photon linear momentum p  c = hn  c

( )
2
Relativistic E 2 = ( p  c ) + m  c 2
2
;
also for photons m = 0

Lessons corroborated by Compton scattering of

photons on electrons.
W. Udo Schröder, 2019
 Particle-Wave Dualism
8

if many , e- impinge on sample

Intro QM Summary

W. Udo Schröder, 2019

 Simplified Experiment: Wave Diffraction at Double Slit

→ fringe pattern

High Intensity
9
Intro QM Summary

slit slit

Incident Plane Wave

(hn or e-)
W. Udo Schröder, 2019
 Wave Diffraction at Single Slit

High Intensity
10
Intro QM Summary

slit slit

Incident Plane Wave

W. Udo Schröder, 2019
 Wave Diffraction at Single Slit

High Intensity
11
Intro QM Summary

slit slit

Incident Plane Wave

W. Udo Schröder, 2019
Massive Particles?
 Diffraction Scattering of Neutrons
12
Intro QM Summary

Cold neutrons (vn≈200 m/s,

wave length ln= 2 nm).
Double slit: one 22-mm slit
separated by 104-mm from
second 23-mm wide slit. Small
neutron diffraction angles Dq ≈
10 mrad → observation plane
located 5 m downstream from
double slit.

W. Udo Schröder, 2019 (Experiment by Zeilinger et al., Rev. Mod. Phys. 60,1067 (1988).
 Diffraction Scattering of Neutrons: Results
Many (~109 ) neutrons,
Prob.: P(xi)=#(x=xi)/total Total incoming intensity leads to diffuse P(x)
13
Intro QM Summary

xi →
Uni-modal angular
distribution of neutrons Neutrons scattered by double slit produce
scattered by a single slit. interference pattern= superposition of
Solid line = simulation elementary spherical wave fronts originating
calculation. from both slits. → Wave-typical behavior
(Experiment by Zeilinger et al., Rev. Mod. Phys. 60,1067 (1988).

“Optical” diffraction (Fresnel, Fraunhofer) phenomena are also observed in

scattering of heavy nuclei (Ar, Kr, Xe, Pb,…) (Schröder, & Huizenga,1984 )
W. Udo Schröder, 2019
 Multiple Measurements (Expt+Sim)
Double-Slit Scatter (Sim)
Direct observation of ionization tracks of
N~100 events
individual microscopic particles (pion, alpha
particles, triton, (neutron)) in photographic
emulsions, H-bubble chambers
14

Photographic record of pion capture in 12C

(nuclear emulsion image plates)

N~ 102 events
Intro QM Summary

N~ 105 events

Individual particles can be tracked along trajectories..

Optical diffraction pattern emerges as superposition
of measurements of many similarly prepared events.

W. Udo Schröder, 2019

 De Broglie’s Compromise (Matter Waves)
Postulate (1923): Material particles of momentum p
exhibit also complementary mono-chromatic wave
properties, characteristic wavelength is given by
h
de Boglie wave length l = ; p := p = k
p
15

Louis de Broglie Classical behavior for limits Planck’s constant h → 0,

1892 – 1987
or p →∞ (high energy), since dB wavelength l → 0
Pilot Wave: Non-local phenomenon governing
appearance of particle ensemble (interference)
→ “Theory of Measurement” (deBroglie-Bohm, 1950s)
Intro QM Summary

To “see” an object, illuminating elm or particle “light”

must have wavelength l shorter than the dimension d of
object (l ≤ d). Particles can substitute for light.
Geiger, Marsden & Rutherford scattering experiments →
Atomic nucleus: dNucleus~ 10-15 m = fm = ‘Fermi’
Need “light” of wavelength l < 1 fm, equivalent energy E

W. Udo Schröder, 2019

 Observations
• Each single particle or single photon is measured as individual,
response of detector is well defined

• When many similar particles or many similar photons are

measured, the outcomes are distributed over a range of respective
observables (position, momentum, energy, time,…) → →
16

Macroscopic probability (normalized) distribution P(x, px, E, t,..)

• Observed wave-like interference patterns: underlying measured

probability are probability density amplitudes. Distinguish elm.
field amplitude from field intensity.
Intro QM Summary

Example: joint probability for event types 1 and 2:

2
P12 (x1, x2 ,...) A1(x1, x2 ,...) +• A2( x1, x2 ,...) → use complex calculus !
Individual probability amplitudes Ai → densities
2  
" wave function "  i (x1, x2 ,...) :  i (x1, x2 ,...) = P1(x1, x2 ,...)
x1 x2
2
Normalization :  dx1dx2  i ( x1, x2 ,...) = 1 required for probability

W. Udo Schröder, 2019

 “Quanton” Summary
Electromagnetic radiation has wave character: cf. double-slit experiments
Electromagnetic radiation has hybrid corpuscular character: cf. photo effect,
Compton scattering: quantized photon energy

E( ) =  = 2 T momentum p = E( ) c = k = 2 l (l = wave length)

Individual photon trajectories can be defined (instrumentally). Photon

17

ensembles are spatially (non-locally) modulated by wave functions.

Particle (mass m) radiation has hybrid wave character: cf. double-slit

experiments for neutrons, heavy particles (diffractive scattering)
deBroglie particle wave length l = h p  h 2mK (K = non − rel kin. energy )
Intro QM Summary

Individual particle trajectories can be defined (instrumentally). Particle

ensembles are spatially (non-locally) modulated by wave functions.

Transitions between bound systems are effected by absorption or emission of

photons or particles with discrete energies (wave lengths).

On a microscopic scale, distinction between particles and photons is artificial.

Dynamics → Non-local correlations
Free particles
W. Udo Schröder, 2019
 Free Quantum Particle(s) as Traveling Wave (1D)
Transpose what is known about elm (light) waves to “quanton”
(particle) dynamics → “traveling oscillatory wave function  (x, t)”
1D : x + direction
 (x) i ( k  x −  t )
i
( px − Et )
 k ( x, t ) = A  e =: A  e amplitude A
18

 2 2
with wave number (vector ) k = , frequency  =
l T
x
px  tan  Energy − momentum relation E = ( p  c ) + m  c 2 2
( )
2 2
Intro QM Summary

The larger the slope, Momentum p =: k , (total ) energy E =:  ; m = 0

the larger the
momentum Phase velocity  p = E p = l n  ( = c )
k = px  tan 
Try this Ansatz for massive ( m ) free particle (V pot = 0)
Linear momentum p =: k = ( 2 l ) , wave length l
Kinetic energy K =:  = ( k ) 2 (2m) mass m ( )
W. Udo Schröder, 2019 Q→
 Instant Quiz
Wave amplitude patterns  k , ( x, t ) oscillatory in both, space and time,
can be characterized by ( spatial ) wave length l and (time) period T .
Given real parameters k = 2 l and  = 2 T , the general form is
→  k , ( x, t ) = A  e  ik x  e  i t
19

For which combinations of the signs of the exponents does  k ,

represent a particle (mass m) wave traveling to larger distances Dx  0?
Intro QM Summary

W. Udo Schröder, 2019

 Instant Quiz
Wave amplitude patterns  k , ( x, t ) oscillatory in both, space and time,
can be characterized by ( spatial ) wave length l and (time) period T .
Given real parameters k = 2 l and  = 2 T , the general form is
→  k , ( x, t ) = A  e  ik x  e  i t
20

For which combinations of the signs of the exponents does  k ,

represent a particle (mass m) wave traveling to larger distances Dx  0?

Solution : check time dependence of one particular phase ( k  x    t ) of

 k , ( x, t ) = A  e  ik x  e  i t
Intro QM Summary

e.g ., i ( k  x +   t ) = 0 → k  x = −  t →
 2l l
x=− t = − t = − t
k T 2 T
x l
= −  0 → travel direction to smaller x (left )
t T
Traveling wave to right requires different signs on ( k  x ) and (  t )

W. Udo Schröder, 2019

 Free Quantum Particle(s) as Traveling Wave (1D)
Transpose what is known about elm (light) waves to “quanton”
(particle) dynamics → “traveling wave function  (x, t)”
Particle velocity & mass  wave number k , l
 (x) → Deduce constant linear momentum from  (x , t )

ˆ :=
21

by applying differential operator p

i x

on free particle wave function  k (x , t ).
i
x ( p x − K t )
px  tan  Energy E = K →  p ( x, t ) = A  e →
 i 
 p ( x, t ) = p  p ( x, t ) →  p ( x, t ) = p  p ( x, t )
Intro QM Summary

x i x
Traveling wave functions  p are eigen functions
ˆ:  p ( x, t ) =
of linear − momentum operator pˆp p  p ( x, t ) ( )
Postulate(Guess) :
May work as well for actual wf of particle in potential V (x )
→→→ Wf must be smooth, differentiable !
W. Udo Schröder, 2019
 Quantum Particle Constrained by Potential
Particle moving across potential well changes p and K
But :→ E = K + V = const.!
1 − 2 2 p2
 pˆ  ( x) =
2
 ( x) =  ( x) = K  ( x) = Kˆ  ( x) →
2m 2m x 2
2m
Kinetic energy operator Kˆ = pˆ 2 2m = Eˆ − Vˆ ( x)
22

V (x) Intellectual jump for conservative systems ("leap of faith ") :

m
E E = K ( x) + V ( x) = constant numerical value.
Kinetic energy Kˆ = pˆ 2 2m Potential energy Vˆ ( x ) = V ( x )
K (x) E
Intro QM Summary

Total energy Eˆ = E = conserved . ( Eˆ → Hamilton op Hˆ )

0
x

Time Independent  − 2 2 
 + V ( x)  E ( x) = E  E ( x)
Schrödinger Equation  2m x
2

Hˆ  ( x) = E  ( x)
Eigenvalue equation for Hamilton op. E E

W. Udo Schröder, 2019

 More (Independent) Degrees of Freedom
Uncorrelated motion along 3 spatial degrees of
freedom = superposition of 3 traveling waves

 x  kx   px 
   
r =  y  → k =  k y  ; p =  p y  ; normal modes  x , y , z
z k  p 
   z  z
23

Probabilities for simultaneous events multiply P12 = P1  P2

→  k (r , t ) = A  e (
(
i k x  x −  x t ) i k y  y −  y t
e
)  ei( k z z − z t ) ;
i
( pr − Et )
 k (r , t ) =: A  e ; p = k , total energy E
Intro QM Summary

t-Independent, Stationary − 2 
ˆ
H  (r ) =  D + V (r )  (r ) = E ( r )
Schrödinger Equation:  2 m 
Eigen functions = product functions  (r ) =  k x ( x)  k y ( y )  k z ( z )
E = Ex + E y + Ez Degeneracies!

Analog arguments for motion along any set of independent degrees of

freedom: Wave functions multiply, energies add.
W. Udo Schröder, 2019
 Quantum Dynamics
− 2 − 2 
General in 3D : ˆ ˆ
D = K ; E =  → H  (r ) =  D + V (r )  ( r ) = E (r )
2m  2 m 
( ) =: A  e
i
i k r −  t ( pr − Et )
 p (r , t ) = A  e ; linear momentum p = k , total energy E
Product functions  k (r ) =  k x ( x)  k y ( y )  k z ( z ); E = Ex + E y + Ez
24

Explicit time dependence of energy EF  E (r , t ) = A  exp i ( p  r − E  t ) 


i  E ( x, t ) = Hˆ  E ( x, t ) = E  E ( x, t ) demonstrated for specific  ( x, t ) =  E ( x, t )
t
 Time Dependent
Intro QM Summary

Generalize for all wfs, i  ( x ) = Hˆ ( x ) Schrödinger Equation

t
−i ˆ
H t Formal Solution
Formal solution :  (x,t ) = e  (x,t = 0) (conservative V)

Neglected problem: → Traveling wave functions fill all space evenly,

→ not a plausible model for observed particle character.
W. Udo Schröder, 2019
 Particle Wave Packets
Problems: Harmonic wave function not normalized, not localized as required.
Solutions: Use instead wave packet = superposition of traveling waves, is also
solution of linear TDSE. Illustrate solution in 1D.
 k ( x, t ) = e (
i k  x −  t )
:→ construct wave packet (x, t ) = (2 )  f ( k )   k ( x, t )d k;
−1 2

→ Quantities k and  are (dispersion) related, expand about central momentum k0

25

Expand  ( k )   0 + ( k − k0 )  ( d dk )k :=  0 + ( k − k0 )  g ; k  x = k0  x + ( k − k0 )  x;
0
k
k  x −   t = k0  x − 0  t + ( k − k0 )   x − g  t  → group velocity g  0
m

e
(
i k0  x − 0 t )
(x,t) = Gaussian WP
(x, t )  +
 − f ( k )   k (x − g  t ,0) d k
Intro QM Summary

Periodic boundary conditions

2

Narrow f(k)→ Monochromatic (≈0) plane wave

modulated with constant-velocity x-profile function.
Dispersion Relation:
k2 p02 ?
Approx.  ( k )  k  g = →  (k )  = E
2m 2m

→ t-dependent dynamics later: Bound

x particles
W. Udo Schröder, 2019
 Particles Confined (Bound) in Quantum Wells
Particle in a finite 1D box: Traveling waves reflected back and forth at
potential boundaries.→ Standing waves, find with stationary Schrödinger Equ.

classically E, V classically
forbidden forbidden For a bound system: E = K+V < 0
E ≤ -B (Binding energy of highest level)
1 2 3 “Leakage” into classically forbidden
26

0 region. Continuity of  → boundary

E=-B condition: fulfilled only for a few
m discrete wave lengths (energies).
V
K TISE @ x  a 2 : − ( 2
)
2m  (x ) = −B   ( x)
W. Udo Schröder, 2019

Quantal " skin effect " x  a 2

-a/2 0 a/2 x −2 x  8m 
P(x ) = PE e 2 = PE exp − 2
B  x 
 
Bound particle has partial residence outside classical confinement.
More tightly bound systems leak less: The larger |B|, the faster the exponential
decay into the forbidden region, the weaker the leaking to outside.
Confined systems “leak” to the outside of boundaries, rate ~ f(√B·x )
Intro QM Summary
 Boundary Conditions for Bound Particles
Spatially confined particle, mass m, (electron in atom, nucleon in nucleus) can
exist only in discrete energy states {n·0| n=1,2…}, “stationary” states :
Moving particles are deflected by confinement walls back and forth, must be
“in phase” to make a periodic orbit → waves n·l0/2 have to fit into space L.
Perfectly reflecting walls = infinite confinement potential → particle in a box
(constant potential inside square well).
27

Add waves traveling in +x direction and –x

(x,t)
direction (boundary conditions )→ Standing waves
Wave packet = superposition of traveling
n0 2n0 sin(knx-vt)- or cos(knx-vt) waves with discrete
momenta (wave lengths) {kn = 2n/l0|n=1,2…}
Intro QM Summary

3n0 4n0 Harmonic “vibrations,” fundamental vibration at

frequency n0 =0/2 plus “overtones” with
frequencies nn = n·n0 (n=2,3,..,6)
5n0 6n0 Energies En = (kn)2/(2m) depend on confinement
Transitions En → Em emit or absorb energy →
0 x L0 x L spectroscopy reflects internal structure.
x → Reflection symmetry→ Parity  = ±1 (even/odd)

Model system, predict spectroscopy (En,….), compare to experiment→ iterate

W. Udo Schröder, 2019
 s.p. E-Spectrum from Matching Conditions
Potential boundaries given by vertical lines. Solve SSE for piecewise constant potentials
for both even and odd wfs. Plotted: |(x)|2 offset from zero by E-U and excitation energy.

Poor match, not a “good” wf.

Well matched (continuous at
the matching points).
28

This is a proper wave function.

The corresponding bound
state energy is E= 20 MeV.
W. Udo Schröder, 2019

Continuous scans for

even (symmetric) and odd
bound state wave functions.

Intro QM Summary
 Instant Quiz

Show whether the following Schrodinger Equations are linear in the

functions, or not. (Hint: Consider arbitrary LCs of 2 solutions.)

1) Time − independent Schrödinger Equation Hˆ E ( x ) = E  E ( x )

29


2) Time − dependent Schrödinger Equation i  ( x) = Hˆ ( x)
Intro QM Summary

t

W. Udo Schröder, 2019

 Expansion of Wave Functions: t Dependence
Remember: Eigen functions of qm operators form basis in F:
Claimed : formal solution of TDSE (conservative V  V (t ))
ˆ
→  (x,t ) = e − iH t  (x,t = 0)
Easy to prove for stationary (energy eigen) wave functions :  E (x,t )
 ˆ  (x,t ) = E   (x,t ) →  (x,t ) = ei E t  ( x, t = 0)
i  E (x,t ) = H
32

E E E E
t
Illustration : Expand arbitrary  (x,t ) in (discrete) energy basis
u (x) := 
n En ( x,t 
= 0) →  (x,t ) =  cn (t )  un (x )
n

    ˆ  c (t )  u (x ) =  c (t )  E  u (x )
→i  (x,t ) = i   cn(t )   un(x ) = H
Intro QM Summary

n n n n n
t n  t  n n

   
→  i cn (t ) − En  cn (t )  un (x ) = 0  x, t → i cn(t )  En  cn(t ) →
n  t  t
i i
− En t − En t
cn (t ) = e cn (t = 0) →  (x,t ) =  e cn(t = 0)  un( x)
n

i ˆ
− H t
For arbitrary wave functions:  (x,t ) = e  (x,t = 0)
(conservative Hamiltonian)
W. Udo Schröder, 2019
 Task of Quantum Models
Claim:
All accessible pertinent information about an ensemble of microscopic systems
is contained in the qm (well-defined, smooth, square-integrable) wave function
. (“QM is complete,” no hidden variables ??) → Measurement process

Task: Theory must provide immanent answers to general questions:

33

→ How to make and interpret measurements?

→ For which conditions do qm and classical pictures coincide?

For theoretical modeling of bound microscopic system, assume conservative

forces (bond potentials) and inertias (m). Use TISE to predict discrete energy
spectrum of internal states.
Intro QM Summary

→ Check by experimental absorption/emission spectroscopy

For theoretical modeling of unbound microscopic system of several complex

particles, assume interaction forces (interaction potentials) and inertias (m1,
m2,..). Use TDSE to predict scattering probabilities as functions of relative
velocities.
→ Check by measuring experimental scattering and internal particle excitation
probabilities as functions of angle, relative velocities.

W. Udo Schröder, 2019

 Five Quantum Postulates for Microscopic Systems
System: Ensemble of microscopic particles and force (el-weak, nuclear) fields.
Relativistic or classical, specific: QED, QCD (not gravitation yet!)

I. A system ensemble is completely (!?) described by a smooth wave function

 ({qi},t) . Independent coordinates qi:  (q i ) = i i (q i )
II. Any observable A corresponds to quantal operator  =  † which extracts the
34

associated information from the wave function (representing vector in H).

III. A system can only be observed in an eigen-state of the corresponding
indication operator Â, → Âa = a·a. Orthonormal set  a  = basis
IV. A series of ensemble measurements of observable A →
probability distribution P(A), mean and variance are given by
2
Intro QM Summary

ˆ =  dq dq ... (q  , t ) A
A ˆ  (q  , t ) and  2 = A
ˆ2 − A
ˆ
1 2 i i a

ˆ ˆ  BA
Incompatible observables A, B : AB ˆˆ →  A
ˆ, B
ˆ  0
 
→  A  B  ˆ, B
2 Heisenberg Uncertainty Relation, Compatible  A ˆ = 0.
 
V. System wave functions evolve in time according to the t-dependent
Schrödinger Equation, i  t = H ˆ ˆ, H
If  A ˆ  = 0 → A = const
 

W. Udo Schröder, 2019