04/09/2012

TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

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What are cereals……………….

Are grasses (i.e. members of the monocot families
Poaceae or Gramineae) cultivated for the edible
components of their fruit seeds (botanically, a type
of fruit called a caryopsis): the endocarp, germ, and
bran
Word cereal derives from Ceres, the name of the
Roman goddess of harvest and agriculture
Called staple crops………….Why?

grown in greater quantities and

provide more food energy worldwide than any other type
of crop
In natural form (as in whole grain): rich source of
vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, oils, and
protein

What are cereals……………contd….

All are annual plants; consequently one planting
yields one harvest
Cool season: Wheat, Barley, Triticale, Buckwheat,
Oat, Rye
Warm season: Rice, Maize, Sorghum, Millets
Maize, wheat & Rice :- accounts 87% of all grain
production worldwide and 43% of all food calories
Deficit in essential amino acids like lysine and
thryonine (which pulses contain) but rich in
tryptophan and methionine (deficit in many
pulses)……..so Cereals+Pulses = balanced diet

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Worldwide area & production situation

Table: Area, production and yield of cereals in world during 2007

Crops Area (million ha) Production (million metric Yield (t/ha)
tons)
Rice 155.81 659.59 4.23
Wheat 214.20 605.99 2.83
Maize 158.03 791.80 5.01
Barley 55.44 133.43 2.40
Millets 34.96 33.94 0.97
Buckwheat 2.72 2.01 0.74
Triticale ……… 12 ……….

Worldwide production trend

Production
800 1961 2500
Production (million metric tons)

2101
700 2005
Production (million metric tons)

2000 1930.5
2057
600 2006 1887.5
2007
500 1500 1535

400 1171
1000
300
200 500
100
0
0
1970 1980 1990 1995 2004 2007
Years
Figure: Trend of total cereals
grains production in
Cereal crops world during 1970-2007
Figure: Status of cereals crops production in
world during 1961-2007

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Area & production situation of Nepal

Table: Area, production and yield of cereals in Nepal during 2008/09
Crops Area (million ha) Production (million metric Yield (t/ha)
tons)
Rice 1.55 4.52 2.92

Wheat 0.69 1.34 1.94

Maize 0.87 1.93 2.22

Barley 0.025 0.023 0.92

Millets 0.26 0.29 1.12

Others 0.015 0.017 1.14

Total 3.41 8.12 2.38

Trend of area coverage & production in Nepal

9000 9000
Area Production
8000 8000

7000 7000
Production ('000 metric tons)

6000 6000
Area ('000 ha)

5000 5000

4000 4000

3000 3000

2000 2000

1000 1000
1964/65 1984/85 1994/95 2002/03 2007/08 2009/10
Years
Figure: Area coverage and production of total cereal crops in Nepal
(1964/65-2009/10)

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Constraints and opportunities

Climatic potential and constraints
Falls in subtropical climatic range (i.e 26022’’-30027’’ N)
Characterized by high temperature (mean daily temp 27-280C)
during summer and low temperature (mean daily temp 17-
180C) during winter season, 750-2250 mm mean annual
rainfall, 60-8848m altitude
Rainfall amount and characteristics

Primary source of agriculture water

1200-2250 mm rainfall in hills; 1000-1500 mm over most of the
country; higher rain in eastern part and lower in western part

Large inter-annual variability of rainfall :- results in climatic hazards
particularly flooding and droughts with devastating effects on food
production

Frequent occurrence of drought occasioned by erratic rainfall
distribution and/or cessation of rain during growing season

Mostly one peak duration referred to as unimodal rainfall
distribution pattern

500
450 Rainfall Table: Mean maximum and mean minimum
Average total rainfall, mm

temperature at Rampur, Chitwan

400
(mean of 2005-2008)
350
300 Months Mean of 4 yrs
250
Tmax Tmin
200
150 Jan 22.67 8.36
100 Feb 25.90 10.98
50
March 31.57 14.05
0
April 35.56 18.66
May 35.64 22.55
Months
Figure: Average total rainfall pattern over a year at Rampur, Chitwan June 34.81 24.97
(mean of 2005-2008) July 33.27 25.73
August 33.54 25.56
Temperature/Solar radiation Sept 33.36 24.46

High solar radiation accompany by Oct 32.02 21.56
uniformly high air temperature with Nov 28.62 13.80
moderate drop in November/December Dec 24.43 10.04

Affects cereal production by controlling the rate of physiochemical

rxn and that of evaporation of water from crops and soil surfaces

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Affect the rate at which the products of photosynthates used for

growth, respiration and food reserves

Require specific photoperiods for optimum yield

Social adaptation option to respond changing climate: alter planting
dates, changes to a crop more adaptable to new climate, application
of irrigation, change in level of fertilizers, etc
Edaphic potential and constraints

Predominance of fragile ecosystem and low inherited soil fertility

Declining fertility because of soil nutrients mining

Population pressures force farmers to grow crops after crop ‘mining’
or depleting the soil nutrients while giving nothing back to the soil

Low organic matter content of soil where bulk of cereals are
produced as a result of high rate of chemical and biological actions

Can enhance by avoiding monocropping, soil erosion, over-grazing &
bush burning, adoption of application of animal dung, crop
rotation, fertilizer application and use of green manures
Varietal constraints

Adopt local varieties inherited from their great grand father

Have low (1-2t/ha) production potentiality of local varieties

Also photo-sensitive and take longer time to mature

Need to adopt high yielding improved varieties that yield high grains
(2-4 t/ha) depending on ecology, crop and management practices
adopted

Total released var: Rice: 55; Maize: 19; Wheat: 28; Barley: 6;
Fingermillet: 3
Weed constraints

Lead to 100% yield drop by uncontrolled weed in cereals farm as
they compete with plants for nutrients, light, space and moisture

Also increase production cost in most cereal fields and often
drastically reduced yield as a result of delay weeding due to
competition for labour at early crop growth stages
Table: Major weeds of cereal crops
Crops Major weeds Estimated yield lost (%)
Rice Echinochloa colonum, E. crusgalli, Cyperus 15-90%
rotundus, etc
Wheat Chenopodium album, Phalaris minor, Vicia 20-40%
hirsuta, etc
Maize Eclipta alba, E. colonum, Elusine indica, etc 40-60%
Barley P. minor, Avena fatua, C. album, etc ………..

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Market and trade condition

Fluctuation in price of cereals

For instance, with outbreak of avian influenza, the demand of maize
by poultry and poultry processing companies will be affected

Poor demand discourage the maize producers

On the other hand,
 Adopt economic liberalization and privatization policy
 Member of WTO

Migration

Migration- an age long phenomena in which both young and old
human population move to new area to grab better life

Devastating effect on labour force in cereal production due to
migration of young and vibrant people

Dependency of resource poor farmers entirely on family labour and
it is their young and vibrant migrant group that constitute such
labour

To solve the migration: provision of social amenities and
employment opportunity in rural areas, give credit facility and
subsidies to agricultural inputs to young farmers in rural area

Production and technology

Total annual production of cereal = 8.12 million metric ton

Total population = 26 million

Population growth rate = 2.25%

Ag growth rate = 2.92% (0.9-5.7%)

Cereal crop production growth rate = 0.56% (2007/08-
2008/09)

Still behind the population growth rate so that has high
demand of food grains per annum

Unavailability of agro-ecological domain based package of
production for all crops

Salient feature of improved technology: quality seeds can
increase yields at least 15%, improved tillage methods can
reduce water uses in irrigated rice by 50%, improved
nutrient management can increase yields by 1-2 t/ha
(FAO, 1998)

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Agronomical constraints

Seed availability: poor quality seed, insufficient improved seeds,
untimely supply, high price

Seed treatment: no or low practice at farmers level

Improper sowing time: delay sowing of most of the winter seasonal
cereals; for instance, November 15 is optimum for wheat sown but
it goes to December that reduce yield of wheat grains significantly

Low seed rate: inappropriate final harvestable population

Defective method of sowing: hardly sown in rows

Inadequate interculture: high weed infestation initially, hardly
follow interculture in winter seasonal cereals

Insufficient irrigation: need2-3 life saving or protective irrigation;
low priority for certain cereals

Improper fertilization: hardly use of complete balance fertilizer,
broadcasting rather than row placement, insufficient application of
organic manures, no or negligible management of biofertilizer like
Azolla

Socioeconomic consideration and government policy

Hinder maximum return to local producers by inconsistent
government policy, devalued currencies and price instability

Free trade policy…..easy to enter cereals in domestic market from
developed countries and add threats to local producers adopting
labour-intensive technology

Need to formulate complementary cereal policies particularly in the
development of production infrastructures and input supply- eg.
 Permanent banning of import of cereals
 Stability of cereal crop price
 Consistent subsidy of agricultural inputs
 Provision of infrastructures like road and water to farming communities

Low yield of cereals ascribe to –
 Increase cost of production
 Lack of fertilizers
 Non-maintenance of irrigation facilities
 Lack of labour (demand in transplanting, weeding, harvesting, etc.)

Low farm level input use efficiency among poor resource farmers

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Hardly enough to support agriculture sector through the provided

development plans and annual budget (5.90 billion i.e. 2.5% of total
budget of 2008/09)

Poor adaptation of available technology in local biophysical and
institutional condition

Very low ratio of extension workers to farmers that lead to reduction
of farmers participation in technology transfer and adoption process

Farmer’s perception of new technology is vital for their adoption

Necessary to identify the key characteristics of each technology and
challenges it can target for improvement……extension worker that
will make this possible

Need for all organs of the government to support and empower
agricultural extension workers in order to enhance the dissemination
of new technologies to the producers
Pest and diseases

Seriously affect cereal production by disease and pest infestation

Major pests: Termites, stem borer, corn borer, white grub, bugs, plant
hopper, birds, mammals like rats , etc.

Major diseases: Blast, rusts, leaf blight, smut (panicle disease), root
rot, downy mildew, bacterial diseases (Xanthomonas spp), etc.

Yield lost: upto 80% by downy mildew in maize

Improve yield of cereals definitely by effective management of pest

and diseases

Primary source of inoculums: spore balls in soil from previously
infested crop residues and surface contaminated seeds used for
sowing

Result in substantial losses in grain yield and qualities due to
occurrence of the disease during seedling stage
Table: Major insects and diseases of cereal crops
Crops Major insects Major diseases
Rice Rice bug, Rice hispa, Yellow stem Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas oryzae)
borer, Stripped stem borer, Rice gall Blast (Pyricularia oryzae)
midge, Mole cricket, Plant hopper, etc False smut (Ustilaginoides virens)
Brown leaf spot (Helminthosporium oryzae)
Tungro (Tungro virus)
Wheat Armyworms, Cut worms, Shoot fly, Leaf spots (Helminthosporium spp)
Stem borer, Termites, etc Rusts (P. recondita)
Leaf streak (Xanthomonas campestris)
Loose smut (Ustilago nuda)
Maize Stalk borer, Shoot flies, Cut worms, Rust (Puccinia polysora)
Jassids, Armyworms, etc Leaf blight (Helminthosporium maydis)
Smut (Specealothica reliana)
Barley Green bug, Corn sawfly, Fruitfly, Barley yellow dwarf virus
Wheat bulb fly, etc Powdery mildew (Erysiphe graminis sp. hordii)
Net blotch (Helminthosporium sativum)

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Other factors
Illiteracy

Adult literacy rate (ages ≥ 15): 49% (WDR 2008)

Majority of farmers can not read and write which impede their ability
to adopt new technologies that could enhance production of cereal
crops

Solution: making basic education free and compulsory for all
children….government have taken bold step in this direction
Tools

Carry out farm operations from land clearing to crop harvesting and
processing using simple tools like hoe, sickle, axe, spades, plough and
other local farm implements by majority of farmers

Enhance crop production by using modern farm implements like
tractor, harvester, thresher, etc. that reduce drudgery associated with
simple tools

Provide credit facility and subsidy in modern agricultural tools to
empower rural farmers

Finance

Inadequate capital in farmers hand for purchasing costly inputs such
as farm machinery, seeds, fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides which
contribute to low cereals production

Inadequate financial mechanism to resource poor farmers

Ameliorate this problem with timely availability of fund to purchase
the inputs
Cropping system

Practice of mixed cropping by majority of farmers that do not permit
to use modern farm implements and agro-chemicals like herbicides

Encourage farmers to go into large sole cropping to enhance the use
of agrochemicals like herbicides that enhance the cereal crop
production
Storage facilities

Poor storage facilities enforce farmers to sell their produce at
cheaper price during harvest season than the appreciable price
during off season

Selling price hardly cover the production cost which discourage
farmer to grow cereals in the subsequent growing season

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TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

Rice (Oryza sativa L) (2N = 24)

An annual which usually grows to a ht of ½ m
to 2 m but certain varieties grows upto 6-9 m
Being a monocot belong to family
Gramineae, sub-family Oryzoideae, tribe
Oryzeae and genus Oryza
A semi-aquatic plant having high amount of
K2O and Si that checks rotting under
waterlogged condition
Has fibrous shallow root, jointed stem (know
as culm), rather flat leaves and terminal
panicles; rice fruit is botanically caryopsis
Presence of aerenchymatous tissue help to
survive in waterlogged condition
High K presence in straw than its grain while
reverse in case of rest cereals
Due to presence of air space occurs in
endosperms during ripening, white,
translucent, waxy or chalkiness substances in
rice grain

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Importance
A staple food for > 60% of world population & about 90% of all
rice produced and consumed only in Asian countries
Top most crop in terms of area (55% of cultivated land),
production and productivity (2.92 t/ha)
Contribution:

Economic growth depends on rice cultivation and production

Agriculture = 32.35% to GDP (in 2008/09)

Rice = 20.75% of AGDP

Per capita dietary energy supply = 38.5% (FAOSTAT)
protein supply = 29.4%
fat supply = 7.2%

Fulfills >50% of calorie requirement of Nepalese population

Account for about 50% of total food grains production

Main source of household income for farm families (60% population
depend on rice)
Primarily a high energy or high calorie food

Total calorie output of total world food is equal to 3119 K cal/person/day at
farm gate with rice accounting for 552 K cal/person/day or 18% of total calorie

Nutritive value of grain

Table: Nutritive value of rice grain per 100g
Components Amount Components Amount
Water (g) 12 Magnesium (mg) 25
Energy (kJ) 1527 Phosphorus (mg) 115
Protein (g) 7 Potassium (mg) 115
Fat (g) 1 Zinc (mg) 1.1
Carbohydrates (g) 79 Panthothenic acid (mg) 1
Fibers (g) 1 Vit B6 (mg) 0.2
Sugars (g) > 0.1 Folate (μg) 8
Iron (mg) 0.8 Thiamin (mg) 0.1
Manganese (mg) 1.1 Riboflavin (mg) > 0.1
Calcium (mg) 28 Niacin (mg) 1.6

Digestibility of carbohydrate and protein is high i.e. 95%

Lost significant amount (8-9%) of vitamins, proteins and minerals during milling
process where embryo and aleurone layer are removed

Less amount of lysine and threonine but higher content of methionine and
tryptophan in rice

Content amylose and amylopectins that make hard quality to rice during cooking
(Basmati rice = < 17% amylose)

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By product of rice used in varieties of purposes

Rice bran: a part of pericarp has high nutritional value due to
source of vit B; used as cattle and poultry feed; also extract oil
that used for making soaps, cosmetics

Rice hulls: used as litter, in manufacturing of insulation
materials, cement, card-board, etc

Rice straw: used as cattle fodder as hay but contain oxalates
which is harmful to livestock, also used as litter during winter
especially for calves; used as raw materials for glass industry
(due to high % of K & Si), paper industry, etc.’ used for making
straw-board, mats, shoes, hats, rope, compost, mulching
materials and for filling mattresses, etc
Grain used to prepare beaten rice, flour for making bread
(Dosa- a south Indian food, Roti in many feast and festivals
and ceremonies)
Other preparation of rice

‘Chyang and Raksi’ (local alcoholic products)

Rice flakes, puffed rice, rice wafers, canned rice

Origin and history

Two cultivated species

O. glaberrima Steud.- confined to west Africa as upland rice

O. sativa L. – Asia, Europe, USA
O. perennis - a probable parent of both species
O. rufipogon Griff. – common as a noxious weed in rice fields of Asia, Australia,
America; closely related to O. sativa and occurs natural hybridization between O.
sativa & O. rufipogon
Vavilov (1930): South-west Himalayas as the centre of origin of rice where varieties
of rice found
Ting (1949): cultivation probably started from southern China where a number of
wild rice found
Chang (1975): first domesticated in area between northern India and the pacific
coast adjoining Vietnam and China
Copeland (1924): rice originated in south-east Asia (on linguistic evidence)
Nakagahra and Hayashi (1977): the centre of genetic diversity exists in the areas
east Nepal, Bhutan, Assam, Burma, Indo-China and Yunnan as indicated by
Japanese analysis on variations in isoenzymic genotypes
Kihara (1953): found Japonica rice in high hills, Javanica rice in mid-hills and Indica
rice in terai plain of Nepal

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O. perennis - still found as wild rice in Nepal

Still available many races of wild rice in the hill basins of eastern Nepal, Sikkim
and Bhutan
Conclusion on weight of evidence: south-east Asia, particularly India and Indo-
China where the richest diversity of cultivated forms has been recorded
(Chandraratna, 1964)
CSIR (1966): Found carbonized paddy grains and husks, estimated to date 1000-
800 BC, in excavations at Hastinapur in UP and impressions of paddy on clay and
remnants of husk in Lothal in Gujarat
About sixth century BC, the King of Nepal, father of Gautama Buddha, was
known as Suddhodana, which means ‘pure rice’
Numerous reference made to rice in ancient Hindu scriptures and
literature, denoting its antiquity
Distribution and Production
Cultivated in 168 countries of world
Grown in region of tropics to sub-tropical warm temperate countries upto 400S
and 500N of equator and 700E to 1400E longitude, however, most rice growing
areas lie in between equator to 300N latitude and 700E to 1400E longitude

Temperate countries growing rice: Japan, Korea, China, Spain, Portugal, Italy, France, Romania,
USA, Russia, etc

Tropical and subtropical countries growing rice: Nepal, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia,
Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia, etc
Higher yield areas of rice: 300 N to 400N of equator
Globally: 155 million ha with a production of about 659 million tones

In Nepal: cultivated in terai plains to mountain; highest elevation (3050

masl) in world where rice cultivated is Jumla valley (Jumli marsi)

Terai: 71.57% of total rice area

Hill: 24.81%

Mountain: 3.62%

Major production domain: central and eastern part

World scenario of rice production

Table: Area, production and yield of rice in world during 2007
Areas Area (ha) Production (metric tons) Yield (t/ha)
China 2,91,79,116 18,73,97,460 6.42
India 4,37,70,000 14,45,70,000 3.30
USA 11,12,120 89,99,230 8.09
Phillipines 42,72,889 1,62,40,194 3.80
Nepal 15,49,262 42,11,240 2.78
World 15,58,11,821 65,95,90,623 4.23

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Area, production and yield of rice in Nepal

Table: Production (Mt) of rice in Nepal by ecological and developmental region during 2008/09
Ecological Developmental region Total
belts
Eastern Central Western Mid-western Far-western
Mountain 47641 46057 0 12624 22783 129105
Hill 223978 292642 370072 121566 60620 1068878
Terai 1081588 991820 609525 358077 284700 3325710
Total 1353207 1330519 979597 492267 368103 4523693

Table: Area, production and yield of rice in Nepal by ecological region during 2008/09

Ecological belts Area (ha) Production (Mt) Yield (kg/ha)

Mountain 64915 129105 1988.83

Hill 392664 1068878 2722.12

Terai 1098361 3325710 3027.88

Nepal 1555940 4523693 2907.37

Trend of area coverage, production & yield of rice in Nepal

Area Production Yield
5000 3.50

4500
3.00
Area ('000ha) & Production ('000 Mt)

4000

3500 2.50
Yield (Mt/ha)

3000
2.00
2500
1.50
2000

1500 1.00
1000
0.50
500

0 0.00
1964/65 1984/85 1994/95 2007/08 2009/10
Years

Figure: Area coverage, production and yield of rice in Nepal (1964/65-

2009/10)

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Classification
Based on subspecies
a) O. sativa var indica
Grown all over tropical regions and species grown in Nepal, India, Pakistan belongs to this
subspecies
Leaves: long and narrow, slightly pubescent , pale green
Grain: elongated, thin, narrow and slightly flattened with non-sticky texture
Awn less or possess with short and smooth awns
Comparatively longer in duration (130-210 days) with respect to Japonica subspecies
Photo-insensitive rice varieties having tall stature and weak & thin culms, produce tillers up to
20 or profuse tillering
Less responsive to nitrogenous fertilizer
b) O. sativa var japonica
Grown mostly in warm temperate, sub-tropical regions (Italy, Japan, Korea, USA, Spain, etc)
Early in maturity, photo-insensitive and having the short and sturdy culm
Leaves: short, narrow, erect, somewhat thickened, and dark in colour and photosynthetically
active even when grains reaches maturity
Panicle: more dense, higher no. of spikelets, awned or awn less seed
Grain: oval shaped, sticky in texture (sticky rice)
More responsive to NPK fertilizers and are higher yielder
c) O. sativa var javanica
Grown in equatorial regions (Indonesia, Phillipines, Thailand, southern USA, etc)
Intermediate in between indica and japonica
Characterized by a stiff straw, long panicle with awned grains but less number of grains and
poor yielder
Low or sparse tillering habit, long duration and low sensitive to difference in day length
Photo-insensitive rice varieties in which shattering loss is minimum

Table: Characteristics features of different types of rice subspecies

Characters Subspecies
Indica Japonica Javanica
Area of cultivation India Japan Indonesia
Plant height Tall Dwarf In between
Leaves Broad, light green, slightly Narrow, dark green, upper Broad, hard, light
pubescent, upper leaves leaves forming obtuse angle green
frequently forming an acute angle with the culm
with the culm
Tillering Very high Medium Low or sparse
Grain Narrow, thin, flattened, Broad, thick, rounded, Broad, thick,
elongated, awnless or possessing awned or awn less awned
short and smooth awns
Length: width ratio 3.1-3.5:1 1.4-2.9:1 …………..
Panicle Dense, high grains More dense, high grain Long, less grain
Shattering High Low Low
Based on growing season
a) Summer/spring season

known as Chaite rice in hills and Aus rice in terai

Photoperiod insensitive (periodically fixed) varieties of rice are grown in
spring/summer season

Nursery raising: Feb-March; Transplanting: March-April; Harvesting: June-July

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Higher yield: due to more number of sunny days, better fertilizer use efficiency
(due to controlled water) and less weed infestation etc.

Important varieties :- CH-45, Chaite-4, Chaite-6 etc.
b) Monsoon/main season

Both photoperiod sensitive and insensitive varieties mostly grown in Nepal as main
season rice

Photosensitive:
 Timely fixed rice cultivars (eg. Aman rice:-traditional rice varieties)
 Early aman: mature in first week of November
 Medium aman: mature in last week of November
 Late aman: mature in second week of December
 Indigenous cultivars: Anadi, Jhinuwa, Masino, Jarneli, Eakle, Pokhereli masino,
Mansara, etc.

Photoinsensitive:
 Periodically fixed, which are high yielding modern semi dwarf varieties
 Sowing time: May/June; Harvesting: Sept/Oct
 Important varieties:- Sabtri, Durga, Laxmi, Parwanipur-1 , etc.
c) Winter/Boro rice

Coarse rice, poor quality of rice grain but yield more

Sowing time: last week of October to first week of November; ; Transplanting: 75-
100 days old seedling (after 15 January when soil temp >100C); Harvesting : April to
May

Common in winter in Bangladesh, Eastern Bihar and West Bengal of India and
Morang and Jhapa districts of Nepal

Based on water regimes

a) Irrigated wet season rice

Recommended for growing in irrigated low land condition

Seedlings prepare in the nursery bed and transplanted in bunded
puddled condition

Give irrigation to supplement rains

Grow modern semi-dwarf varieties and traditional tall varieties in such
situation
b) Irrigated dry season rice (Chaite dhan)

Similar with wet season rice where crop is totally dependent on
irrigation
c) Shallow rainfed rice

Transplant rice in bunded and puddle condition

Maintain maximum water depth 0 to 10 cm from tillering to flowering

Grow modern semi dwarf and traditional tall varieties under this
situation

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TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

Climatic factors: Agroclimatology

Judicious management of intrinsic (genetic
hereditary) and extrinsic (environment) factors
determines growth and development of crop
Environment in which crops grown is represented
by: atmosphere and soil
Climate: long-term regime of atmospheric variable
Rice: tropical crops but grown in subtropical and
temperate regions
Mostly distributed and cultivated from 400N to 350S
of the equator
Great influence to rice: temperature, sunlight
intensity and daylength, rainfall, humidity and wind

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Latitude
Will flourish under differing climatic condition
Thrives well over wide range of condition within about
latitudes 450N and 400S but may extend upto 500-530N
Highest yield recorded between 300N and 400N and Nepal
falls within 26022’’N to 30027’’N
Invariably higher yield from crop grown in subtropical and
warm temperate regions than when grown under fully
tropical conditions

Higher yield: attributes to longer daylength during the growing, the
varieties grown, coupled with the occurrence of cold winters which
may favourably influence soil conditions, moreover, paddy forms
part of a regular rotation

Main reason: the long unclouded days which favour photosynthesis
and the cultivation of high yielding Japonica types of rice which
have a greater response to fertilizers than Indica varieties commonly
grown in tropics
Chief limiting factor to the growth of paddy in temperate
regions: water supply

Altitude
Altitude at which paddy may be grown depends on latitude
Grown in different altitude in world

In Himalayas: 3000 m

In Philippines: 1800 m

In south America: 1200 m

In Bhutan: 2350 m
In Nepal, cultivated from the terai (60 m) to 3050 m altitude which
is the highest place where rice is grown in world
Small cultivated area at considerable elevation because in such
regions there are difficulties in water supply and control and in
finding extensive area of reasonably flat land
No conclusive evidence as to whether differences in altitude alone
affect yield, however, lower night temperature in higher altitude
(hilly area) may reduce respiration losses that help in more net
assimilation and so raise yields
In tropics (in terai) low yield seems to be due to warm day and
high night temperature, high humidity and low light intensity

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Temperature
Adopt to regions of high temperature and prolonged sunshine and both growth
duration and pattern of plants greatly influence by temperature
During the growing season, the mean temperature, and the temperature
sum, range, distribution pattern, and diurnal changes, or a combination of
these, may be highly correlated with grain yields
Average temp required throughout the life of plant for optimum growth and
development: 200C-37.70C
Total temp required (sum of daily mean temp during growing period): 1950-20000C
Higher mean temp

Reduce growth duration

Accelerate flowering

High temp induced-sterility and empty spikelets
Low temp

Depress the rate of germination

Slows down growth process and discolouration of seedling

Reduced height and tillering

Delays heading

Incomplete exsertion of panicle

Prolonged flowering period because of irregular heading

Degeneration of spikelets

Irregular maturity

Sterility

Formation of abnormal grains

Cardinal temperature
Maximum temp 36-380C
Minimum temp 10-120C
Optimum temp 30-320C

Table: Response of rice plant to varying temperature at different growth stages

Growth Critical temperature (0C)
stages Low High Optimum
Germination 10-15 45 18-40
Seedling 12 35 25-30
establishment
Rooting 16 35 25-28
Tillering 9-16 33 25-31
Panicle 15 ---- 33
initiation
Anthesis 22 35-36 30-33
Ripening 12-18 >30 20-29
Certain literature shows that the minimum temp for germination is 16-190C

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Attain minimum temp require for germination in March in terai of Nepal

and meets optimum temp needed in April
Favourable temp for physiological process of rice: 15-330C
Lower temperature favourable for raising strong seedling
Sterility of spikelet is more if the temp exceeds 350C at anthesis and last
for more than one hour
Due to formation of sterile spikelets, rice yield significantly reduced if
night temp falls below 150C during vegetative phase and the sterility is
due to injuries occurring in anthers
Low temperature after heading cause a decrease in the number of
fertilized spikelets and in their weight
Temperature below 300C retard the uptake of nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium and silica without significantly affecting uptake of calcium
and magnesium
Air temperature above 350C adversely affects plant growth, the plant
being most sensitive from about nine days before flowering
Spikelet sterility from high temperature is induced largely on the day of
flowering

Within the flowering day,

high temperature during anthesis is the most detrimental to spikelet
fertility,

high temperature just before anthesis is the second most detrimental,
and

high temperature after anthesis has little effect on spikelet fertility
Grain production depends on the balance between photosynthesis
and respiration and cooler night favours high dry matter
accumulation since it reduce the respiration lost
Variations between day and night temperatures promoting maturity
of kernels
Soil temp

markedly influences the biochemical processes that release plant nutrient
or produce substances toxic to rice,

also affects the rate of water and nutrient absorption
A temp of 250C retards nitrogen release without appreciably
slowing down the growth of rice
A soil temp of 250-350C is optimum for rice from the sandpoint of
the chemical kinetics of flooded soil because nutrient release is
sufficient and high concentration of harmful substances is short
lived

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Solar radiation
Play important role in growth and yield of paddy
Radiation is main source of energy and grain yield is proportional to solar radiation
Rice plant’s most critical period of solar energy requirement is from panicle
initiation until about 10 days before maturity
The amount of solar energy received from as early as panicle initiation until crop
maturation is important for the accumulation of dry matter during that period

the accumulation of starch in the leaves and culms begins about 10 days before heading

Starch accumulates markedly in the grain during the 30-day period following heading
Most effective parameters of solar radiation are:

A. Sunlight intensity
Higher the solar radiation, greater the yield of rice
If more solar radiation, higher LAI
Photosynthetic rate depend on solar radiation
To produce high yield, solar radiation in the last 30 days is most important
Requires solar radiation of 300 cal/cm2/day at the reproductive stage

During the ripening period of the crop in the monsoonal tropics, the intensity of solar
radiation during an average day is about 350 cal/cm2 / day

In Asian countries, solar radiation during the rice growing season is nearly about 400
cal/ cm2 / day
Low temp coupled with bright sunshine during ripening phase is highly conducive
for the development of carbohydrates

The number of tillers and ears increases with the intensity and quantity of light
Response of high level nitrogen occurs only when the crop receives high light levels
Prefer sunny days and shade greatly retard the attainment of the critical stage of
tiller formation, causes a decrease in number of spikelets per panicle but does not
affect the percentage of fertile grains
Sum of hours of sunshine required throughout the growing period of paddy is 1200
hr and the figure will depend on maturation period of the variety of rice

Moomaw says 1000 sunshine hours for a crop of 130 days duration

400 hr in the last 2 months of crop for best yields in Japan
Intensity of sunshine should be greater in the later stages of growth i.e. 220-240
hours during the final 30 days
Due to cloudiness, the growing crop may receive insufficient sunshine and response
to fertilizers will thereby be adversely affected
B. Light duration or photoperiod or daylength
Photoperiod: the interval between sunshine and sunset
Daylength equal at equator and it increase or decrease towards north and south
As rice is short day plant, it is sensitive to photoperiod; if day length is decreased,
maturity period also decreases or long days can prevent or considerably delay
flowering
Every rice variety has a critical photoperiod for heading

If the day length is lower than the critical daylength, the heading starts

If longer than critical daylength, the heading and panicle initiation will not start and
remain in lag vegetative stage

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Require an optimum photoperiod of 10-10.5 hr per day for normal

flowering, particularly for season bound varieties (photosensitive
varieties)
The critical photoperiod ranges from 12-14 hr and daylength play
an important role in maturity of rice
Daylength affects heading in local varieties of rice

Photoperiod sensitive variety kala nimak or similar local
varieties are planted in April and mature in December. If the
same variety is planted in July, it also mature in December

Based on their response to daylength, rice varieties grouped as:

i. Sensitive

Also date fixed as regard maturity date

Flower when the daylength is decreasing and when it reaches a
critical value for induction of flowering stage
ii. Non-sensitive

Also period fixed as regard length of maturation

Do not respond to differences in photoperiod, their length of life
being independent of daylength so that they can be grown at any
season

Rainfall
Planting time depend on the onset of monsoon
Onset of monsoon, its duration, the intensity of rain and duration of rainfall
determine the rice production
In most rice-growing areas the year is divided into fairly distinct wet and dry seasons
and most of the rice is grown during the wet season
For upland rice, the amount and distribution of rainfall are of paramount importance
Variability in the amount and distribution of rainfall is the most important factor
limiting yields of rainfed rice, which constitutes about 80% of the rice grown in South
and Southeast Asia
For the same amount of rainfall, the coefficient of variability of the rainfall is higher in
the tropics than in the temperate areas
Variability in the onset of the monsoon season is a factor that determines the
beginning of planting season for transplanted rainfed rice
Variability of rainfall affects the rice crop at different times……

If the variability is associated with the onset of the rain, stand establishment and the
growth duration of rice are affected

If variability is associated with an untimely cessation at the reproductive or ripening stage
of the rice crop, yield reduction is severe
Normal onset of rain is around 12 June and normal retreat is around 21 Sept in KTM
Rainfall of Nepal depends on the southeast monsoon wind

Highest rainfall is in along the southern slopes of Annapurna ranges of central Nepal

The lowest in the north central portion near Tibetan plateau

Both of these places and their range is not of agricultural importance

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Rainfall range: 1000-1500mm over most of the country, 1200-2250mm in the

hills

Higher range is along the southern slopes of Mahabharat and Himalayan ranges in
eastern two-third of country

Minimum range is in east-west through the mid section of country
80% of rainfall occurs from June to September; > 65% land is under rainfed
condition
Success or failure of rice depends on rainfall in Nepal….years having higher
rainfall result in more rice production and years having drought produce less
Water requirement: 500mm-2500mm
Areas where the annual rainfall is 1200-1500 mm, if rainfall is concentrated in
the monsoonal season (as is usual), it is adequate for a single rice crop
Under rainfed condition, rice is cultivated in places receiving annual rainfall of
1000 mm
Rainfall during growing period: > 800mm– evenly distributed throughout the
period
Inadequate or excessive rainfall during the rainy season results drought or
flood, and sometimes both that cause substantial damage to rainfed rice
production
Because of the uncertainty in the amount and distribution of rainfall, millions
of rice farmers hold as much water as they can on the field by bunds….

The resulting water depth induces a high percentage of seedling mortality and at
times causes lodging at later stages of crop growth
Transpiration coefficient of rice: 450-600

Wind
Mild or gentle wind movement (>0.75 to 2.25 cm/sec) favourable for
rice plants

More CO2 obtain by plants the help to increase photosynthesis
Heavy winds

Severe lodging and shattering if during ripening

Mechanical injury to leaves and panicles

Drying leaves and earheads
Strong wind at time of opening of flowers may induce sterility and
increase in no. of aborted endosperm
Paddy released CO2 to atmosphere

3.9-5.7 g.m-2. day-1 under flooded condition

6.0-8.6 g.m-2. day-1 under drained condition
Contribution of soil Co2 to gross photosynthesis is nearly 6% for
flooded soil and 7% for drained soil
Optimum CO2 concentration for growth and yield of rice: 1500-2000
ppm
Plays important role in supplying co2 to rice for higher yield or
production

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Relative humidity
Relative humidity refers to water vapor, exclusive of condensed
water, in the atmosphere
Photosynthesis reach maximum at RH 50-60% above this
decreased slowly with increasing humidity
Optimum humidity for photosynthesis may vary depending upon
interrelationship between water absorption and transpiration
Higher RH at early growth stages is good but at later stages it
become harmful
A long dew period causes increased incidence of blast disease in
rice and RH above 94% helps for sporulation
RH below 60% caused high larval mortality of Naranga aesescens
A positive correlation between the peak population of
Leptocorsia acuta (Gundhi bug) each year and higher relative
humidity and higher rainfall at specific times of the year have
been observed
However, relatively >90% RH during vegetative phase and < 90%
RH during anthesis is acceptable

Edaphic factor: soil

Can grown in diverse soil condition
The soils on which rice grows are as varied as the climatic regime to which the crop is
exposed:

texture ranges from sand to clay

pH from 3 to 10

organic matter content from 1 to 50%

salt content from almost 0 to 1%

nutrient availability from acute deficiencies to surplus
Ideal soil: good water retention capacity with good amount of clay and organic matter
Most suitable: clay or clay loam that holds water for long duration
High proportion of coarse particles and a correspondingly low proportion of clay soil:-
suitable only for single cropping
Heavier soil with much finer texture:- suitable for double cropping since the soil are more
retentive of moisture
Red-brown earth soil:- respond more rapidly to increasing air temperature than the heavier
soils, permits earlier sowing and generally results in more rapid germination and braiding
Grey and brown soil: careful attention must be paid to time of sowing and subsequent
germination ‘flushings’, to control soil moisture and reduce the effect of soil surface crusting
Being semi-aquatic plants, grows best under submerged condition in its early period,
however, during reproductive stages 1-2 cm irrigation is sufficient
Does not prefer acidic soil
Can tolerate wide range of pH of 4.5-8 but performs better in soils having a pH ranges
between 5.5 to 6.5; should not be too low concn of O2 otherwise disturb in uptake of nutrient
Can grow in alkali soil after treating with gypsum

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TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

Growth stages of rice

Time periods for all stages of growth which may vary
depending upon the temperature, available rainfall,
sunlight and cultural practices
In the medium duration varieties, the following
phases/stages in growth and development are found
1) Vegetative stage/phase

Seedling to maximum no. of tiller formation stage;
longer than reproductive and ripening stage

In direct seeded rice, entire vegetative phase is in
field while in transplanted rice, about 40% (20-25
days) in nursery and 60% in main field
a. Pregermination seed (0-3 days): 24 hr soaking, 48 hr
draining and incubation
b. Seedling/nursery stage (6-21 DAS):

First leaf emergence at 3 DAS of pregerminated seed
and thereafter successive leaf appears in every 3/4
days

Produces seminal, lateral roots, green leaves

Nutrient from storage organ of seed

After 10-15 days, photosynthesis takes in its leaves
c. Maximum tillering/active vegetative stage (22-60 DAS):

Takes 7-10 days for establishment and then start Fig: Diagrammatic representation of
tillering tillering in cereals

Time from seedling establishment to maximum tiller
number

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One tiller produce another tillers at 3-5 days interval depending on

temperature, variety, fertility status…….called phyllochrones

May occur a total of 12 phyllochrones during the whole growth phase of rice plant

Increase in tiller number, height, straw wt

Duration of this phase is primarily a function of the amount of nitrogen available to
maintain the nitrogen content in the plant above critical level

Tillering closely related to nitrogen content in plant, especially soluble nitrogen in culm
(critical N content = 1.7%)
d. Vegetative-lag phase:

From maximum tiller number to panicle initiation stage

Decrease tiller number, increase in height and straw wt continues but less rapidly than
before

Presence in late maturing photosensitive rice varieties (may vary from few to as many as
30/40 days depending on duration of varieties)

May absent in early maturing or short duration varieties

2) Reproductive stage/phase
From panicle initiation state to flowering
Panicle-primordia develop, height and straw wt increase rapidly
Fig: Panicle initiation
Take about 50-60 days and consists the following phases
a. Panicle initiation (PI) stage:

Begins when the primordium of the panicle differentiated and become visible; about 50-
55 DAS

Coincides with maximum tillering stage in short and medium duration varieties

Occurs first in main stem and then in primary and secondary tillers

Moisture availability determines the time for panicle emergence

PI for photoinsensitive varieties = total maturation period – 60 ± 5
b. Panicle development:

Spikelet differentiation starts about a week after PI and soon after the no. of spikelets is
determined which is decided upon the genetic potential of variety, nutrient and water
supply

Adversely affect no. of spikelets by any stress of nutrient or moisture at this stage
c. Stem elongation/booting stage:

Elongation of internode because of internal auxin hormone present in plants

Occurs some swelling or bulging of sheath of flag leaf due to development of panicle in
the culm of rice plant

Takes generally two weeks (12-18 days) after PI stage
d. Heading:

Period extends with the emergence of panicle from the tip of the flag leaf sheath

Occurs after 15-21 days of PI

e. Flowering and anthesis:

Begins soon after heading

Start flowering to open spikelets; spikelets at top of panicle opens
first, others follow

Occurs anthesis in 25 days after PI and complete in 6-7 days; Panicle is erect
in shape
f. Pollination/fertilization:

Highly self pollinated however 4-5% cross pollination may occurs

Florets open from morning to early afternoon depending upon variety and
weather
Fig: Flowering and anthesis in rice

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Stamens elongate and anthers move out of the glumes as the pollen is shed

Receive pollen by pistil and move to the ovary via pollen tube; after fertilization lemma
and palea close

3) Ripening stage/phase
Time from flowering to maturity; increase panicle wt rapidly, straw wt decreases
Takes 25-30 days after flowering in tropics and subtropics and 45-60 days in temperate
regions
Consists the following stages
a. Milking stage:

Found a white watery substance in grain after 7-12 days of flowering

Starts drooping of panicle at this stage
b. Dough stage:

Milky liquid in grain becomes thicker and paste like substance will occurs inside grains as
the ripening advances
 Soft dough: 5-7 days
 Hard dough: 5-7 days
 Greenish tint
c. Ripening/ maturity stage:

Grains become hard, clear translucent and free from greenish tint

Panicle at this stage bends in the shape of an arc

Ripening starts from tip of panicle

In physiological maturity- 80% grain from tip turns to yellowish, 20% on base of panicle
remains dark green brown to light green brown in colour

Fig: Diagrammatic representation of

tillering in cereals

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Fig: Growth phases and stages of rice

Seed dormancy
Reach maximum germination of nearly 100% by properly ripened and harvested paddy
when it attains the correct condition of maturity
Low germinability in newly harvested seed; with storage will increase to maximum and
thereafter falling off rapidly unless special precautions are taken
Resting period, during which germination has not attained a high figure, depends on
variety
Varieties which have a long maturation period in the field require a correspondingly
long resting period; much of seed will therefore fail to germinate immediately after
ripening and harvesting, but quick growing varieties may require no resting period
Not genetically correlated with growth duration although superficial character
associations in diverse cultivars have led to postulate that early maturing rice have no
dormancy
Dormancy for a variety may be a function of its photoperiod
Possession of dormancy prevents germination in the sensitive variety until favourable
photoperiods supervene
Disadvantageous to an insensitive variety grown in both seasons
Incomplete ripening cause seed dormancy and irregularity of germination
Desirable if there is risk of wet conditions at harvest where there is danger of
premature germination in the ear or on the threshing floor
Induced by low temperature in the early stages of maturation and by a high
temperature (≥300C) in the second half of maturation period
Germination accelerates by high temperature 5-10 days after heading

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Reason for low yield in tropics

Climatic factors

Greater diurnal change (high fluctuation, > 150C, in day and night temp) in
northern latitudes and at high elevation (i.e. temperate regions) than low
latitude areas i.e. in tropics (less fluctuation, <150C, in day and night temp
that results more respiration lost) during crop season

Near equator little change in temperature occurs

Cooler night temperatures in temperate regions favours to reduce the rate of
respirations

In temperate, lower temperature during ripening period provides more time
for grain filling

Long day length (14-15 hr) and high level of solar energy during ripening
period in temperate regions whereas low light intensity during monsoon
(nearly 8-10 hr) in tropics

Altogether days are cloudy in tropics

High amount of rainfall accompanied with poor drainage in tropics
Application of modern technology:

mostly developed countries in temperate and incur high inputs in time
whereas mostly developing countries in tropics and there is lack of resources
Better land preparation in temperate compared to tropics
Application of optimum amount of fertilizers, pesticides and other
cultural practices in temperate regions

TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

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Rice cultivation methods

Grown mainly on two types of soils: uplands and lowlands
System of rice cultivation in a region depends largely on

Topography of land

Type of soil

Irrigation facility

Availability of labour

Intensity and distribution of rainfall
Based on availability of water, the principal systems of rice
cultivation
Rainfed or dry or semi-dry upland cultivation

Broadcasting the seed

Sowing the seed behind the plough
Irrigated or wet or lowland cultivation

Broadcasting sprouted seed in puddled soil

Transplanting in puddled soil

Rainfed or dry or semi-dry upland cultivation

Upland rice grown on both level and sloppy fields that are not bunded and
cultivated when dry and planted by direct seeding and the crop depends upon
rainfall for its water requirements
Grown at low input levels in unbunded field
Characterized by aerobic soil in which attempt is to impound water
Does not accumulate surface water for any significant time during the growing
season and soil is well drained
The rice which may have no standing water on the soil surface 48 hr after
cessation of rain or irrigation………. Called upland rice
Common in hilly areas or in tar where there is no irrigation facility
Also followed in area where there is fear of high water table after heavy
monsoon rain, practice in western Nepal where labour is short
Major constraints

Drought

Weeds

Low rates of inputs

Poor input management

Poor soil fertility

Environmental stress
Water is the major constraints in upland rice ecosystem

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Important points for cultivation

Selection of varieties
Short duration varieties of 100-105 days
eg. CH-45, Durga, Chandina, Parwanipur-1, Ghaiya, etc.
Field preparation
One deep plough with soil turning plough (MB plough) followed by cross ploughing
using disc harrow after harvesting of winter season crop in April-May
Helps in

Broken of clods

Removes of stubbles

Eradication of weeds

Improvement in water holding capacity of soil
Prepare the field and make bunds around the field just after the first shower of
monsoon
Seed and sowing
1. Seed treatment: Treat @10kg seed with 5g Emisan or 1g Streptocyline or 2.5g
Agromycine 100 in 10L of water for 24 hr
2. Seed sowing

Broadcasting

Sowing seed behind the plough or drilling

Broadcasting:
Broadcast at right condition of field
Mix and cover the seed by ploughing with local plough or cultivator and is left as
such with miniature ridges and furrows formed in the process of covering the seeds
that help to drain out the heavy rain water quickly but slowly without causing soil
erosion
In some areas, laddering is done after covering the seeds to compact the soil so that
sub soil moisture is available to the seeds lying at different levels and germination of
seeds is accelerated
Laddering after sowing is not practiced in heavy rainfall areas
Demerits

Higher seed rate

Non-uniform germination of seed

Possibility of bird damage
Sowing behind the plough or drilling:
Drill the seed with seed drill or behind the plough with the help of funnel in rows
after applying fertilizer
Enable to cover a larger area within a limited sowing period
Merits

Less seed requirements

Uniform germination

Uniform depth of seed placement

Better crop stand

Timely and early interculture

Better yield

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3. Seed rate
Depends on duration, test wt, soil tilth, moisture content, system of
cultivation
Adopt optimum seed rate so that crop stand is neither too thick nor
too thin
Broadcasting: 60-100 kg ha-1
Drilling: 30-50 kg ha-1
4. Spacing
Depends mainly upon the fertility of the soil and duration of the variety
Optimum R-R spacing: 15-20 cm
5. Depth of sowing
Place at optimum depth that ensure uniform and better germination,
tillering and crop stand
Optimum: 2-4 cm
Do not be more than 5 cm
6. Sowing time: May-June
Late sown has invariably low yield
Early sown perform better and higher yield
Early sowing preferably with onset of monsoon is ideal

Fertilizer and manure

Apply 60:30:30 NPK kg/ha and 6-10t/ha FYM
Basal: 25% of total N + full dose of P2O5 and K2O at the time of land preparation
Top dressed:

50% of total nitrogen after 35-40 DAS or at tillering stage

Remaining 25% N at panicle initiation stage
Can be used ferti-seed drill for sowing of seed and placement of fertilizer
Water management
Should be such that the field can be irrigated and drained whenever necessary
Initially 3 cm water is needed
Should not be excessive water otherwise tiller no. will be reduced
Ensure moisture availability at least in the critical stages of growth
Weeding and hoeing
Weeds are major problem in upland rice and more expensive activities
Necessity of effective control from very beginning
For controlling

Benthiocarb (saturn) @ 2 kg a.i./ha at 6-7 DAS of rice + one manual weeding at 40-45 DAS
Yield
Comparatively low because of

Uneven rainfall distribution

Lack of suitable varieties

Poor fertilization

Severe disease pest infestation

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Irrigated or wet or lowland cultivation

Practice where there is an assured and adequate supply of water
Found on alluvial floodplains, terraces, inland valleys, and deltas in Asia
Grown in puddled soil in bunded rice fields with one or more crops each year
Irrigation water as a main water source in the dry season and is used to
supplement rainfall in the wet season
Irrigated rice systems are intensive cropping systems with cropping intensities
ranges from one (in the temperate regions) to three (in the tropical regions)
crops grown per year
Major constraints

Delayed planting, shortage of labour

Use of low to medium potential varieties

Low input rates

Poor input management

Poor weed management

Inadequate water supply; unavailability of irrigation at one or more critical stages

Salinity/alkalinity problems; associated poor drainage

Environmental stresses

Establishment of crop

Direct sowing of sprouted seeds in puddled field

Transplanting with seedling raised in a nursery bed

Direct sowing of sprouted seed in puddled soil

Adopt in areas where there is

a shortage of laboures

expensive labour wages for transplanting
In this method

Plough land properly

Maintain the bunds

Irrigate the filed and puddle
Seed rate: 100 kg/ha
Soak the seed in water and pregerminate before
broadcast
Uniformly broadcast the sprouted seeds with radicle
length one to two millimeters in the puddled field

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Transplanting method
Success of system depends on seedlings
Good nursery and robust and healthy seedlings support for bumper yield of
crop

Nursery raising for transplanting

Select the fertile, well drained upland field near the source of irrigation
water
Area: 500m2 per ha of transplanting land; for late sowing , requires 750-
1000m2
Seed selection: true to type (99%), healthy, viable, clean and of high
germination percentage (≥80%)
Seed selection process

Take a container and fill it with water upto 2/3rd part

Mix 5-10% salt in water and then put seed in it

Stir gently the solution along with seeds

Remove unfilled grain as they float in water surface

Take the bold seed that setting at the bottom & thoroughly wash with fresh
water
Seed treatment: Bavistin, Thiram, DM-45@2-2.5 g/kg of seed- to prevent
from seed borne diseases
Use pregerminated seeds since they start to grow quickly in the field

Pregermination consists of soaking and incubating the seeds

Soak the bold seeds in fresh water and keep at room temperature (≥270C) for 24
hrs

Wash the seed thoroughly after 24 hrs with fresh water

Place the seed in clean and moist bag tightly and keep it in a shady place

Stir the seed every 12 hrs for better air circulation and sprinkle water over seeds
while stirring

Incubation period
 Wet and dry method: 24-36 hr
 Dapog method: 36-48 hr
Seed rate:
Determine by 1000-grain wt, no. of seedling used/hill, no. of hill/m2, germination
%, purity % of seeds, etc
To raise seedling for one ha

Bold grain varieties: 40-45 kg/ha

Fine grain varieties: 30-35 kg/ha
Sowing time: 20-25 days prior to main field transplanting
Methods of raising seedling

Dry bed method

Wet bed method

Dapog method

Modified dapog method

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Dry bed method

Practice in areas where water is not sufficient to grow seedlings in wet nurseries
Plough the field 3-4 times with MB plough at a depth of 20-25 cm, then 2 harrowing
followed by planking and make the soil thoroughly pulverised
Wait at least 7 days if field is over moisten and provide light irrigation if there is
moisture stress and leave for 7 days…..that facilitate emergence of weed which are
destroyed by harrowing
Raise the seedbed 5-10/15 cm above ground level with channels (30 cm wide)
between the beds
Divide the nursery area into narrow beds of 1.25 m width and of any convenient
length (preferably 10-15m) depending upon slope
Fertilizer:

Compost or FYM @ 2t/1000m2 15-20 days in advance of seed sowing

225g Urea or 500g Ammonium sulfate and 500g SSP per 10m2 (or 100:80:40 NPK
g/10m2)

Top dressed by 50g Urea per m2 land in case of N-deficiency symptoms

Give two spray of Zinc sulfate (5kg Zinc sulfate + 2.5kg Calcium hydroxide mixed in
1000L of water for one ha), one 10 DAS and another 20 DAS in case of Zinc
deficiency

Spray 0.5% Ferrous sulfate solution in case of iron deficiency

Spacing: 10 cm between rows; Ratio of nursery to main filed: 1:10-1:20; sowing

depth: 1.5-2cm
Uniformly apply about 2-3 handfuls of seed on a square meter of seed bed
Cover immediately the sown seed with a layer of soil
Allow the water to run in channels first and then raise the level of water slowly to
saturate the soil of beds
Do not flood water in beds and keep the seed bed saturated with water
Maintain a thin film of water if possible after 5 DAS if there is no rainfall otherwise a
sort of hard surface called crust may form

Crust hinders the emergence or growth of seedlings
Cover seedbed with rice straw to protect from crust formation vis-à-vis save the
seeds from bird menace
Remove straw after 5-6 days from bed
Adopt suitable disease and pest control measures

Hinosan or DM-45 @1-2 ml/L water) to control blast or other fungal diseases
Removes the weeds by hand if they appear
Seedling ready for transplanting at an age of 20-25 DAS for short duration variety
and 30-35 DAS for long duration variety
Uprooting:

Irrigate seed bed 2-3 days before uprooting the seedling to soften the soil for easier
uprooting and to prevent root injury

Transplant within 24 hrs of uprooting

Try to avoid the seedlings of noxious weeds as Echinochloa, Cyperus, Commelina, etc.

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Wet bed method

Prefers in areas where irrigation water is not a constraint or the field is wet due to
constant rainfall
Saturate the field by providing the irrigation water
Puddle the soil by 2-3 runs of puddler or 3-4 ploughing with local plough
Divide the nursery area into narrow beds of 1.25 m width and of any convenient
length depending upon slop after 1or 2 days of puddling

Facilitates sowing, weeding, spraying of chemicals and irrigation operations
Construct drainage channels 30 cm wide in between the seed beds
Generally no need of incubation of seeds
Fertilizer:

225g Urea or 500g Ammonium sulfate and 500g SSP per 10m2 (or 100:80:40 NPK g/10m2)

Top dressed by 50g Urea per m2 land in case of N-deficiency symptoms

Give two spray of Zinc sulfate (5kg Zinc sulfate + 2.5kg Calcium hydroxide mixed in 1000L of
water for one ha), one 10 DAS and another 20 DAS in case of Zinc deficiency

Spray 0.5% Ferrous sulfate solution in case of iron deficiency
Uniformly broadcast about 2-3 handfuls of seed on a square meter of seed bed
Keep the seed beds saturated with water for first 5 days and then increase gradually
the level of water upto 5 cm as the seedlings grow
Drain the excess water in periods of heavy rains during the first week of sowing
Adopt suitable disease and pest control measures

Hinosan or DM-45 (@1-2 ml/L water) to control blast or other fungal diseases
Removes the weeds by hand if they appear
Seedling ready for transplanting at an age of 20-25 days

Dapog method
Widely adopted in Philippines but not common in Nepal
Most economic as it saves almost half of the time in seedling raising
Main merit: needed less area to raise seedlings (25-30m2 for one ha planting;
ratio of nursery to main field = 1: 334-400)
Bed preparation

Prepare on an even but slightly raised (4-5 cm) surface in an open field or on even
cement floor

For every 3kg of seed about one m2 of seed bed is required

Width = 1.5m as it is manageable

Cover soil surface of the seed bed evenly and completely with banana leaves with
protruding midribs removed or preferably with plastic sheets

Carefully lay strips of banana bracts along the edge of seed bed (or use wooden
sticks, bricks)

Push thin bamboo pegs through the bracts into the soil to keep bracts upright and
firm
Broadcast 36-48 hr pregerminated seeds uniformly over plastic or banana leaves
@3kg/m2
Sown seed in multiple layer i.e. layer of 3 seeds thick
Do not press to hard on seeds
Follow this by sprinkling water gently
Sprinkle water 3-4 times a day upto 4 days to keep the seed bed wet and
thereafter cover it with 1-2 cm of water till the end

TN Bhusal 37
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Press the seeds once a day till fourth day and protect them from birds
Seedling ready for transplanting within 11-14 DAS
Roll the raised seedling like a carpet with roots facing outside and carried to
transplanting site
Loosen the interlocked roots carefully before transplanting
Transplant 3-4 seedling per hill instead of 2

Advantages
Require less area for raising seedling
Takes less time to get seedlings ready for transplanting
Saves the cost of uprooting seedlings
No need of applying fertilizers
Early prepared seedling helps to escape from disease and insect incidence
Disadvantages
Obtain thin, pale, cylindrical, delicate and weak seedlings
Require uniform leveling and low level of water in the main field
Need to transplant seedling within 11-14DAS since the seedling can not survive
for many days
Require more no. of seedling per hill to compensate the death of seedlings
Need of technical hands to raise the seedlings

Modified dapog method

Develop keeping in view the disadvantages of dapog method and
used to prepare nursery for use with mechanical transplanters
Prepare bed as in case of dapog method but the nursery area
should be more (200-300 m2)
Major steps of bed preparation

Collect the soil and sieve it through a 3-5mm sieve

Add FYM and 10g of each N, P2O5 and K2O in each square meter area
of nursery

Place a 50-60 gauge polyethylene sheet cover over the area

Place wooden frames having compartments equal to the size of the
tray of the machine

Fill the prepared soil in these frames uniformly upto the top surface
or use ash to fill

Spread about 600g m-2 of pregerminated seeds in these
compartments uniformly at single grain thickness

Cover the seed by a thin layer of soil or with gunny bags (for first 3
days) and sprinkle water on it twice or thrice a day

TN Bhusal 38
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Gently press the germinated seeds with hands both in morning

and evening so that root system may not be exposed

Maintain 1-2 cm water level over the bed for 4 days after removing
the gunnies

Ensure that nursery is free from weeds and keep it wet without over
flooding

From 8th DAS, 25-30g of ammonium sulfate dissolved in water and
spray over seeding upto 12th day if no fertilizer is added previously

Seedling ready to uproot after 12th day onwards

Drain the water few hours before transplanting

Advantages
Obtain tall, healthy and robust seedling
Can plant the seedling even in more water levels and can withstand
rough handling
No difficulty in uprooting seedling as they are planted in ash or fine
sand/soil
Prepare seedling in early time and if water is not readily available in
the main field, the seeding can be allowed growing for more than 3
weeks in nursery beds

TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

TN Bhusal 39
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Field preparation
Pre-sowing tillage is important for rice cultivation
Breaking, ploughing and manipulating of soil (primary tillage-MB
plough, disc plough, chisel plough, sub-soiler) results in burying of
weeds and stubbles whereas secondary tillage (disc harrow, cultivator,
puddler, planker) causes breaking of clods and mixing of crop residues
Plough the field 20-25 cm by primary tillage implements in summer
season to expose the eggs of harmful insects, pest and rhizomes of
weeds
To change the physical structure of soil and to suppress the weeds
growth, ploughing and harrowing is done
Flood or saturate the field with water for about one fortnight before
transplanting

Help in decomposition of chaff and straw of previous crops
Under roughly prepared land

Decomposition of soil’s organic matter does not process well

Less NH4+-N in soil and more weed

Root system does not distribute well
Under good prepared land

Always greater absorption of NH4+-N by rice

Good development of crop

Puddling
An important operation in transplanted rice
Ploughing the land with standing water so as to create an impervious
layer below the surface to reduce deep percolation losses of water and
to provide soft seedbed for planting rice--------------Puddling
Does the mechanical mixing of soil and
water to make soil less permeable
Effective in soil having a minimum of 20%
clay particles
Begin the operation about 2 weeks ahead
of transplanting
Made an earthen bund, about 30cm high
around the field before puddling

Plough repeatedly in standing water until the soil becomes soft and
muddy
Apply 5-10 cm water initially depending on water status of the soil to
bring it to saturation and above and carry out the first ploughing
After 3-4 days, apply another 5cm of water and later after 2-3
days, carry out the second ploughing

TN Bhusal 40
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Crush most of clods and incorporate majority of weeds by

this operation
Within 3-4 days, give another 5cm water and do the third
ploughing (use wetland puddler) in both direction
Run planking or levelling board to level the field
Check whether puddling is thorough or not

Take a handful of mud into hand and pressed

If it flows freely through fingers and if there are no hard
lumps, puddling is considered to be thorough
Pudding makes the soil chemically different from
other soil
Puddled soil system characterized by presence of
reduced soil layer and hard plough pan
Degree of soil compaction, however, varies with soil
type, cultivation practices, wetting and drying
cycle, temp and year of crop production

Advantages
Help to kill the weed and buries them in puddled layer
Reduce rate of germination of weed in subsequent growing period of crop
Help to create beneficial physical, biological and chemical condition for rice
plant growth
Left soil surface in a more even condition
Increase in microporosity of soil, thereby increasing its water holding
capacity
Reduced shear strength of soil; makes manual planting easier
Reduction in air filled pore volume
Increase in moisture suction
Improves soil fertility and fertilizer management
Disadvantages
High water requirement
Hindrance to regeneration of soil structures
Impeded root development
Reduce aggregate stability by excess puddling

TN Bhusal 41
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Special features of submerged soil profile

Rice soil remain submerged at least for some time during the
growth period of the crop
A number of chemical reactions follow in submerged soil which
affect the rice plant growth
Important chemical and electrochemical changes

Increase in pH of acid soils and reduction in pH of calcareous and sodic
soils

Reduction in redox potential

Depletion of molecular oxygen

Increase in specific conductance

Reduction in nitrate (NO3-) to NO2- to N2 and N2O (denitrification)

Reduction of sulfate (SO42-) to sulfide (S2-) resulting in sulfide
toxicity, reported from highly reduced soil

Reduction of Mn4+ to Mn2+ and Fe3+ to Fe2+ resulting in Mn and Fe toxicity in
rice

Increase in supply and availability of N

Increased availability of native soil P due to release of occluded P

Increased in availabiltiy of silicon and molybdenum

Decrease in concentration of water-soluble zinc and copper

Transplanting
The ceremonial day of rice transplanting in Nepal: 15 Ashad which fall in last
week of June
Transplant the seedling grow in nursery bed in puddle prepared soil
Ensures higher yield due to reduced weed control requirement and increased
availability of nutrients in comparison to direct seeding
Uproot the seedling from nursery at optimum age

21-28 DAS for early varieties

28-35DAS for medium and late season variety
Transplant healthy seedling at 4-5 leaf stage or when they are about 15-20 cm
high
Delay transplanting lead to

Poor tillering

Early flowering of main tiller

Reduction in yield
Common method of transplanting in Nepal: random

Can not use mechanical weeder

Higher weed problem

Not uniform density of population; some places more than need and in some places
less
 High density cause mutual shedding and low yield
 Low density does not produce optimum yield

Requires less labour

TN Bhusal 42
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Transplant in rows spaced uniformly

Easy to use mechanical weeder, chemical spraying and dusting

Spacing :
Depends on soil fertility, fertilizer used, age of seedling, variety and time of
transplanting
For high fertility wide spacing and for low fertility close spacing

High dose of fertilizer or late matured varieties: 20 20 cm

Low dose of fertilizer or early matured varieties: 20 10 cm

Delayed planting: 20 15cm or 20 10 cm
Maintain 50 hills/m2 to assure adequate population in rice field

No. of seedling
For normal condition: 2-3 seedling/hill
Should not transplant one seedling as it results more missing hill
Do not needed more seedling transplanting as rice tillers and compensate
before heading
Differ in tiller ability from variety to variety
Increase in no. of seedling per hill if old seedling are used

5-6 seedling per hill for 45 days old seedling
In alkaline soil, old seedling (45 days) establish better than young seeding (25
days)

Depth of transplanting
Optimum depth: 2-3 cm
Should not transplant deeper as deeper planting fails to develop normally and a new
system of roots must develop from the upper nodes

This delay in root formation retards plant growth, delays and inhibits tillering

Age of seedling
Wet and dry bet method: 20-25 DAS
Dapog and modified dapog: 11-14 DAS
If February-April transplanting, time needed to get ready is greater due to lower
temperature

Takes 35-40 days if seeded in middle of March
Due to lower soil and air temperature, there is delay in seedling production in hill (25-
30 days)
For early maturing variety, the age of seedling should be within 21 days not delayed
over 31 days for higher yield

Advantages of transplanting
Enables the cultivator to have optimum plant population at desired spacing
Enables cultivator to have an opportunity to give a thorough cultivation and
puddling operation to the field which keeps down the weeds
Since nursery occupies only a small area of land, the control of disease pest,
irrigation and manuring become easy and cheaper

TN Bhusal 43
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Crop rotation
Irrigated areas Rainfed areas
RICE-RICE-WHEAT RICE-FALLOW
RICE-RICE-BARLEY RICE/LENTIL
RICE-RICE/GRAM RICE-GRAM
RICE-RICE/LENTIL RICE-TORI
RICE-RICE-WINTER VEGETABLES RICE-WHEAT
RICE-WHEAT RICE-BARLEY
RICE-POTATO RICE+MOONGBEAN
GREEN MANURE-RICE-WHEAT RICE+CORN
JUTE-RICE -WHEAT RICE(UPLAND)-FALLOW
RICE-TORI-MAIZE GREEN MANURE-RICE
MAIZE-RICE-MOONGBEAN MOONGBEAN-RICE
RICE-TORI

/ relay cropping; - sequence cropping; + mixed or intercropping

TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

TN Bhusal 44
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Manures and Fertilizers

Yield = F(nutrient availability and application)
Need adequate supply of external plant nutrients for getting good yield of
rice, particularly true for high yielding varieties and hybrid
Nitrogen
Among several nutrients, N receives the first position in terms of
productivity, which is considered deficit in several rice growing area of world
Mobile nutrients in plant
Require a large amount of N at early and mid tillering stages to maximize the no.
of panicles
Absorb N at PI stage may increase spikelet no. per panicle
Seems to have quickest and most pronounced effect and absorbed in NO3- and
NH4+
Function
Integral part of chlorophyll and enzyme essential for plant growth processes
Essential constitute of different types of metabolically active compounds like
amino acid, proteins
Important in plant tissue, nuclei and protoplasm
Promote higher photosynthetic activity by adequate N and vigorous vegetative
growth as a result turn into dark green colour
Favour the conversion of carbohydrates into protein by high N which in turn
promotes the formation of protoplasm

Promotes rapid growth or increased height and tiller number

Increases size of leaves and grains
Increases number of spikelets per panicle
Increases filled spikelets percentage in panicles
Increases protein content in the grains

Deficit
Stunted plant growth with limited no. of tillers
Loss of protein N from chloroplast produce yellowing or chlorosis
Turn lower leaf to brown or light straw color and die
Narrow and short leaves which are erect and become yellowish green as they
age
Often turn flower buds pale and shed prematurely
Poor size and quality of grains

Excess
Delay crop maturity
Produce succulent plant and enhance plants’ sensitivity to water and
temperature stress
Susceptibility of plant to lodging and pest & disease incidence

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Rice variety can be classified into two category

1. More responsive variety
High grain production if N apply in high yielding-N-responsive variety
More N responsive variety

Dwarf

Thick stem

Erect green leaf

Spreading type of roots that are thick and hard so they can support standing crops
Does not lodge until maturity or even after maturity
Early and medium maturing type
Can accumulate N in tissue
Store starch at growth and flowering period, so there is less senescence at grain
formation stage as well as less N uptake at this stage
2. Less responsive variety
Mostly local varieties
Tall and late maturing with weak stem usually mature in November-December
Thin stem, long internodes and droopy long leaves which lodge on each other and
lodging of plants hampers nutrient supply, photosynthesis and fertilization
Many grain not fully filled (25-50% unfilled)
More insect pest attack, difficult in harvest in lodge plant
Begin to germinate the less dormant early varieties on the panicle if water or rain for
few days
Lodges faster if planted close and if more irrigation with more N-supply

N-fixation by rice field

Blue green algae
Anabaena azolla
Non-symbiotic N-fixing bacteria around the rice plant root zone
Non symbiotic bacteria in bulk of anaerobic soil
Flooded-planted soil: 57 -63 kg N fixation per ha per crop
Flooded-unplanted soil: 22-28 kg N fixation per ha per cop
Upland rice: 10 kg N fixation per ha per crop

Phosphorus
Obtain from soil, organic matter and fertilizers
Mobile nutrients in plant
Mostly absorbed as H2PO4- or HPO4--
Function
Stimulate root development and growth in seedling stage thus helping to establish
seedling quickly
Constituent of nucleic acid, phytin and phospholipids
High energy phosphate bond for energy transfer (ADP---ATP)
Essential for seed formation
Encourages more active tillering, which enables rice plants to recover more rapidly and
more completely after any adverse situation
Promotes good grain development and gives higher food value to the rice because of
phosphorus content of the grain
Promotes earlier flowering and maturity
Inadequate P2O5 inhibits nitrogen utilization

TN Bhusal 46
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Deficiency
Stunted plants with limited number of tillers
Narrow and short leaves that are erect and dirty dark green
Young leaves remain healthier than older leaves, which turn brown and die
Reddish or purplish color may develop on leaves of varieties that tend to
produce anthocyanin pigment

Potash
Obtain from soil minerals, soil exchange complex and fertilizers
Mobile nutrients in plant
Mostly absorbed as K+
Function
Catalyst effect, stabilize various enzyme system
Vital to carbohydrate synthesis, translocation and storage
Important role in osmotic regulation and helps in maintaining plant turgor
Important for synthesis of high energy phosphate molecules (ATP)
Favors tillering and increases the size and weight of the grains
Increases phosphorus response
Plays an important role in physiological processes in the plant including opening
and closing of stomata, and tolerance to unfavorable climatic conditions
Renders resistance to diseases such as blast and Helminthosporium

Deficiency
Usually occurs in coarse soil with low amount of clay
Prevents normal ripening and results in shriveled grains (grain size and wt reduced)
Stunted plants and tillering slightly reduced
Short, droopy, and dark green leaves
Yellowing at the interveins, on lower leaves, starting from the tip, and Brown spots
sometimes develop on dark green leaves
Irregular necrotic spots may develop on the panicles
Long thin panicles form
Some symptoms of wilting when there is excessive imbalance with nitrogen (low K-
N ratio in plant)

Calcium
Promotes root development
Induces stiffness of straw and tends to prevent undesirable lodging of crops
A constituent of the cementing material of plant cells
An important constituent of calcium pectate, which strengthens the cell wall
Maintainer of turgidity of the cell walls
Promoter of normal root growth and development
Deficiency
The tip of the upper growing leaves becomes white, rolled, and curled
In an extreme case, the plant is stunted and the growing point dies

TN Bhusal 47
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Zinc
Probable connection with the production of auxin
Activation of many enzymatic reactions
Close involvement in nitrogen metabolism
Deficiency
Deficiency imparts small scattered light yellow spots appear on the older leaves
which later enlarge and turn deep brown……………….khaira diseases
Reduced size of the leaf blade but with the leaf sheath little affected
Uneven growth and delayed maturity in the field

Sulphur
A constituent of the amino acids cystine, cysteine, and methionine, and the
plant hormones thiamin and biotin
An important factor in the functioning of many plant enzymes, enzyme
activators, and oxidation-reduction reactions
Deficiency
Initially on leaf sheaths, which become yellowish, proceeding to leaf blades,
with the whole plant chlorotic at the tillering stage
Reduced plant height and tiller number
Fewer panicles, shorter panicles, and reduced number of spikelets per panicle at
maturity

Magnesium
A constituent of chlorophyll molecule
A component of several essential enzymes
Functions similar to –calcium
Deficiency
With moderate deficiency, height and tiller number are little affected
Wavy and droopy leaves due to expansion of the angle between the leaf blade and
the leaf sheath
Interveinal chlorosis characterized by an orangish yellow color on lower leaves

Application of manure and fertilizers

Both organic matter and chemical fertilizers are important for rice cultivation
Nutrient removal by 1t of rice production (Var. IR8)
Nutrient Amount (kg) Nutrient Amount (kg)
elements Straw Grain Total elements Straw Grain Total
N 5.3 10.9 16.2 Mg 2.6 1.1 3.7
P 0.8 2.0 2.8 S 0.7 1.0 1.7
K 14 3 17 Zn 0.03 0.01 0.04
Ca 3.9 0.5 4.4 Si 74 17 91

TN Bhusal 48
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Application of bulky organic manures is desirable particularly under upland

condition

To maintain soil in good physical condition

To increase water holding capacity of soil for maximum utilization of rain water
Application of chemical fertilizers depends on

Fertility status of field

Previous crop grown

Amount of organic matter added
Simplest and easiest scientific method to know the quantity of N, P and K fertilizers
that are needed to get optimum rice yield in a field is soil testing
Differ the fertilizer management in transplanted rice field from upland rice because

creates conditions which are not obtained in upland well drained fields under
continuous submergence of the field
Sets a series of reactions-physical, chemical and biological in soil due to presence of
excess water in paddy field
Convert root zone from aerobic to anaerobic environment due to depletion of O2 in
soil profile

Responsible for gaseous loss of fertilizer nitrogen by denitrificaiton process and

Causes changes in the behaviour of P as well as micro-nutrients especially Fe
and Mn
Develops two zones in flooded or waterlogged puddled soil

Oxidized zone: upper zone (1-10 mm thick) receives O2 periodically from fresh
supplies of irrigation water turns brown in colour and reacts like a unflooded
upland soil; have high redox potenatial (about 400 mV)

Reduced zone: immediately below oxidized zone, characterized by a bluish grey

color, low redox potential (100 mV), low O2concentration
Differ environment of flooded soil responsible for the efficient utilization of
nitrogenous fertilizers like ammonical nitrogen fertilizers
Selection of types of fertilizers sources also determined by the flooded soil
environment

Fertilizers sources, methods and schedules of application

Sources
Nitrogen: Urea, DAP, Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN), Ammonium sulfate nitrate
(ASN)
Phosphorus: DAP, SSP, DSP, TSP, Rock phosphate
Potash: MOP, Potassium sulfate
Zinc: Zinc sulfate
Ammonical nitrogen fertilizers when applied to submerged puddled soil system, get
oxidized to nitrate form (NO-3) in oxidized zone which in turn leaches down to
reduced zone and gets denitrified to gaseous nitrogen

Can prevent by incorporating ammonical nitrogen into reduced zone of soil
where it held

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CAN, ASN, some NPK complex fertilizers are more susceptible to loss of
nitrogen through leaching and denitrification than are Urea, DAP,
Ammonium sulfate
Avoid use of nitrate fertilizers in paddy field
DAP: The excellent fertilizers for basal dressing in paddy field
Sulfur coated urea found better than normal Urea for paddy fields where
flooding is delayed or intermittent
In acids soil: Rock phosphate in finely powder form but do not use in
neutral or alkaline soil
Efficiency of rock phosphate: 65-134% as compared to SSP in acid soil

Recommended dose
In Nepal, the fertilizer dose is recommended as:

Cultivation system FY M (t/ha) N (kg/ha) P (kg/ha) K (kg/ha)

Irrigated 6 100-120 30 30
Non-irrigated 6 60 20 20

The different literature shows that the fertilizers can be managed as per the
following recommendation
Cultivation system N (kg/ha) P (kg/ha) K (kg/ha)
Hill areas Irrigated rice 100 60 40
Rainfed upland rice 40-60 30-40 20-30
Terai Irrigated rice 120-150 60 40
Rainfed upland 45-60 30-35 20-30
Rainfed lowland 60-80 40-45 30
For traditional varieties: 60:40:30 kg NPK/ha
Time of N-application
Depending on growing condition, the N can be applied as
Growing condition Time of N-application
Basal Top dressing
Rainfed lowland ½ ¼ at early tillering ¼ a week before panicle
initiation
Rainfed upland 40 days after a week before panicle
germination initiation
Irrigated transplanted ½ ¼ at early tillering ¼ a week before panicle
initiation

TN Bhusal 50
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N can also be managed as per the rice cultivars characters

Rice cultivars Time of N-application
Basal Top dressing
Active tillering Panicle initiation Others
Early (<100 days) ½ ¼ ¼ -----
Medium (100-130 days) ¼ ½ ¼ ------
Late (>135 days) ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼

Apply full dose of P2O5 and K2O and basal dose of N at the time of last puddling and
incorporate in the top 10-15 cm deep soil
Transplanting old seedling

2/3 to 3/4 of total N as basal

Rest 25 days later
N use efficiency: 20-40%
Responds lesser to P fertilizers as compared to upland crops on the same
soil…………….due to

Increase availability of reductant soluble

Occluded Fe-P under submergence
ZnSO4: @ 25 kg/ha at 6 crop interval in acid soils and 3 crops interval in alkaline soil
FeSO4: @ 10kg/ha in upland alkaline situation
S: @ 20-30 kg elemental sulfur per ha

TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

TN Bhusal 51
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Fate of added N in flooded rice soil

N in flooded soil occurs in inorganic and organic forms, with the latter form
predominant
Organic N: amino acid, amines, proteins, humid compound with low N-content
Inorganic N: ammonium, nitrate, nitrite
Regulates the gain and loss of N in flooded soil by a series of biochemical and
physiochemical processes that transform one form of N to another
Gains to system
Application of fertilizers
Incorporation of crop residues
Biological N2 fixation
Interflow, runoff and irrigation water
Atmospheric NH3, N2O and NO absorption by soils and plants
Dry deposition and rainfall
Loss from system
Crop removal
Simultaneous occurrence of nitrification-denitrification reactions
NH3 volatilization
Non-reversible fixation of ammonium-N by clay minerals
Leaching and surface runoff

Fig: Nitrogen cycle in a flooded soil ecosystem

NO3- -N is highly mobile in soil-plant-water continuum and moves with soil

water
Under high rainfall , it is leached out from upper horizon of soil
Also prone to denitrification loss, gaseous loss in the elemental form
Low recovery of ammonical fertilizers by rice is largely due to losses of N
through nitrification and subsequent denitrification
Laboratory results: - lost amount to as much as 80% of the added N
Sever N losses occurs in silt loam soil subjected to alternate draining and
flooding

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Nitrate loss through leaching and runoff

Most of soils are negatively charged and thus are irresponsible to
retain the negatively charged ions that come in contact with soil
Negatively charged ion are liable to leach from soil and move freely
downward with leaching water from upper horizon of soil and are
unavailable
Leaching loss of N from soil occur primarily as NO3- which is highly
mobile
Although NH4+ is relatively immobile, it is rapidly converted to NO3- by
biologically controlled process of nitrification
When urea applied to soil, it undergo several changes

If broadcast to surface, it will highly prone to runoff loss

Highly soluble nature of organic molecule present in urea which can not
retain by soil particles

Formation of nitrate from urea will leach down into reduced layer, where it
gets lost by denitrification in the form of N2O or N2
Water movement greatly determine the leaching loss of NO3-
Major leaching loss of NO3- occurs when soil nitrate content and
water movement is high

Loss through denitrification

In rice where soil remain submerged during most of the growth cycle of crop
and therefore reduced due to lack of O2, several species of bacteria eg. S
oxidizing bacteria (Thiobacillus thioxidans, T. thioparus, T. denitrificans) use
nitrate as a source of O2 and consequently reduced it to N2 or
N2O…………..denitrification
An important mechanism of nitrate lost from lowland rice ecosystem
Magnitude and rate of denitrification strongly influenced by several soil and
environmental factors

Amount and nature of organic matter

Moisture content

Aeration

Soil pH

Temperature of soil

Level and form of inorganic N2
Lab study:- about 80% of applied NO3- N lost in 72 hrs due to denitrification
Denitrificaiton lost are most severe under alternate flooded and drained
condition because when drained condition prevail nitrates are formed,
which are lost under submergence
Flooded soil: Ammonium-N diffused from the anaerobic zone to aerobic
zone where it undergo nitrification and nitrate form N thus formed diffused
into anaerobic zone where it undergo denitrification

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Denitrification favours by

Higher CH2OH

Higher pH

Higher soil temperature

More NO3- content of soil

Higher water table

Reaction:
Mineralization Nitrification
Nitrogen fertilizer NH4+ NO3-
Enzyme oxidation
2NH4 + 3O2 2NO2- + 2H2O + 4H+ + energy
Enzyme Dissolve
2NO2- + O2 oxidation 2NO3- + energy reduced layer
In H2O

NO3- NO2- N2O N2

2NO3- 2NO2 + O2
2NO2 N2O + O2
2NO N2

Nitrogen loss through volatilization

Loss of N as NH3 from applied fertilizer is one of the several possible fates of
applied N
Increasing temperature and pH markedly increases loss of NH3 from urea
(mostly pH dependent reaction)
Presence of aqueous forms of NH3 in solution favours by alkaline pH while in at
neutral or acidic pH, NH3 is predominately in ionic NH4+ form
Losses of NH3 through volatilization are insignificant if pH is <7.5 (or even <
8), however, considerable loss occurs if the pH of system is in the ranges of 8 to
10 or above
Algae and submerged aquatic microphytes alters the pH of flooded rice in a
day
By consuming CO2 from flood water, the growing algae can cause pH to
increase to 10 in flood water in the middle of the day and decreases 2 pH units
or more at night mainly owing to respiratory process
High bicarbonates in the system with constant removal of CO2 may greatly
increase pH which can increase NH3 volatilization of surface applied fertilizer of
NH4+ which diffuses into water layer
Depending upon fertilizer practices and environmental condition, loss of NH3
measured from different upland and lowland cropping system have ranged
from negligible amounts to 50% of the applied N
In flooded rice, NH3 volatilization account for 20% to >80% of the total N lost
from fertilizer sources

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Measurement in rice field shows that a loss of 8.37% of applied

Urea-N due to ammonia volatilization in the seedling stage of rice
and 1.67% when urea top dressed at PI stage
In tropical Asian rice field, high flood water NH4+N concentration
following N application, high temperature elevate flood water pH
due to photosynthetic activity thereby creating favourable
environment for ammonia loss

Reaction:
NH4+(fertilizer) + CaCO3 (in soil) (NH4)2CO3 (unstable)
(NH4)2CO3 + H2O 2NH3 + CO2 + H2O
2NH3 + H2O NH4OH NH3 + H2O
pH and % ammonia presents
pH of soil 6 7 8 9
% of free ammonia 0.1 1 10 50

Immobilization
Caused by microbial population
Tiny organism consumed applied N and store in their body as
organic form that decrease amount of N-available to soil
More immobilization in dryland than wetland
Research results suggest that upto 20% N may be locked up in
the soil
Clay particle attract ammonia ions and tie them between
their silicate sheets that results in unavailability of N
Fix a few parcel of nitrogen compared to phosphate and the
reasons may be

Poor management of water

Improper method of nitrogen application

Poor selection of fertilizers

Delayed application of nitrogen fertilizers

Imbalanced use of fertilizers

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Method of minimizing N lost from flooded rice soil

Split application
Increase the nitrogen use efficiency
When large amounts of N are applied at a time, say all basal, N efficiency
is the lowest
Application of N should match the crop needs for N
2 split doses for short and medium duration varieties and 3 split doses
for long duration varieties
Split application of N is also desirable from the viewpoint of nitrogen
nutrition of rice plant
N absorbed by the plant from tillering to panicle initiation tend to
increase the number of tiller and panicles and that absorbed during
panicle to flowering increases the number of filled spikelets per panicle
N absorbed after flowering tends to increase 1000 grain wt
Deep placement
Ammonia volatilization can be almost prevented by deep placement of N
fertilizers
Important for rice because placement in the reduced zone can prevent or
at least retard the formation of nitrates and their subsequent loss by
denitrification

Nitrification inhibitors
Can retard the nitrification process in soil and thereby reduce the N loss
by leaching and denitrification
Chemicals mostly widely tested: N-serve (2-chloro-6 trichloromethyl
pyridine), AM (2-amino-4-chloro-6 methyl pyridine), DCD
(Dicyandiamide) and ST (Sulphathiazole)
Increased rice yields and increased NUE has been reported for N-serve,
AM, ST and DCD

Slow release N fertilizers

Release N slowly and therefore allow its uptake before it is lost
Are of two kinds:

Coated conventional fertilizers such as sulphur coated urea (SCU), polymer
coated urea, neem cake coated urea (NCU), etc

Chemicals with inherent slow N release properties such as IBDU
(isobutylidene diurea), ureaform, etc
Neemseed cake:

Mix urea with finely ground neem seed cake @15-20 percent

Delay nitrate formation from urea and thus reduce the possibility of nitrate
loss through denitrification or leaching

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Use of pre-incubated urea:

Mix urea with moist soil @1kg urea with about 5 kg soil.
Allow this mixture to stand in shade for 36-48 hours before applying
in the field

Urea supergranules (USG)/Use of mud balls

Prepare small balls of moist soil and put urea or any other fertilizers
in the centre of the ball
Close the opening and allow to dry a little if possible
Use where it is not possible to drain out the water from paddy field at
the time of fertilizer application in standing crop
1g (1cm diameter) granules are most popular
Increase efficiency of fertilizer by 20-30% under low-land rice
conditions

Providing ample time for decomposition

Sufficient time for decomposition of organic manures or green
manures before growing rice so as to avoid the immobilization of N
Allow proper decomposition and nutrients will be available readily to
the rice crop

Use of mulch
Straw mulch has potential to decrease the pH of
floodwater concomitantly improving nitrogen use
efficiency in rice by reducing ammonia volatilization
CO2 produced by decomposition of straw will counteract
daytime increase of floodwater pH caused by algal
utilization of CO2
Mulch directly reduce the algal growth and check CO2
consumption and hence decrease floodwater pH
In addition, lower pH by the decomposition of organic
matter which is related to the formation of both organic
and inorganic acids
Once floodwater decrease, ammonical N loss through
denitrification also reduced because many bacteria
responsible for denitrification are sensitive to low pH
values

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TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

Double transplanting
Sow seed in first nurseries (main nurseries) and seedling of
about 1 month will transplant in close spacing in second
nurseries with recommended numbers of tiller per hill
After one month, uproot the newly transplanted rice seedlings
and transplant in main filed at proper spacing
Field preparation of second nursery is as same as the main field
Practice in eastern and central terai region of Nepal mainly in
Parsa, Bara, Sarlahi, Dhanusha, Siraha, Saptari, Morang, Jhapa, e
tc
Called ‘kharuhani ‘or ‘khaur ‘in terai
First nursery

Second nursery

Main field to be transplanted

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Main reason of double transplanting

Flooding of river destroy the transplanted rice under
terai conditions. Farmer uproot the transplanted rice
from the other areas and transplant in destroyed
areas.
The ear head of rice is longer and grain is bold.
According to farmers, this is the common method to
them.
Sometimes there is lack of seedling to transplant in
main fields because of certain unavoidable
circumstances. Under such conditions, rice seedlings
can be transplanted from already transplanted
fields.
This method of transplanting also reduce the
deleterious effect of the late planting of the aged
seedlings.

Physical changes in rice field

Chemical cementation
When puddling, metallic ions like Mn,
Fe, Si shows downward movement and
accumulate in B horizon and form an
impermeable pan of Fe, Mn and Si
Common in hilly traces
Loss of nutrients due to reduction
process because of formation of
impermeable layer
Wash out nutrient content horizontally in surface layer by
irrigation
By the restrictions of grounds water movement of certain toxic
compounds will be formed and accumulate in soil

Physical indurations
Formation of plough pan (physical compaction) due to alternate
wetting and drying of soil and regular ploughing

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Hydrostatic or hydraulic pressure on sub-soil

Trap air space in between A horizon and flooded reduced top soil
When a volume of water moves in sub-soil equal volume of air
replaced by which changes in micro and macro porous create a
separate pressure
Changes in soil structure
Breaking of clods separate the two distinct soil particles during
puddling of clay and silt soils
Absorb thin film of water from these separate one particles to
another particles as a result the following happening will be there
in the soil surfaces

Permits rapid reduction

Transference of nutrient solutions

Loose environment for root penetration

Cohesion or buffer between the rhizosphere

Decomposition actively reduced
When puddling finer soil particles hold in suspension forming a
thin or laminar horizontal structure and provides

Suitable environment for the finer roots of the rice plants

Good conditions for the developments of nitrifying organism such as BGA

Chemical changes in rice field

Establishment of oxidized and reduced zone
When soil is flooding, O2 gas moved from over surface or layer
of flood water is usually much lesser than the rate at which O2
can be reduced in the soil which results an anaerobic conditions
to the reduced zone

Change in redox potential (Eh)

Water logged (submerged) soil Eh: +0.2 to -0.3 V
Aerated soil Eh: +0.3 to +0.5 V (in surface water and first few
mm topsoil)

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Changes in soil pH
Increase in pH of acid soil and decrease in pH of alkaline or
calcareous soil
After 2-4 months of continuous submergence, all soils attain a
fairly stable pH
Stabilization of 6.5-7 pH value after 2 weeks has an important
benefit on nutrition of rice

Nutrients change
Increase the rate of mineralization of OM and increase the
availability of NH4+ - N
Decrease the concentration of CO2
Decrease denitrification
Destruction of organic acid
May decrease the availability of P2O5
Decrease the concentration of Fe and Al
Decrease in the availability of Zn and Cu

Biological changes in rice field

Anaerobic decomposition of soil organic matter
Inorganic breakdown of carbohydrates on methane and organic
acid
Enzyme oxidation
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H20 + energy
C6H12O6 3CO2 + 3CH4 (anaerobic condition)
Protein and other materials Aldehydes Bacteria
CH4

Bacteria species activate during this process are
 Methano bacterium
 Methano bacillus
 Methano sarcina
 Methano coccus

Methane production factors in rice
 Crop residues
 pH (neutral and alkaline pH- increase in methane and low pH- decrease in methane)
and
 CH2OH content
Low nitrogen requirement of anaerobic bacteria
Rapid release of ammonium nitrogen
Reduction of PO4- to PO2- and
Reduction of SO4- to S and release of H2S and CH2S

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TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

Water management
Implies not only an adequate and controlled water supply but also efficient
drainage of excess water wherever desirable
Given an adequate and well controlled water supply the crop will grow in a wide
range of soils and in many climates, thus, water is more important than the type
of soil in irrigated paddy cultivation
Successful paddy cultivation depends on adequately inundating of filed during
the greater part of the growth period of the plant
Quality of water
Water may have a considerable fertilizing value because of its mineral nutrients,
or may cause damage to the crop by poisonous or indirectly harmful substances
Quality---depend on its origin

River: generally preferable than other sources
 Caries dissolved fertilizing elements, silt and clay
Deposition of coarse silt on the land has a favourable effect on soil
Frequently deposition of fine silt has an unfavourable effect on plant’s growth
Characteristics of irrigation water that determines the quality include:

Total concentration of soluble salts

Relative proportion of sodium to other cations

Concentration of soluble boron and other toxic elements

Bicarbonate concentration as related to the concentration of calcium and
magnesium

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Initial salinity of soil

Effect of internal drainage in the flooded soil

Good quality rice irrigation water (Finfrock and his co-workers, 1960):

Specific electrical conductivity (K×106) = <750

Boron, ppm = < 1

SAR index (tendency to form alkali soil) = < 10
Deflocculates the soil when high sodium water is regularly used

Increase stickiness, compactness and impermeability

Difficult to cultivate

Produces low yield

Water temperature
Optimum temp of water for paddy growth: 28.5-320C
Absorption of inorganic nutrients being restricted by temp when it is higher or
lower than the optimum range
Research results:

If water temp falls below, there is sharp decrease in yield of grain

The number and weight of grain per unit are greatest when the mean water
temp is 25-260C and maximum temp under 300C

For promoting tillering, high water temp, 310C to 360C by day and a low temp,
150C to 200C during night is suitable

Water requirement and management

Actual amount of water required by crop depends on a no. of factors
and the principal factor influencing water consumption are:

Field evaporation

Seepage and percolation

Preparation of land

Initial flooding
The condition that have important effect on these factors are:

Climatic condition: solar radiation, temperature and rainfall

Characteristics of soil and topography

Length of irrigation period

Ground water table

Yield and method of planting (level of grain yield)

Method of irrigation

Fertilizer application method

Growth duration of variety
Main factors influencing surface evaporation and transpiration in paddy
field: temp, humidity and wind
Water requirements: 520mm-2550mm depending upon the above
mentioned factors
Total water needs for 135 days variety: 1250mm

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Total water requirement:

Water needed to raise seedling

Needed to prepare land

Needed to grow a crop from transplanting to harvesting
Transpiration coefficient: 450-600
Average water requirements in Asia (Kung, 1966)

From transplanting to harvest = 800-1200mm (with extremes of 520-2550mm)

Daily consumption = 6-10mm (with extremes of 5.6-20.4mm)

Transpiration = 200-500mm (with extremes of 132-1180mm)

Evaporation = 180-380mm (with extremes of 107-797mm)

Percolation = 200-700mm (with extremes of 32-1944mm)
Generally, 4-5mm of water per day is needed for evapotranspiration

In dry period- more evaporation, seepage and transpiration; seepage loss is
around 1mm per day but losses may be 10 times more in sandy soil
Apply irrigation from 4th day of transplanting and the water level should be
maintained at 2-5 cm or above, looking at the plant height of the variety
Investigations at IRRI indicates

High yields and high water efficiency can be achieved with continuous flow of
shallow water, 2.5cm in a typical clay soil

Shallow water results in high temp by day and low temp by night and that
encourages tillering

Extremes of diurnal temp in shallow water promote DM accumulation and
favours decomposition of OM in the soil resulting in good root development

Water requirements at different growth stages

1. At transplanting
A shallow sheet of 2-3cm in the puddled field
2. After transplanting
Not apply water for 3 days, after that establish and maintain at 5 cm of water and stop
for 5 days in between weeding and top dressing of fertilizers
3. Tillering stage
Maintain a shallow depth of 2-3cm
Drain the field for 5-7 days at maximum tillering stage if there is assured supply of water
4. PI and flowering stage
Increase the level of water from 5-10 cm and reduce the water level gradually and drain
the field 10-15 days before harvesting
Critical stages
Certain physiological stages (phenophases) are critical at which there should not be any
moisture stress, that stages are called critical growth stages
1. Tillering
A shallow water depth facilitates tiller production and promotes firm root anchorage in
the soil
Excess water seriously hamper rooting and decreasing tiller production
2. Flower primordia and flowering
Drought during this phase causes severe damage
Increase panicle sterility caused by impeded panicle formation, heading, flowering or
fertilization that occurs if sufficient moisture is not provided

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Early flowering stage is more susceptible to waterlogged conditions than other stages of
crop growth
Methods of irrigation
1. Continuous flooding (static)
Static at a depth of 2-5 cm provides the opportunity to produce potential yields
Flooding may be 2.5-7.5 cm (medium) and 15cm (deep)
Practice of keeping the soil under shallow depth of submergence (2-5cm) for lowland
rice throughout the crop growth period is conducive to higher yields
Common method and water requirement is 600-1000mm throughout the crop
growth period

Benefits
Decrease in population and growth of weeds (esp. dicot type)
Potential to produce optimum yield
Regulation of soil temp and avoiding extremes due to presence of water
Fixation of atm. N2 in soil due to favourable growth condition of BGA
Dissipation of excessive solar energy by vaporization of water and development of
favourable micro-climate in rice field
Improved photosynthesis in lower leaves due to reflection of light from water
Increased availability of plant nutrients mainly P, Fe, Mn, Si in early stages of crop
growth
Water use efficiency varies from 1.1-2.2kg grain ha-mm-1 water
Seepage loss relatively less

2. Continuous flooding (flowing)

Common in hilly terraces where water comes from mountain
Total water requirement from transplanting to maturity = 4800mm

Benefits
Potential to produce optimum yield
ET, seepage and percolation loss of 600-1000mm in 100 days of crop period
More O2 supply due to flowing water, dilute H2S and other toxic substances
Cool water temperature results in slightly higher yield
Day time fluctuation of water temp is relatively low

Demerits
High amount of water loss
Carry away soil nutrients

3. Intermittent submergence
Submergence during the critical stages of initial tillering and/or flowering and
maintenance of saturation to field during the rest of growth periods which gives
yields comparable to those obtained under continuous shallow submergence
Water requirement = 600-700mm

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Benefits
Potential for optimum yield
Optimum ET is 600mm for 100days crop period
Seepage and percolation loss relatively low
More command area will be increased with the same amount of
water
Alternate drying and wetting creates favourable soil
environment to root development

Demerits
Necessary to establish improve farm ditches, auxiliary ditches,
drainage channels within or between rotation, therefore, high
cost incur for construction of irrigation facilities
Weed control is major problems
Require more labour to deliver water and weeding
Day time temperature fluctuations increase as the water level
decreases until the next irrigation

Weed management
Interfere with rice growth by competing for light, water, nutrients and space
Besides, weed secretes toxic root exudates or leaf leachates which depress
growth of the rice plant and also are alternative host of many pest
organisms which adversely affect rice production
Reduce the quality of harvested grain, plug irrigation and drainage canals
and increase labour costs
Weed control is more difficult and critical in direct seeded rice than in
transplanted rice
Generally rice is broadcasted in areas where there is less rainfall and thus
weeds vigorously compete with rice plants
Weeds are most troublesome in upland conditions since there is no standing
water to suppress weeds
Rainy season coincides with the germination and growth of most weeds
concomitant with rice and make weed control more difficult in paddy field
The extent of yield reduction

Transplanted rice = 15-20%

Direct seeded puddled rice = 30-35%

Direct seeded upland rice = >50%
Generally, tall Indica varieties, which grow rapidly, are more competitive
with weeds than the dwarf Japonica varieties which grow slowly so weed
problem is more in dwarf high yielding varieties

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Weed intensity in rice varies with cultivation practices

In puddled transplanted, weed problem is relatively less than direct
seeded or broadcasted rice
Two mimic weeds of rice

Echinochloa colonum, E. crusgali

Oryza sativa var. fatua
10 plants m-2 of Echinochloa spp reduces grain yield of rice by 40% when
they are allowed to grow only for 4 weeks

Important weeds of rice

Ecosystem Grasses Sedges Broadleaf weeds
Rainfed upland Echinochloa colonum, Cyperus rotundus, Commelina
rice and lowland E. crusgalli, Elucine C. iria, Fimbrystylis benghalensis,
rice indica, Dactyloctenium miliacea Amaranthus spinosus,
aegypticum, Digitaria Eclipta alba, Digitaria
sanguinalis, Cynodon marginata, Ageratum
dactylon conyzoides

Ecosystem Grasses Sedges Broadleaf weeds

Puddled direct Echinochloa colonum, Cyperus rotundus, Ammania baccifera,
seeded and E. crusgalli, Digitaria C. iria, C. difformis, Eclipta alba, Caesulia
transplanted rice sanguinalis, Paspalum Fimbrystylis axillaris, Ludwigia
distichum dichotoma, Scirpus parviflora,
spp. Monochoria vaginalis

Critical period of competition

The period of the crop life cycle during which weed competition has the most
negative impact on crop yield

Rainfed upland: 20-60DAS depending upon soil, weedflora and climate

Rainfed lowland: during first 50 days in monsoon season and 30 days in
summer season

Puddled direct seeded rice: during 3 to 7 weeks after sowing

Tansplanted rice: during 30-60 DAT

Methods of weed control

1. Manual weeding
Hand weeding is most widely used method for controlling weeds
In nursery it is the sole weed management practice

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Normally two hand weeding

First: at 15-21 DAS or DAT

Second: at 42-45 DAS or DAT
These time also coincides with critical period of crop-weed competition
2. Cultural method
Use of weed-free seed lot i.e. properly selected and rouged pure-line seed
Good land preparation with deep ploughing
Flooding: an age old practice followed in the cultivation of low land rice which
suppress weeds so maintain 5 cm water in the field continuously
Placement of fertilizer in reduced zone
3. Physical method
Weeding with various tools like Japanese weeder are employed to row cultivate
rice crops
4. Herbicidal control
Widely used and most acceptable means in controlling weed due to availability
of different herbicides in market
A number of herbicides have been found effective in controlling annual weeds
of grassy and broadleaf nature

In upland rice, a suitable pre-emergence herbicides should be first choice

of farmers to get rid of annual grasses and broadleaves
In flooded rice, both pre-emergence and post-emergence herbicides are
useful

A. Pre-plant herbicides
Spray or broadcast in standing water of 3-5cm after final puddling

Fluchloralin @0.75-1.0kg per ha

Trifluralin @ 0.75-1.0kg per ha

Pendimethalin @1-1.5kg per ha

B. Pre-emergence herbicides
Spray immediately after transplanting (within 5-6 DAT or DAS)

Butachlor @1-1.5kg per ha

Oxadiazone @ 0.5-1.5kg per ha

Nitrofen @2-3kg per ha

Dichlorobenil @ 0.75-1.5kg per ha

Thiobencarb @1-1.5kg per ha

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C. Post-emergence herbicides
Propanil @2-3 kg per ha at 2-3 leaf stage of weeds
Flurodiffen @ 2-3 kg per ha at 4-5 leaf stage of weeds
2,4-D @1-1.5kg per ha at 30-45 days after transplanting or sowing

Control Echinocloa spp

Basalin or Thiobencarb + hand weeding

Control of Cyperus
Combined use of Basalin and 2,4-D

Nursery weed control: use pre-emergence herbicides at 8 DAS

Butachlor @1 kg per ha

Oxadiazone @ 0.5 kg per ha

Thiobencarb @1-1.5 kg per ha

Harvesting
Predominated method in Nepal: manual harvesting
Cutting operation

Slicing action with a sharp smooth edge in the hills

Tearing action with a rough serrated edge in terai
In developed countries: combined harvester
Harvesting should done as soon as it matures, if delay, grain lost due to

Damage by rats, insects, pest and birds

Losses due to bad weather condition

Deteriorates grain quality

Losses due to weak dormancy

Shattering and lodging effect
To check shattering and suncrack

Cut crop when the panicles are yellow but the stem and leaves still have some
green color; at this stage grain will have a moisture content between 20-25%
Immature crop harvesting

Yield generally reduce because of reduce kernels size and loss of the light
chalky kernels during milling
Research revealed that the total grain yield increase as grain moisture at
harvest recedes to about 20% and the increase of yield is slow after the crop
reaches 26% moisture

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Right stage of harvesting

When the hulled grain on the upper portion of the panicle are clear and firm and
most of those at the base are in the hard dough stage

When the 80% of grain or spikelets from upper portion of 80% panicle are straw
colored and grain moisture should be around 20%

The above mentioned stage coincides with 25-30 days after flowering in case of
early and medium duration varieties and 35-40 days for late maturity varieties
Advantages of right time harvesting

Highest grain yield and seed wt

Satisfactory germination; starting the 20th days of heading

Stable milling recovery; within 25-35 days after heading

Stable percentage of head rice; within 25-35 days after heading
Shattering loss:

Varies from 3-5% depending upon the moisture content
 At 25-26%, it is about 3%
 At 16-18%, it is about 6%

Loss may be about 10% if the crop is left in field to dry to 14-16% moisture

Also depend on character on variety
 Japonica variety has minimum shattering loss whereas Indica variety, it is more
Cut the crop quite near to ground or leave 5-10 cm stubble from ground level
depending upon crop varieties and field condition
Bundle and stack the harvested rice in a dry place for 3-5 days that causing
lowering of moisture about 16-22% before threshing

Threshing
Involved the detachment of paddy kernels from the panicle and can be
achieved with rubbing action, impact and stripping
Rubbing action

Occurs when paddy is threshed by trampling by man, animals or tractors

Not efficient methods
Methods used for threshing rice manually are:

Treading by feet of man or woman and by feet of animals

Beating on tubes

Threshing on board or racks
Nowadays, pedal thresher or axial flow thresher are used for threshing
paddy
Best carry out when the grain is reasonably dry, otherwise, there may be
poor separation and loss of grain

Cleaning
Involves the separation of bulky straw, chaff, empty kernels and very light
and fine impurities from the grain
Straw and chaff are manually separated and grain is dropped through a cross
wind to remove the lighter impurities
Winnowing machine can be used for cleaning threshed paddy

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Drying
Take the newly harvested threshed grain at once to an artificial drier or put under
intense sunlight condition for few days (4-5 days) where moisture content reduce to
14%
Alternate wetting and drying, as may occur when grain is dried in the open air,
subject to heavy dew at night and excessive heat by day, causes suncracking which
break up during milling
Reduced dehydration of grain, whether in the field or mechanical drier, is always
reflected in reduced head rice

So drying by artificial means should be done in three stages

After each pass through the drier the grain is cooled so that kernel moisture will
equilibrate

Storage
Storage of paddy has to be in a good airtight container
Container must

keep the rice safe

maintain its quality

protect against humidity, moisture, insect & pest, rats, birds, micro-organisms and
other contaminants
Care should be taken to store different varieties of paddy separately to avoid their
mixing up
Should clean and dry paddy before storage
If impurities in grain then causes rapid deterioration in quality and quantity

Higher moisture in grain facilitates easy attacked by insects and moulds;

causes hot spots to develop, which help mould and insect attack leading to
rapid deterioration
High temperature promotes deterioration by moisture migration within the
storage structures especially in soils
Hot paddy obtained after drying should not be immediately stored
Paddy dried to a safe moisture level (<14% in wet basis) should be
maintain dry and cool during storage
Can store in bags or in bulk depends on several factors like cost of
construction, bags, operating and handling equipment, transportation
system, labour and management
Storage container may be made of steel or concrete but should be air tight
Stack (12-16 bag high) the bagged paddy or rice on wooden dunnage to
prevent moisture absorption and to permit good sanitation practices
Dunnage materials should be clean and disinfected before use

Yield
135-150 days well managed crop = 6-7t/ha (grain); 6.5-8 t/ha (straw)
Short duration varieties = 5-6 t/ha (grain)

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Hulling
Process of separating the glumes (lemma and palea) that enclosed the rice grain and remain in
close contact with grain
Traditional implements: like mortar and pestle
Mechanized hulling and milling machine: hullers, disc shellers, rubber role shellers
Milling technology geared to obtain maximum outturn of milled rice and to reduce breakagae
to the minimum

Paraboiling
Process of steeping paddy in cold water and then into hot water (or in steam at low pressure)
A hydrothermal treatment given to paddy for improving its quality and nutritive value
Steps
Soaking steaming drying
Advantages
More rice with less breaking in milling
Obtain a rice with superior keeping quality (store better)
Gives better milling outturn
Contain more oil in bran from paraboiled rice
Retain more of the nutrients of the grain during milling, washing and cooking
Large saving of rice and even more important, of valuable vitamins and minerals

Disadvantages
Harder rice than raw rice
Takes more time and energy in milling as well as in cooking
Impart some bad odour to rice

Research status
1. Rice breeding

Conducted rice breeding program by NRRP

Initiated rice research program before establishment of NRIP in 1972 with
introduction of Taiwanese varieties at Kathmandu

Introduced Indica semi-dwarf varieties like Taichung Native 1, CH-45 and IRRI bred
lines (IR-8, IR-20 etc) and research works were initiated at Parwanipur

CH-45 was the first rice variety released for Terai and inner terai areas.

In Nepal, a total of 55 varieties (including spring, upland and main season rice)
have been released so far

main source of getting modern high yielding varieties : IRRI, neighboring countries

2. Plant pathological investigations

Studied by NRRP about different types of rice diseases and their causing organisms
which infect rice at different growth stages and cause yield losses in terms of
quality and quantity

Based on incidence, severity and crop losses, some diseases are of major economic
concern and some are recently spreading as major threats to rice production

Major rice diseases:- Blast, brown spots, sheath blight, sheath rot , foot rot and
bacterial blight

Main areas of plant pathological research:- production of resistant varieties,
biological control methods, chemical control methods and cultural control methods

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3. Entomological research

Conducted by NRRP based on causing significant damage of insects and their
severity of loss of rice yield

40 insect species, 3 vertebrate pests and 4 other pests have been recorded on rice
crops in Nepal

NRRP have been done different entomological works like study of population
dynamics of insects, study of natural enemies of rice insects, study of predators,
study of chemical control measures, organic pesticides etc

4. Agronomical and soil investigations

Agronomical research:- seedling age, seeding date and method of seeding for upland
rice, spacing, weed management for upland and transplanted rice, water
management, method of transplanting, seed production program etc

Soil research:- different method of application of fertilizers, rate of fertilizers, time of
application and long term fertility experiments

5. Out reach research program

Research out reach program:- joint program which is conducted by research
personnel in collaboration with extension personnel (DADO, SMS, JT, JTAs) in
farmers’ fields to find out and verify the new technology which is more sustainable
and useful to the farmers

Different outreach activities:- regional outreach agronomy trials like farmer’s field
trials (FFTs), Pre production and verification trials (PPVTs), Farming system research
(FSR), minikits, informal research and development (IRD), participatory varietal
selection (PVS), planning sessions and trainings

Future research strategies

Development of hybrid rice varieties

Development of rice integrated crop management

technologies

Development of biotechnological and genetic enhancement

technology of rice

Development of rainfed farming technologies

Development of post harvest technology and agro-processing

Production of market responsive technology (development of

high quality fine and aromatic rice varieties)

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System of rice intensification (SRI)

Develop by late Henri de Laulanie in Madagascar in 1983 and now commonly
used in Europe and America
Extension scientist: Prof. Norman Uphoff
Main principle: early transplanting of young aged seedling which results strong
increase in tillers and yield

Basic principles
1. Strong plants
Success is based on synergistic developments of both tillers and roots
If vigorous root develops, taller and fuller plant will be there and get better
access to nutrients and water supply as a result more production of
photosynthesis, more resistant to pest and automatically more yield

2. Capture full potential for tillering

The plants put out tillers in a regular sequential pattern
Each tiller produces another tillers
If soil and other condition favourable, produces as many as 12 phyllochrones
or more before it moves from vegetative to reproductive stages
Way to capture full potential

Early transplanting: 2 leaves stages; 10 phyllochrones should be developed in field
so 10-12 days seedling most appropriate

Planting one by one: close transplanting is anti-tillering rice cultivation; limit

tillering through competition among the roots under higher no. of seedling per
hill (5-6)
 Research results for planting single seedling
 With 40×40cm spacing = 84 tillers/hill
 With 30×30 cm spacing = 54 tillers/hill
 With 20×20 cm spacing = 32 tillers/hill

Wider spacing: generally, 25×25 cm or 40×40cm is common
 Encourages more rooting, more tillering and more grain filling
 Seed rate: 5-8kg/ha
3. Capturing full root growth potential
Inundation during rice growing period creates the beneficial conditions for
controlling weed in easy and cheapest manner
Maintaining 1-2 cm shallow sheet of water during its reproductive phase, when
plants go through flowering, PI, grain filling and maturation has beneficial effects
However, continuous irrigations results anaerobic decomposition that creates
problem attributing for lower yield
Capturing full root growth potential by
a. Alternate wetting and drying of field

Increase soil structure, gets more CO2 in to the root zone and enhances the active
soil life

During dry period, air replaces the water and when rains or irrigates the air is
pushed downward

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Periodic water stress and the availability of O2 facilitate root growth and the
volume of soil penetrated by roots increases
b. Minimum irrigation

Until tillering very less water requires

When root system has been developed, 3-4 days of superficial dryness should
not cause harm even if some cracks develop in field

Irrigation during night to save evaporation lost by which 50% irrigation costs is
minimized
c. Early and frequent weeding

Weeding at 30-45 DAT is too late that cause considerable yield loss

Loss in O2 supply due to over vegetative growth of weeds restricts the aeration
in rice field, therefore, aeration of soil by weeding is more important in rice
cultivation

Evidences have been found in increasing the yield of grain due to frequent
weeding (4 hand weeding…………11t/ha yield, 1-2 hand weeding………6t/ha)
d. Compost application

Application of compost or FYM seems more advantageous compared to
fertilizers that has sky rocketed price

Apply FYM or Compost @10-15t/ha

Application of FYM increases the yield of rice grains

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TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

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Wheat (Triticum aestivum L) (2N = 14, 28, 42)

An annual grass that can grown upto 50-
150 cm in height depending on cultivar
character
Being a monocot belong to family
Gramineae/Poaceae, sub-family Pooideae,
tribe Triticeae and genus Triticum
A grass, originally from the Fertile Crescent
region of the Near East, but now cultivated
worldwide
Has fibrous shallow root, jointed stem
(know as culm), rather flat leaves and
terminal panicles; wheat fruit is botanically
caryopsis
Normally needs between 110 and 130 days
between planting and harvest, depending
upon climate, seed type and soil conditions
A key factor enabling the emergence of
city-based societies at the start of
civilization

Importance
Most widely grown in world and eaten in various form by
>1000 million human beings in world, a staple food for more
population in the developed countries of Europe and
American continents
A staple food for nearly 40 per cent of the world population
covering at least 43 countries
Leads first position in area and third position in production
(690 million tons in 2008) and productivity: world
Third important food crop after rice and maize in Nepal
Globally, leading source of vegetable protein in human food,
having a higher protein content than either maize (corn) or
rice, the other major cereals
Global per capita wheat consumption: ≥67 kg
Contribution: 7.14% of AGDP
Provides 20 per cent of food calories and more protein to the
mankind in the world’s diet than any other food crops

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Nutritive value of grain

Table: Nutritive value of wheat grain per 100g
Components Amount Components Amount

Water (g) 11 Magnesium (mg) 239

Energy (kJ) 1506 Phosphorus (mg) 842
Protein (g) 23 Potassium (mg) 892
Fat (g) 10 Zinc (mg) 12.3
Carbohydrates (g) 52 Panthothenic acid (mg) 0.1
Fibers (g) 13 Vit B6 (mg) 1.3
Sugars (g) 0.1 Folate (μg) 281
Iron (mg) 6.3 Thiamin (mg) 1.9
Manganese (mg) 13.3 Riboflavin (mg) 0.5
Calcium (mg) 39 Niacin (mg) 6.8

Absorption rate of wheat protein: 95%

Relatively high content of niacin and thiamine

Gluten protein: very essential for bakers that determine baking quality as it provides
structural frame-work for the familiar spongy, cellular texture of bread and other
baked products

Wheat grains:

Used to make flour for leavened, flat and steamed breads

Consumed as suji, maida, dhindo, halwa, flakes, porridge,
biscuits, cookie, cakes, breakfast cereal, pasta, noodles,
couscous, etc.

Major ingredients of breadrolls, ice cream cones, etc.

Used for fermentation to make beer, other alcoholic beverages,
or biofuel
Wheat straw:

Used as feedstuff for livestock as it is good nutritious feed; as a
roofing materials
Wheat bran:

Husk of grain; Nutritious feed so used as a feedstuff for livestock
Health concern: Coeliac (also written as celiac) disease

a condition that is caused by an adverse immune system reaction
to gliadin, a gluten protein found in wheat

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Origin and history

Vavilov (1926, 1935):

Abyssynian centre: T. durum, T. turgidum, T. dicoccum

Near east or Asia minor centre: 9 species of Triticum

Mediterranean centre: T. durum, T. dicoccum

Central Asia centre: T. aestivum, T. compactum
Zeven and Zhukovsky (1975), Zeven and de Wet (1982): regions of diversity of
wheat

Central Asian region: Bread/Club/Shot wheat

Near-Eastern region: Einkorn, Durum, Bread wheat

Mediterranean region: Durum, Turgidum wheat

African region: Durum , Emmer, Bread wheat
Feldman (1970): Middle East Asia, comprising the Anatolia, Syrian mountainous
region and Balkans, also called the ‘fertile crescent’, provides archaeological
evidence for domestication of wheat around 7,000 to 10,000 BC
Wild progenitors occur in abundance within the fertile crescent
T. monococcum var. boeticum (Einkorn wheat): predominant in its primary centre
of origin comprising Greece, Turkey, Iran, Armenia and Transcaucasus
T. turgidium var. diococoides (Emmer wheat): seems sparse around the fertile
crescent

Carbonized spikelets and fossil impressions indicate domestication of tetraploids

around 6700 to 7000 BC in Armenia and Transcaucasia
First grown in the Karacadag Mountains in southeastern Turkey: Genetic analysis of
wild einkorn wheat and also confirmed by dated archeological remains of einkorn
wheat in this region including those at Abu Hureyra
The earliest carbon-14 date for the einkorn wheat remains at Abu Hureyra is 7800
to 7500 years BCE
Özkan H et al. 2002: both emmer wheat and durum (hard pasta wheat) originated
from Karacadag region of southeastern Turkey (indicated by genetic and
archeological discoveries) and the remains of harvested emmer from several sites
near the Karacadag Range have been dated to between 8,800 BCE and 8,400 BCE,
that is, in the Neolithic period
In wild strains, a more fragile rachis allows the ear to easily shatter and disperse
the spikelets (Tanno & Willcox, 2006) and the incidental selection for such traits
made the crop being domesticated
The tetraploid and hexaploid wheat originated from its wild diploid species by
mutation and intercrossing of at least 3 related wild ancestors resulting in a wide
range of adaptability in the modern wheat
Occurrence of T. aestivum: in Middle East Asia, around the seventh millennium
During 6th century: received T. aestivum in Iran, Iraq and the Nile basin in Egypt
Around 4th century: reached central and western Europe from the fertile crescent

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During 3rd century: cultivation began in slightly warmer climates of Indus valley
and China
During 5th and 4th millenium: trasported to Europe in the north, Ethiopia and
India in the east
After 1963: came a turining point in wheat with the introduction of dwarf, photo
insensitive, high yielding mexican wheat breeding materials (norin-10-gene)
developed by Late Dr. N.E. Borlaug

Traits found: increased no. of fertile florets, length and density of spike, reduction of
shattering, disease resistance and greater responsiveness to fertilizer without lodging

Borlaug crossed the traditional tall lodging type varieties with the norin 10 gene
varieteis and developed the modern superior varieties

Growing wheat in Nepal

Early sixties: received due attention by wheat for its development with the
introduction of semi dwarf wheat variety and DOA launched a ‘Grow More
Wheat Campaign’ in 1965/66

Results : encouraging in terms of area expansion and increased production of high
yielding varieties such as Lerma 52, Lerma rojo 64, Sonora 64, Kalyansona (in late
sixties) and RR21 (Sonalika) in 1971
In 1972: establishment of National Wheat Development Program in the division
of Agricultural Botany at Khumaltar
In 1975: NWDP shifted to Bhairhawa
In 1990: delinked from DOA and remain under NARC with name NWRP

Area, Distribution and Production

World’s leading cereal crop cultivated in tropical to temperate regions about an
area of 215 millions ha with a production of 606 millions tones of grain (2007)

Area : India is in first (13.08%) followed by China (11.07%), Russian federation (10.97%)and
USA (9.63%)

Production: china stands first (18.03%) and India ranks second (12.5%)
In 2008: China produced 112 million metric tones grains (16.23%) followed by India
79 million metric tones (11.45%) and world total is 690 million metric tones
In Nepal: cultivated in terai plains to mountain across all the developmental regions
Out of total wheat area (2008/09)

Terai: 57.92%

Hill: 34.48%

Mountain: 7.6%

Major production domain: central and western region
World scenario of wheat production
Table: Area, production and yield of wheat in world during 2007
Areas Area (ha) Production (metric tons) Yield (t/ha)
China 2,37,21,075 10,92,98,296 4.60
India 2,80,35,000 7,58,00,000 2.70
USA 2,06,39,700 5,58,22,700 2.70
Russian federation 2,35,00,500 4,93,89,860 2.10
Nepal 7,06,481 15,72,065 2.23
World 21,42,07,581 60,59,94,942 2.83

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Area, production and yield of wheat in Nepal

Table: Production (Mt) of wheat in Nepal by ecological and developmental region during 2008/09
Ecological Developmental region Total
belts
Eastern Central Western Mid-western Far-western
Mountain 8147 18598 1478 8669 13864 50756
Hill 44257 94451 85631 90935 27963 343237
Terai 181279 368386 201962 111187 87055 949869
Total 233683 481435 289071 210791 128882 1343862

Table: Area, production and yield of wheat in Nepal by ecological region during 2008/09

Ecological belts Area (ha) Production (Mt) Yield (kg/ha)

Mountain 52842 50756 960.52

Hill 239618 343237 1432.43

Terai 402490 949869 2359.98

Nepal 694950 1343862 1933.75

Trend of area coverage, production & yield of wheat in Nepal

Area Production Yield
1600 2.50

1400
2.00
Area ('000ha) & Production ('000Mt)

1200
Yield (Mt/ha)

1000
1.50

800

1.00
600

400
0.50
200

0 0.00
1964/65 1984/85 1994/95 2007/08 2009/10
Years

Figure: Area coverage, production and yield of wheat in Nepal

(1964/65-2009/10)

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Classification
Percival (1921): described and recognized 18 species of wheat but only a few are importance in agriculture
Known species of wheat can be put into three broad groups depending on their chromosome number:

Groups Chromosome pairs Genomic constitution

Diploid group 7 (2n = 14) AA

Tetraploid group 14 (2n = 28) AABB

Hexaploid group 21 (2n = 42) AABBDD

Based on commercial types

a) Common wheat (Triticum aestivum)
A hexaploid species that is the most widely cultivated in the world
Almost all area of wheat covered by this species in Nepal
Kernels:

Colour: red, yellowish-brown, white, purple or blue

Texture: ranges from hard to soft
This species includes both winter and spring wheat
b) Durum wheat (Triticum durum)
A tetraploid form of wheat and second most widely grown in world
Also called macaroni wheat
Kernels:

Colour: white, red, purple or yellowish brown

Texture: hard

Used in pasta production as the ground durum wheat flour holds together when made into a paste

c) Emmer or club wheat (Triticum dicoccum)

A tetraploid wheat that closely related to common wheat
Cultivated in ancient times but no longer in widespread use
Kernels:

Colour: red, white,

Texture: usually soft
May be winter or spring wheat

Triticum aestivum Triticum durum Triticum dicoccum

Based on species

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S.N Series Common name Cultivated/wild Chromosome No. (N) Hulled or naked
1. Einkorn Series (Diploid)
Triticum aegiloploids Wild Einkorn Wild 7 Hulled
Triticum monecoccum Einkorn Cultivated 7 Hulled
2. Einkorn Series (tetraploid)
Triticum dicoccoides Wild Emmer Wild 14 Hulled
Triticum timopheevi Timopheri Wild 14 Hulled
Triticum persicum 14
Triticum polonicum Polish Cultivated 14 Naked
Triticum turgidum Rivet Cultivated 14 Naked
Triticum orientale 14
Triticum durum Durum Cultivated 14 Hulled
Triticum dicoccum Emmer Cultivated 14 Hulled
3. Dinkale series (hexaploid)
Triticum spelta Spelt/Dinkel Cultivated 21 Hulled
Triticum macha Macha Cultivated 21 Hulled
Triticum aestivum or vulgare Common wheat Cultivated 21 Naked
Triticum compactum Club Cultivated 21 Naked
Triticum sphaerococcum Shot Cultivated 21 Naked

Based on growing habit of wheat

a) Winter wheat

Grown predominantly in the northern hemisphere, roughly between 20o and 40oN latitude, in
the early fall when the soil temperature drops below 13oC; after germination, it overwinters as
a seedling and then resumes growth with the onset of spring

Tillers, elongates and the flowers in late spring or early summer and ripens in June, July or
August, depending on the latitude

Requires vernalization (exposure to near freezing temperatures in the seedling stage) to
induce flowering

grown mostly in Europe and America
b) Spring wheat

grown in the spring and summer season

occupy about 5-7% of the world wheat area

spring type varieties grown in north and south of the winter wheat areas.

They have a continuous short growth cycle of 3-6 months.

They are sown in the early spring (April or May), it germinates grows and ripens during the
spring and summer, and is harvested in the late summer or early fall (August to September).

However, in Nepal and India, spring wheat is grown and raised in winter. It is only in some high
hills in Nepal that wheat is grown in winter as well as in summer (Mustang, Rasuwa, Manang,
Dolpa, Humla etc). Spring wheat cannot survive very low temperature and in areas having
severe winters, they are planted in spring season

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Difference between semi dwarf (Mexican improved var) and tall types (indigenous var.) of wheat:
S.N. Characters Semi dwarf cultivar (Modern) Tall indigenous wheat (Traditional)
1 Plant character Dwarf (50-100 cm), stiff plants, strong Tall (125-150 cm), weak plants and
crown roots, which do not lodge even lodge under high dose of fertilizer and
under high dose of fertilizer and water water
2 Sink capacity (photosynthate High Low
accumulation)
3 Tillering habit High so bear more productive plants Low so bear less productive plants per
per unit area unit area
4 Leaves and efficiency Broad and dark green, erect types; Narrower, long and drooping types
effectively use the solar energy for ‘inefficient utilization of solar energy for
photosynthate formation photosynthate formation
5 Vegetative and reproductive growth Shorter vegetative and longer Longer vegetative and shorter
periods reproductive growth periods reproductive periods
6 Sensitivity and adjustment to Thermo and photo-insensitive and can Thermo and photo-sensitive, hence
cropping system easily be fitted in high intensity cannot be fitted in high intensity
cropping system cropping system
7 Grain quality Better protein quality but poor Poor protein quality but better chapatti-
chapatti-making quality making quality
8 Grains production 120-150 grains per spike 50-60 grains per spike

9 Harvest index High Low

10 Maturity Early maturing Late maturing

11 Climatic adjustment Wide range of agro-climatic conditions Narrow range of agro-climatic

conditions

TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

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Adaptation: Climatic factors

A worldwide crop, grown mostly under various
climatic conditions between 470S and 570N latitudes
Also grown in temperate zone and cold tracts of far
north, beyond the 600N latitude
Requires moderately cool condition for germination,
followed by a cooler period for tiller formation, grain
mature best under warm, dry conditions that are
also ideal for harvesting the crop
Best produced with cool, moist weather during
major portion of the growing period followed by dry
warm conditions to enable the grain to ripe properly
Cultivated from sea level to the height of 3,300 masl
Take 100 -180 days to mature the crop depending
upon the climatic condition of the particular regions

Temperature
Can tolerate very cold temp and even snow during early stages of growth
and resumes growth and development with the setting of warm weather
Cultivated during cool season with temp of less than 250C
Cardinal temperature
Maximum temp 30-320C
Minimum temp 3-4.50C
Optimum temp 250C

Optimum temp for ideal germination: 20-250C (ranges from 3.5-350C)

Intensity of assimilation or photosynthesis: sharply declines with the higher
temperature regime of 350C-360C
Growth and development of root and shoot system: interrelated with poor
intensity of light, insufficient soil moisture and nutrients as well as lower
temp regime, the growth and development of both root and shoot systems
decline
During booting and flowering stage: excessively high or low temp and
drought are harmful to wheat
Cloudy weather with high humidity and low temp is conducive for rust
attack

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Prevalence of warm temp during early growth of wheat may retard

heading
Vernalization: exposure to prolonged cold period during seedling stage to
induce flowering…….requires by winter wheat
Cold temp along with short days also favour the initiation of tillering
Winter wheat if planted in spring

Seed germinate but inflorescence do not form

Culm do not elongate

Plant remain in a short, vegetative cluster

Do not flower
Optimum average temp at the time of ripening: 14-150C
Ripen grain prematurely if temp above 320C prevails 3-4 weeks after
flowering
Temp condition during grain filling and development are very crucial for
yield

>250C, tend to depress grain wt
If temp high

too much energy lost through the process of transpiration by the plants and the
reduced residual energy results in poorer grain formation and lower yields
Results in grain shriveling if very hot temperature prevails during grain-
ripening period

Solar radiation
Play important role in growth and yield of wheat
Radiation is main source of energy and grain yield is
proportional to solar radiation
Intensity of light plays a crucial role in the growth and
development of wheat plant
Higher intensity of light along with optimum temp and soil
moisture regime promote the process of tillering and seed
formation
Shading during floret development results in fewer floret
and fewer kernels per spikelet
Area with warm and damp climate are not suitable for
growing wheat
Wheat is a long day plant so it requires long day for
flowering
Traditional varieties found photoperiod sensitive but
modern varieties have photoperiod insensitive character

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Rainfall
Grown in post rainy season in Nepal so it utilizes the receding soil moisture
during early growth stages, which in turn requires changing soil profile either by
irrigation or by natural precipitation
Can not germinate in dry soil
Both amount and distribution of natural precipitation are of prime concern
Requires: 250-1750 mm precipitation on an average depending on cultivars,
temp, soil condition, etc.
Optimum moisture requirement: 625-825 mm
High yielding var need 400-900 mm during vegetative period
Transpiration coefficients: 250-350
Rain just after sowing hamper germination and encourage seedling blight
(Helminthosporium sativum)
Moisture should be available in soil at planting
Rain during late vegetative stage of growth cause lodging; excessive moisture
favours some foliar diseases and late rains interrupt or delay harvesting
Moisture deficit at the time of heading stage results in shriveled grains and low
yield
In absence of adequate early fall rains before planting, winter wheat may be
sown into dry soils……..

If there is inadequate moisture for germination and seedling development, the seed
may rot in the ground, causing a crop failure

If rains arrive too late, seedling may not be vigorous growth enough to survive the
winter
After seeds start to germinate, favourable condition enable them to utilize
their reserve energy (endosperm) to produce most vigorous seedling
possible, roots must develop to provide water and minerals for the top (leaf)
growth that will provide energy for respiration during winter and at the
onset of spring growth. In addition, root growth must be extensive enough
to anchor the seedling firmly and to support spring growth.
Any condition that reduces root growth (eg. moisture stress, improper
balance of nutrition or pest) reduces the survival potential of crops by
causing the growth of weaker seedling
Moisture stress during tillering

reduces the no. of tillers per plant

reduces yield
Moisture stress during the development of floral parts

reduces the no. of spikelets per spike or no. of floret per spikelet, depending on
when the stress occurs
Stress during flowering can cause pollen sterility
Moisture stress after pollination, during caryopsis development, causes
plants to develop pinched or shriveled kernels, which results in low quality,
low test wt crop
High temp, wind and lower RH increase a plant’s water need

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Adaptation: Edaphic factor (soil)

Can grown in diverse soil condition- oxisols, ultisols, inceptisols,
vertisols, alfisols
Ideal soil: clay loam or loam texture, good structure, neutral pH and
moderate water holding capacity
Care should be taken to avoid very porous and excessively drained
soils
Heavy soils with good drainage and structure are suitable for wheat
cultivation under dry conditions

Absorb and retain rain water well
Heavy soils with poor structure and poor drainage are not suitable
as wheat is sensitive to water logging
Can successfully grown on lighter soils provided their water and
nutrient holding capacities are improved
durum wheat: more suitable for cultivation in heavy and black soils;
when grown in light soils tend to express yellow berry problem,
resulting in poor quality grains
aestivum wheat: grown in all types of soil
pH: 6-7.5

Growth stages of wheat

Understanding of growth stages are important and is referred to with respect to
fertilization, irrigation scheduling, weeding, disease pest occurrence, harvesting, etc
They are also correlated to critical development phases of the yield component and
the stages are generally categorized as:

1. Germination and Seedling stage

Stages from seed germination to emergence i.e. 1-4 leaf differentiation stage
Crop establishment takes 5-7 days
Sequential events

Starting imbibition and completion

Radicle emergence from caryopsis

Leaf just at coleoptile tips

First leaf through coleptile

First leaf emerged and unfolded

3-4 leaf unfolded

9 or more leaf unfolded Fig: Seedling stage Fig: Tillering stage

Larger root system establishment, etc

2. Tillering stage
Develop crown and branch out into tillers from their base at soil surface
Crown formation is soon followed by the appearance of tillers and development of
secondary or crown root system

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Crown root initiation (CRI) starts at 21-25 days after sowing (DAS)
Tillering takes about 40-45 DAS
Shoots are arising from crown

First the main arises and then after 2-5 tillers would be appears

First tiller is not produced until the third leaf has fully emerged
Increases in

Leaf no., leaf area, tiller no., ground coverage, radiation interception,
photosynthesis, etc

3. Elongation and jointing stage

Plant starts elongate and nodes can be detectable

First the pseudostem (leaf sheath) erection

Then the first node detectable and upto 6 nodes can be detected at the end of the
phase
Flag leaf and flag leaf ligule/collar just visible
Increase in

Plant ht, leaf area, leaf no. radiation interception, photosynthesis, etc

4. booting/late jointing stage

Takes about 70-75 DAS
Flag leaf sheath extending
Head is prominent inside the upper leaf sheath

Upper leaf starts swelling i.e. boot just visibly swollen

Boot swollen and flag leaf sheath opening
The flag leaf consists the spike inside it and first awn appears
5. Heading stage
Spikes start emerging out from leaf sheath

First spikelet of head just visible

¼ of head emerge

½ of head emerge

¾ of head emerge

Emergence of head complete
Pollination/anthesis does not occurs

Determines potential no. of spikelets, spike no., etc Fig: Anthesis stage

6. Anthesis and flowering

Beginning of anthesis i.e. opening of floret and pollen shedding starts
and complete in 5-7 days
Takes in about 90-95 DAS
Pollination and fertilization takes place
Embryo and endosperm formation begin immediately after fertilization
Takes spike growth, determine potential grain number, spike no., etc

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7. Post flowering stage

Consists of kernel formation, milky, dough, physiological maturity
Fertilized ovary enlarged and kernel assume full size
Developing endosperm start as a milky fluid that increase in solids
as the mild stage progresses
Kernel sizes increases rapidly
Kernel formation is completed during dough development stage
Accumulate most of its dry wt during dough stage
Transport of nutrients from leaf, stem and spike to developing
seed completes by the end of hard dough
Physiologically matured at the hard dough stage even it contains
30% moisture
Peduncle changed its colour to yellow

8.Ripening stage
Seed loses moisture, and any dormancy it may have had, during
the ripening stage

Field preparation
Requires a well pulverized but compact seed bed for good and uniform
germination
First cultivated with a MB plough or disc plough, to a depth of 10-30 cm
(the exact depth depends on the location and cropping history of each
field)
It is desirable to change the ploughing depth periodically to prevent the
development of compact ploughsole or hard pan immediately below the
ploughing depth
Ploughing operation must provide for the incorporation of crop residue
and conservation of soil and moisture
Ploughing is following by harrowing immediately before planting
Where tractor is available on deep ploughing followed by 2-3 harrowing
with disc or tines and 2-3 planking should be given to prepare a well
pulverized seed
Where bullocks are source of power, deep ploughing followed by 2-3
harrowing or 4-5 inter cross ploughing with local plough should be done.
Planking should be done after each ploughing but avoid powdery seed bed.
In irrigated area, one pre-sowing irrigation 7-10 days before seedling is
necessary to ensure good germination. One light cultivation and levelling is
required before sowing.

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In rainfed area, field preparation should be done with great care as

conservation of moisture is dependent on it.

Field are usually prepared by giving one deep ploughing with iron plough
followed by 2-3 times with local plough and planking.

Ploughing should be done in evening time and furrows should be kept
open whole night to absorb some moisture from dew

Planking should be done after each ploughing early in the morning
Field preparation should ensure adequately moist soil within 5 cm of
soil surface

Should be fine enough to minimize the loss of water from the soil and to
allow seed soil contact so that seed can absorb water for germination

Should not be overcultivated

Should not be pulverised so that crusting occurs and limits emergence

A moderately cloddy seedbed helps to prevent crusting of the surface soil
caused by rain after planting, which may restrict seedling emergence

Soil treatment
Soil with problem of white ants and Gujhia weevil, that attacked the
young seedling, needs to treat with pesticides
Mix Aldrin 5% dust in soil at the rate of 25kg per ha at the time of
last ploughing

TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

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Quality seed selection and treatment

Use always the quality seeds, which posses the following attributes

Genetic purity

Physical purity

Germination

Moisture

Health

Vigour
Select only healthy seeds of right variety suitable for particular locality
Seeds should be

Bold

Free from diseases and pests

Devoid of any mixture of seeds of other variety or weeds

Free from inert materials, etc
Should purchase from authorized source with germination capacity of at least
85% and always use certified seed
Seed treatment
If seed is not certified, seed treatment should be done
Treat the seeds with Captan @ 2 g/kg seed or Thiram @ 2.5 g/kg seed
In areas where the incidence of loose smut is high, seed treatment should be
done with Carbendazim @2.5 g/kg seed, Carboxin or Tebuconazole (Raxil 2 DS)
@ 1.5 g/kg seed

Seed rate and spacing

Seed rate principally depends on

Predicted available moisture in soil at the time of sowing

Seed size

Germination percentage

Moisture content

Time of sowing

Method of sowing

Tillering ability

Plant height, etc.
Conditions Seed rate (kg/ha)
Irrigated normal sowing & medium 100
sized seed (38g/1000 seed)
Bold var (45g/1000 seed) (eg. RR21) 125 (25% more than normal sowing)
Late sown wheat 125-150
Rainfed condition 75-80
For sowing with dibbler 25-30

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Spacing
Conditions Spacing (cm)
row to row plant to plant
Irrigated Timely sown 20-22 5-7
Late sown 15-18 5-7
Rainfed 25-30
Spacing can be adjusted as narrow as 10 cm for higher seed rate and 30-45 cm
apart for lower planting rate
Wheat has a remarkable capacity to adjust or respond to planting rates

If planting rate is light, each seedling produces an abundant of tillers so that the
no. of stems in a given area is comparable to the no. of produced by a crop
seeded under heaver planting rate.

With lower planting rate, more tillers develop because more light reaches
critical sites of auxin accumulation, which reduces apical dominance of existing
stems and allows auxiliary bud to develop and grow.

One problem with late tillering is that the late maturity of tillers interrupt
harvesting and grain from later tillers may be small and excessively damp.

Cultivars differ in the maximum no. of tillers produced per plant and in the
extent to which they adjust their tillering in response to variations in planting
rates.
Excessively high planting rates can cause a no. of problems

Essential materials such as water and minerals may be adequate for seedling

growth, but, as plants grow and compete more for light, moisture, nutrients,
they may deplete the supply of one or more of these essential factors. If
adequate supply are not available throughout the entire life of plants, the yield
of plants are reduced. The specific cause of the yield reduction depends on
when a factor is depleted.
 Plants that suffers from moisture stress early in their life cycle produce fewer
tillers, if moisture stress occurs later, the no. of florets per spikelets or spikelets
per spike is reduced moisture stress after flowering results in smaller or lighter
kernels reduced test wt

Excessively high planting rates cause plants to grow tall, with weak stems.
 Because of shading between plants, auxin-regulated stem elongation is
abnormal and stems become etiolated, much as they would be if plants were
grown in dark.
 Tall, weak stemmed plants tend to lodge which causes problem in harvesting
and results in reduced yield.
 Tall plants also shatter more, reducing yields even further.
Proper plant rate is one that

allows optimum and balanced use of environmental resources, mainly
available moisture and essential nutrients

minimize competition between wheat plants

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Depth of sowing
Very important aspect in successful cultivation of high yielding dwarf varieties
of wheat
Depth varies from 2.5-7.5 cm depending on

the type of soil (planted deeper in lighter, sandy soil than heavier clay soil)

the seed size (larger the seed, greater the allowable seeding depth)

level at which adequate moisture is available for germination
The coleoptile length is shorter in case of Mexican wheat as compared to tall
variety.

The coleoptile length of high yielding Mexican dwarf variety is about 5 cm.
Therefore, seeds of these varieties should be covered not by more than 5 cm soil to
ensure uniform and good germination.
Seeds of semidwarf (1 gene dwarf) varieties could be sown at the depth of 5-6
cm but of 3 dwarf gene variety should not be sown deeper that 4 cm.
Similarly in late sown crop seed should be sown shallow (about 4 cm deep) as
deep sowing delays the emergence of seedling by 2-3 days and heading by 5-6
days.
It is desirable to plant into moist soil, but not if planting depth exceed about
7.5 cm

Time of sowing
Has a mark influence on the yield of wheat
Optimum time of sowing varies over the wheat growing areas which depends upon

Type of varieties (duration)

Weather condition

Soil temp

Irrigation facility

Land preparation

Availability of inputs
Should be done timely and in the soil having proper moisture and temperature
Delay sowing lead to

Poor stand

Inadequate vegetative growth of crop

Poor reproductive development on account of the quick rise of ambient temp
toward the maturity stage

Damage due to rust attack

Premature drying of crops

Reduction of yield
Late maturing varieties must be sown timely to avoid yield reduction
Where sowing of wheat is delayed beyond November the reduction in yield is
observed @ 47 and 57 Kg/ha/day in December and January sown, respectively.
Under irrigated condition, maximum productivity potential of promising wheat
varieties attain by sowing them between 10th to 25th November

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However, the seeding rate should be adjusted in such a manner that the mean daily
temperature drops down to 20-220C.
Sowing wheat while the temp are high (around 250C) results

Poor germination

Reduced tillering

Early onset of flowering, thereby exposing the floral parts to cold damage
Rainfed wheat: sowing done relatively early before the moisture built up from the
monsoon rains recedes deeper

second fortnight of October to early November
Optimum time of sowing in Nepal: 15 October to 15 November
In late sown wheat, only short duration varieties should be sown because there is
comparatively less reduction in their yield compared to long duration varieties.

Methods of sowing
1. Broadcasting
A primitive but widely prevailing method of wheat sowing
Seeds are broadcast on soil surface, then worked in by harrowing and covered by
planking
Results in poor and uneven germination………….because……..

all the seeds broadcast do not proper contact with moist soil

some seeds are left uncovered and are eaten by birds

To overcome these impediments, 25% higher seed rate is recommended for

broadcasting.
Insufficient sowing method so should not be encouraged
However, in the rice-wheat cropping system this method is gaining popularity

due to a short-turn-around period rice harvest and wheat sowing

furthermore, broadcast wheat immediately after rice harvest gets the benefit of
stored soil moisture and generally there is a good germination
2. Behind local plough
Consist of dropping the seeds by hand into furrows that have been opened with a
country plough.
When seed is dropped into furrows by hand, it is called ‘kera method’ and when
seeds are dropped through a ‘pora/nai/hazara’ a special attachment with a local
plough, it is called ‘pora method’.
In this method seeds are dropped at a desired depth and germination is satisfactory.
3. Drilling
Seed is sown by seed drill or ferti-seed drill
Seeds drop at uniform depth and results in uniform germination and regular stand
Seed bed should be fine and well levelled, free from clods and weeds for the use of
seed drill or ferti-seed drill
Seed drill may be either bullock driven or tractor driven
Ferti-seed drill should be used wherever possible to ensure uniform depth of
sowing, proper placement of fertilizer and good germination

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4. Dibbling
Used in case where supply of seed is limited
Sowing is done with the help of a small implement known as dibbler (a wooden
or iron frame with pegs)
Frames is pressed in the field and lifted and then one or two seeds are dropped
by hand in each of the hole
Not a common method because it is a very time consuming process
5. Zero tillage technique
In rice-wheat system

Incur high cost for land preparation

Delay in sowing of wheat (beyond 25 November)………..multiple reasons…..
 Preparation of field
 Uncertain rainfall
 Rice harvesting with traditional method
Puddling in rice field creates a hard pan in the field. After harvesting of rice crop,
field require at least 6-8 tillage operation in ploughing and harrowing for sowing
of wheat, in which, generally 10-15 days are required for proper field
preparation. Yield of wheat decrease 30 kg/ha/day after 25 November sowing.
To overcome the shortcomes, zero tillage techniques is developed.
Zero tillage is an extreme form of minimum tillage, which, as a category of
tillage systems, not only includes methods resulting in reduced tillage intensity
but also the combined use of several implements in one operation, such as the
plough-plant method.

In zero tillage, primary tillage is completely avoided and secondary tillage is

restricted to traffic and seed bed preparation in row zone only.
Zero-till-ferti-seed-drill machine is used by which direct sowing of wheat is done
in rice field without ploughing. This helps advancing the sowing of wheat as the
time required for field preparation is saved.
Important points for ensuring high yields
At the time of sowing, there should be proper moisture in the field and plain
areas.
Rice should be harvested near the ground and leftover stubble should not be
more than 15 cm in height and field should be free from weeds.
At the time of sowing, the seed drill should be lifted up or lower down very
slowly to avoid chocking of furrow opener by soil. Otherwise, seed and fertilizer
will not drill in the furrow.
Always use dry seed treated with Captan @ 2 g/kg seed or Thiram @ 2.5 g/kg
seed or Carbendazim @2.5 g/kg seed of wheat (seed rate @125 kg/ha or 20-
25% higher).
Sowing depth should be maintained about 5-6 cm.
Use DAP only in the fertilizer box at the time of sowing. Apply of Urea and MOP
after 10-20 days sowing (150 Kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2 O).
Light planker may be used behind the zero tillage machine.
Timely irrigation
If zinc sulphate has not been used in previous crop then zinc should be applied
at the time of sowing.
Apply sulfosulfuron @ 25 g ai/ha (Leader 33.3 gm/ha) at 30-35 DAS in wheat.

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Advantages
Timely sown
Low cost for land preparation
Low amount of water requirement (30% less)
Higher seeding establishment during warm and dry period
Less infestation by Phalaris minor and other weeds
Maximization of fertilizer use efficiency
Changes and improvement of physical property of soil Fig: Zero tillage machine
Easy to plant wheat with low cost in clay soil
6. FIRB system
The furrow irrigated raised bed (FIRB) planting system
has been developed and is being promoted by the Rice-
Wheat Consortium of CGIAR Institutes.
In this method wheat is sown on raised beds (65-70 cm
wide) accommodating 2-3 rows of wheat. Fig: Sowing on raised beds (FIRBs)
Between the beds are furrows (30 cm) that are used for
irrigation.
The yields obtained are similar to or more than
conventional seeding; help in saving water (25-40%),
seed (25%), fertilizer (25%).
Use special raised bed making and plating machines for
this purpose. Fig: Furrow opener for FIRBs

Crop rotation
Rotation Duration
Paddy-Wheat 1 year
Maize-Wheat 1 year
Paddy-Tori-Wheat 1 year
Arhar-wheat 1 year
Sorghum-Wheat- Moong 1 year
Maize-Potato-Wheat/Gram 1 year
Potato-Maize-Wheat-Moong 1 year
Green manure-Wheat-Maize-Potato-Sugarcane 2 years
Ragi-Rapeseed/Mustard-paddy/Millet/Wheat 2 years
Ragi-Fallow-Mustard-Pea/Wheat 2 years
Ragi-Barley-Paddy/Millet/Wheat 2 years

/ relay cropping; - sequence cropping

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TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

Manures and Fertilizers

Yield = F(nutrient availability and application)
Need adequate supply of external plant nutrients for getting good yield of
wheat, particularly true for high yielding varieties

Nitrogen
Critical concentration in leaves: 2.5-2.9% on dry wt basis, below which
deficiency symptoms appear
Integral part of chlorophyll and enzyme essential for plant growth processes
Essential constitute of amino acid, proteins
Promote higher photosynthetic activity by adequate N and vigorous vegetative
growth as a result turn into dark green colour
N application attributes to

enhanced plant height

better tillering

higher no. of panicles/m2

more grains per panicle
If deficit, chlorosis or yellowing of leaves, stunted growth, reduced no. of tillers,
etc
Phosphorus
P concentration below 0.1% in dry leaf tissue is considered deficit
Stimulate root development and growth in seedling stage thus helping to
establish seedling quickly

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Constituent of nucleic acid, phytin and phospholipids

High energy phosphate bond for energy transfer (ADP---ATP)
Promotes earlier flowering and maturity
Adequate P2O5 increases N extraction from soil
Potash
Important role in osmotic regulation and helps in maintaining plant turgor
Increases the size and weight of the grains
Increases phosphorus response
Plays an important role in physiological processes in the plant including opening
and closing of stomata, and tolerance to unfavorable climatic conditions
Renders resistance to diseases
Zinc
Deficiency leads to retardation of stem elongation, necrosis and chlorosis of
leaves
Normal concentration in healthy plants: 4.2-28 ppm
Manganese
Deficiency symptoms seen as necrotic streaks on the leaf lamina (highly visible
on the flag leaf)
Iron
Deficiency symptom is chlorosis of wheat leaf, that appear within 2 weeks after
sowing

Boron
Deficiency results in

improper development of inflorescence

very short awn

reduction in yield and yield quality
Copper
Deficiency symptoms are

limpness or wilting with resultant loss in turgor

pale yellow leaf tip

reduced stem elongation

improper heading

spikelets devoid of grains

Application of manure and fertilizers

Both organic matter and chemical fertilizers are important for wheat cultivation
Removes large quantities of plant nutrients from the soil along with harvest of
grain and straw
Nutrient removal by wheat for each tonne of grain harvest along with 2 tonne of
straw

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Nutrients Amount Nutrients Amount

N 25 kg Each of S, Mg, Ca 5-6 kg
P2O5 2 kg Fe, Mn, Zn, B, Cu, etc Small quantity
K2O 38 kg

Need to replenish the amount of nutrients remove by plant through organic or

inorganic sources
Use of organic manures is

highly effective to achieve and sustain reasonable yield

helpful to improves the general physical condition and structure of soil and its
capacity to hold water

essential to maintain biological processes
A liberal quantity of bulky manure should be applied in field if available

Dose: @5-10t/ha for cultivation of wheat both under rainfed and irrigated conditions
Sources: well decomposed FYM, compost, poultry manure, enriched compost,
etc.
Need to apply these manures 4-6 weeks before sowing and worked well into the
soil
However, manures by themselves can not meet the high nutrient requirement
of plants, which are also in short supply, therefore, it becomes necessary to
supplement manure with chemical fertilizers to get high yield.

HYV of wheat fully exhibit their yield potential only when applied with adequate
quantity of nutrients at proper time.
Response of given variety to apply of fertilizers , however, varies from field to
field; from locality to locality
Soils usually deficits in N but the status of P2O5 and K2O differs from place to
place depending on native nutrient store and previous fertilization history of
field. Fertilizer dose of wheat, therefore, be related to the fertility status of the
soil.
But, in case where soil test recommendation are not available, the general
guidelines for fertilization of HYV are given below (from literature):
Conditions Recommended dose (kg/ha)
N P2O5 K2O
Hill
Unirrigated 40-60 30 20
Irrigated 100-120 60 40
Terai (Irrigated)
Timely sown 80-150 40-60 40
Late sown 80 30-40 25-30

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N amount vary depending upon soil fertility and good response of applied P
and K obtain when use based on soil test results
In Nepal, the recommended dose is
Cultivation system FY M (t/ha) N (kg/ha) P (kg/ha) K (kg/ha)

Irrigated 6 100 50 25

Non-irrigated 6 50 50 20

Method and time of application

Three main factors have to be taken into account when applying fertilizers to
wheat to get best response and profit:

Application of correct doses of fertilizers/nutrients after taking into account the
requirements of the crop and soil’s reserve supply

Application of nutrient at the right time

Application of nutrient in correct way
Nitrogen
Split application is an established practice

Condition Doses as a basal Doses as a top dressed

Irrigated medium & ½ or at time of sowing about or ½ at the time of first

heavy soil 5 cm below the seed irrigation (CRI stage -35 DAS)
Irrigated sandy soil or ½ at the time of sowing or ¼ at CRI stage (at first
irrigation) and remaining or ¼
applied after second irrigation
Rainfed condition Full dose of N applied 8-10 cm
deep in soil at or before sowing
In sandy soil, top dressing is beneficial only after irrigation
In calcareous soil (containing free lime) and in strongly alkaline soil, 10-30% of
applied N may be lost through ammonia volatilization, if urea or ammonical
fertilizers are used for top dressing. In such cases calcium ammonium nitrate
(CAN) should be preferred over urea.

Phosphorus and Potash

Placement below the seed is best method in most soils
Apply full dose of P2O5 and K2O at the time of sowing, if possible, place 3-5 cm
to the side and 3-5 cm below the seed with the help of ferti-seed drill or pora
method

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In case of fertilizers, in general, one should not be concerned with total phosphorus
but also with water soluble phosphorus.

For wheat, phosphatic fertilizers must content 50% of total phosphorus in water soluble
form and remaining portion in citrate soluble form.

This is specially important for neutral and alkaline soil. Rock phosphate has exceedingly
low solubility, if applied into a neutral or alkaline soil, will be of little use for the crop.
In acid soils (pH< 6), use of basic slag or rock phosphate may be profitable than
superphosphate or DAP because cost per unit P2O5 is much less in former than later.
Water soluble phosphatic fertilizers, such as DAP and superphosphate are most
effective when applied in granular form whereas citrate soluble fertilizers such as
rock phosphate and basic slag are most effective in finely powdered form.
MoP and potassium sulphate are equally good for wheat cultivation
Micronutrients
Apply 25-30 kg/ha ZnSO4 at the time of last ploughing
Acute deficiency can be taken care of by soil application
If deficiency developed in the early crop growth stage, spray a solution of 5 kg ZnSO4
and 2.5 kg lime in 1000 L of water per ha
Spray 0.5% solution of MnSO4 against Mn deficiency
Removed S deficiency by the use of fertilizers containing sulfur such as ammonium
sulphate, single superphosphate, etc.

TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

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Water management
A post rainy season crop in most regions of Nepal
Utilizes the receding soil moisture during early growth phase, therefore,
requires soil profiles to be charged either by irrigating or natural precipitation
Successful wheat cultivation depends on adequately supply of water during
different phenophases of the plant
However, in certain physiological stages if moisture stress occurs, results in
reduction of development and production. These are:

Crown root initiation stage

Flowering stage

Milking or grain filling stage
CRI is most critical

Since crown roots are formed at around 2 cm of soil depth, irrespective of depth of
seed placement and this is the level which subject of fastest drying.

Under dry soil conditions, root fail to grow and subsequently result in yield loss.
Delay in giving first irrigation at CRI results

upsetting the synchronous tillering in varieties

subnormal heading

poor root system

poor grain yield (reduced yield by 27%)
Inadequate moisture during grain filling leads to grain shrivelling.
For HYV, one pre-sowing irrigation should be there and crop sown when the
field become fit for operation

Total no. of irrigation required will vary depending upon

soil type

winter rainfall

amount of water applied per irrigation

weather conditions
Heavy deep soil with good water holding capacity: require only 3-4 heavy (7-9
cm) irrigations
Sandy soil: requires 6-8 lighter (5-6 cm) irrigations
Higher temperature during any of the crop growth phases may necessitate
additional irrigation.
Adjustment need to be made for rainfall during crop season.
For determining when to apply irrigation, there are several methods.

Soil moisture level determination

Consumptive water use

Physiological crop stage
Irrigation water requirement: 180-420 mm

Schedule of irrigation
1. First irrigation
Given at CRI stage i.e. 20-25 DAS to the standing crop
In cooler regions like hilly tracts and in late shown wheat, it is desirable to apply
first irrigation approximately 25-30 DAS

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2. Second irrigation
At tillering stage i.e. 40-45 days after the sowing.
3. Third Irrigation
At node formation stage i.e. 60-65 days after sowing.
4. Fourth Irrigation
At flowering stage i.e. 80-85 days after sowing. Plant suffers most from soil
moisture deficiency and results in reduced grain no. and size if drought persist.
5. Fifth Irrigation
At milk formation stage i.e. 100-105 days after sowing.
6. Sixth Irrigation
At grain filling stage i.e. 115-120 days after sowing.

In case of loam and heavy loam soils, the following 4 irrigation can give good
yield:

1st Irrigation : 20-25 days after the sowing.

2nd Irrigation : 30 days after the 1st irrigation.

3rd Irrigation : 30 days after the 2nd irrigation.

4th Irrigation : 20-25 days after the 3rd irrigation.

Depending upon availability of water, the following schedule of irrigation can be

adopted for best utilization of available quantity of water

No. of Important stages of wheat for water application

irrigati
on Pre- CRI (20- Tillering (40- Jointing (60- Flowering Milking Grain filling or
sowing 25 DAS) 45 DAS) 65 DAS) (80-85 DAS) (100-105 dough (115-
DAS) 120 DAS)

7 √ √ √ √ √ √ √

6 √ √ √ √ √ √ -

5 √ √ - √ √ √ -

4 √ √ - √ - √ -

3 - √ - √ - √ -

2 - √ - - √ - -

1 - √ - - - - -

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Give adequate emphasis on the following three points while irrigating

the wheat crop:

For proper distribution irrigation water field should be made plain and slight
slope should be given in one direction.

After sowing field should be distributed in equal size of beds. This also ensures
proper distribution of irrigation water.

In case of light and heavy soils irrigation depth should be 6 cm and 8 cm,
respectively.

Based on pan evaporation

Give irrigation at IW/CPE ratio = 0.75-0.9

To overcome constraints of water availability to wheat crop, Rawson

(1988) suggests use of

large seeded genotype, planted at available moisture of 10%

genotypes with large first leaf to maximize on photosynthesis, which results in
rapid deeper roots for greater water exploration

fertilizer at planting because late fertilizing stimulates late tillering , which
wastes water resources

genotypes with heavy glaucousness which increases water use efficiency

slightly taller genotypes, which may produce deeper roots for greater deep
water extraction

Weed management
As a winter seasonal and narrow spaced crop, the infestation in wheat is less
as compared to broad spacing crop.
However, several weeds emerge with emerging crop seedling and interfere
with wheat growth by competing for light, water, nutrients and space
If not controlled in early stages of crop growth, these may cause reduction in
yield.
Yield reduction generally varies from 10-40% depending on

types of weed infestation

time of infestation

period on weed infestation

initial weed seed bank in soil
Weed reduces

no. of tillers

plant ht

no. of leaves

ear length

no. of spikelets per ear

test wt

ultimately, grain yield

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Weeds affect the wheat crop in following ways;

Extract nutrients from the soil meant for the plants, faster than the crop

Compete with the crop for soil moisture, sunshine and space

Serve as collateral hosts for many of the pathogens causing serious diseases of wheat
(Phalaris minor and Rumex acetosella serve as collateral host of B. sorokiniana and A.
triticina causing foliar blight and many of the weeds for E. graminis tritici responsible
for powdery mildew)

Also serve as a source of primary inoculum of the pathogen for the next season

Make harvesting and threshing of the crop difficult

Presence of weed seeds reduces the quality of the produce and therefore, the
market value

Important weeds of wheat

Weed type Weed species
Narrow leaf/monocot Phalaris minor, Avena fatua, Poa annua, Cynodon dactylon,
weeds Cyperus rotundus
Broad leaf/dicot weeds Chenopodium album, Fumaria parviflora, Anagalis arvensis,
Vicia hirsuta, Vicia sativa, Lathyrus aphaca, Xanthium
strumerium, Canabis sativa, Argemone mexicana, Capsella
bursapastoris, Melilotus alba, Melilotus indica

Critical period of competition

The period of the crop life cycle during which weed competition has the most
negative impact on crop yield

Critical period: 30-45 DAS depending upon soil, weedflora and climate

Methods of weed control

1. Physical method: Manual weeding, mechanical weeding, burning
Hand weeding is most widely used manual method for controlling weeds
One-two manual weeding effective for controlling all type of weeds

First weeding: 3 weeks after sowing

Second weeding: 6 weeks after sowing

Hoeing keeps weeds under control and provides aeration to the developing roots
Mechanical weeding: use mechanical weeder either operated manually or
power driven
Collect all the weeds in a place and then dry and burn

2. Good crop husbandry

Good variety selection: quality seed, free from weed seed
Optimum land preparation: top upper layer dry and lower must be moist
Optimum time of sowing: Oct 15- Nov 15
Optimum seed rate and spacing: 100-125 kg/ha; Closer planting and cross
sowing also found effective to reduce weeds

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Water and fertilizer management: apply water at critical stages and properly
utilize fertilizers
3. Herbicidal control
Widely used and most acceptable means in controlling weed due to availability
of different herbicides in market
A number of herbicides have been found effective in controlling annual weeds
of grassy and broadleaf nature
Type of weed Herbicides Quantity (a.i./ha) Time of application
Broad leaves 2,4-D 500 g 35-40 DAS (November sown)
40-45 DAS (late sown)
Metasulfuron methyl 4g 30-35 DAS
Narrow leaves Isoproturon 1.00 kg 30-35 DAS
Sulfosulfuron 25 g 30-35 DAS
Clodinafop 60 g 30-35 DAS
Metribuzin 175 g 30-35 DAS
Pendimethalin 1.0 kg Within 3 days of sowing (pre-
emergence)
Spray with the help of flat fane nozzle and making a solution in 800-1000, water
for one hectare

When 2,4-D is sprayed between 25 and 30 DAS, the ears of wheat have been
found to suffer from malformation. Malformation adversely affects the
uniformity of seed size and thereby reduces their value as grain and seed.
Gappy spikelets results in reduction in total number of grains per head and
finally lead to reduced grain yield.
Drift of 2,4-D may spoil the pulse crops like pea, gram, lentil and mustard so that
spray 2,4-D where there is minimum wind velocity.

For Phalaris minor and Avena fatua controlling, use

Isoproturon @1.0 kg a.i. per ha 32-35 DAS (600- 800 L water)

Pendimethalin @1.0 kg a.i. per ha 2-3 DAS

Sulfosulfuron @ 45 g a.i. per ha

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TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

Harvesting and Threshing

Should done at proper maturity stage
To avoid loss in yield crop should be harvested before it is dead ripe
Yellow and fairly dry leaves and stems are an important visual indicator for
readiness to harvest
Right stage of harvesting is when there is about 25-30% moisture in seed
Harvesting of crop when plant turn yellow/white before complete drying is
recommended to reduce losses due to shattering. At this stage grains have
already become hard and break rather than crush when pressed under
teeth.
Harvesting should done as soon as it matures, if delay, grain lost due to

Damage by rats, insects, pest and birds

Losses due to bad weather condition

Shredding, broken spikes and shattering grains

lodging effect
Timely harvesting ensures optimum grain quality and consumer preferences
Rainfed crop sown early reaches the harvest stage much earlier than the
irrigated crop
Harvesting can be done with manual operation i.e. hand cutting and animal
or tractor driven reapers

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Cutting operation

Slicing action with a sharp smooth edge

Tearing action with a rough serrated edge
In developed countries: combined harvester

Can do harvesting, threshing and winnowing wheat crop in one operation
at a faster rate

For combining, grain should be from about 12-14% moisture

Need to remove irrigation channels and any other impedance to the
movement of combine harvester ahead to reduce breakdowns and to
enhance energy efficiency
Dry the hand cutting or reaper harvested crop for 3-4 days on the
threshing floor and then threshing is done either by trampling bullocks
or tractor tyre or bitting by hand on wood log or stones or toughland
Cut the crop fairly near to ground or leave 5-15 cm stubble from
ground level depending upon crop varieties, threshing operation and
field condition
Nowadays, power driven stationary threshers are becoming popular
because these are easy in operation and hasten the process

Cleaning and Drying

Grain should be cleaned and dried well in sun for a few days so
that moisture content of the grain comes down to 10-12%

Cleaning involves the separation of bulky straw, chaff, empty

kernels and very light and fine impurities from the grain

Straw and chaff are manually separated and grain is dropped

through a cross wind to remove the lighter impurities

Winnowing machine can be used for cleaning threshed wheat

Drying can be done either in intense sunlight condition or in

artificial hot air drier

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Storage
Wheat grain harvested at the end of dry winter season, needs storage
during hot and humid monsoon season until the next winter planting
Storage facility depend on economic factors
Easy and cost effective storage methods used by less prosperous farmers
are metallic drums, polyethene bags and earthen pots
Care should be taken to store different varieties of wheat separately to
avoid their mixing up
Should clean and dry wheat grains before storage
If impurities in grain then causes rapid deterioration in quality and
quantity
At a temp of 250C & 75% humidity, wheat seed reach 15% moisture
The critical moisture content of wheat seeds at which the rate of
respiration increase is 14.6%
Grains with less than 10% moisture store well and this level of moisture
can be easily achieved by sun drying during May-June in most part of the
country
Unprotected seed respire faster, depleting seeds’ food reserve
The monsoon climate which occurs soon after harvest is ideally suited for
insect proliferation, therefore, damaged to stored wheat grains could be
greater (eg. Rice weevil, lesser grain moth, khapra beetle, etc)

Aspergillus and Penicillium can damage wheat grains stored in moist

condition
If unprotected, losses due to rat can be severe
Storage container may be made of steel or concrete but should be
air tight
Stack (12-16 bag high) the bagged wheat on wooden dunnage to
prevent moisture absorption and to permit good sanitation
practices
Dunnage materials should be clean and disinfected before use

Yield
Yield depends on seeding rates, soil fertility, moisture availability
& distribution and the effect of various pests
With improved scientific methods, HYV yields

4.5-6.5 t/ha under irrigated condition

2-2.5 t/ha under unirrigated condition

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Yield constraints
1. Climatic constraints

Severity of winter

Short growing period

Low or erratic rainfall

Environmental limitations or natural hazards (hail, frost, wind, post-
anthesis heat stress,etc)
2. Agronomical constraints

Less and unbalance use of plant nutrients

Untimely planting of wheat

Broadcasting of seed

Use of uncertified seed

Less irrigation facility

Poor management of post harvest losses
3. Seed and varietal constraints

Low number of released varieties

Lack of niche based varieties

Untimely available of seed

Genetic erodibility of the varieties/strains

4. Soil and fertility constraints

Addition of more rainfed marginal lands

Poor soil fertility management practices

Heavy soil erosion
5. Technological constraints

Lack of appropriate technologies or package of practices

Poor mechanization in agriculture

Ownership right and land fragmentation problem
6. Disease and pest problems

Problem of rust (Puccinia spp.), loose smut (Ustilago nuda tritici)

Problem of gujhia weevil, army worms, rodents

Lack of suitable disease resistant varieties

Inadequate of pests and diseases management
7. Agriculture extension and marketing

Lack of institutional services to the farmers

Poor marketing facility
8. Credit supply and subsidy

Inadequate credit facility

Negative effect of subsidy on agricultural production
9. Lack of research and development planning

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TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

Research and Development: NWRP

National Wheat Research Program (NWRP): established in 1972 at
Khumaltar, Lalitpur under the name of National Wheat Development
Program
In 1975: transferred to Bhairahawa Agricultural Farm, which was established
in 1960
Geographically, the station is located at 105 meters above sea level and
27°32’ north latitude and 83°25’ east longitude.
Climate at NWRP: subtropical

Recorded maximum temperature in summer: 44.6°C

Minimum temperature in winter: 4.8°C

Average annual rain fall: 1700 mm
NWRP station

Total land: 35 hectares

Utilized for wheat research and production activities: 25 hectares

Occupied by farm roads drainage, office and residence facilities: 10 hectares
Before the introduction of Mexican semi-dwarf wheat varieties, wheat
cultivation in Nepal was limited to mid and far-western hills only and it was
considered as a minor cereal in the country.
After the introduction of semi-dwarf varieties from Mexico, the area and
production of wheat in Nepal has been increased dramatically and now it
has significant contribution to the national food supply.

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In 1965/66, wheat area in the country was 100,000 ha and the production
was 112,000 metric tons.
With the introduction of semi-dwarf Mexican wheat varieties, development
of agriculture launched a “Grow more wheat campaign” in 1965/66.
The results were encouraging in terms of area expansion and increased
production of high yielding varieties such as Lerma 52, Lerma rojo 64,
Sonora 64, Pitic 62, Kalyan sona and other varieties
In 2006/07, its area and production have increased to 702664 ha and
1515139 metric tons respectively.
In Terai, as irrigation facility is steadily increasing there is still ample
opportunity to expand the wheat area where the lands remain fallow after
rice harvesting.

Goal
To contribute in enhanced livelihood

Objective
To make the nation self-sustained in food supply through increased wheat
production and productivity by conducting applied research in collaboration
with related national and international organizations, developing improved
wheat varieties, wheat production technologies, multiplying wheat breeder
seed and disseminating wheat related information

Activities
i) Varietal improvement
Development of wheat varieties suitable for different agro-ecological
domains (Terai under irrigated normal planting, irrigated late planting,
rainfed conditions and mid and high hill environments).
Development of high-yielding and disease-resistant wheat varieties suitable
for existing cropping pattern
Development of product specific wheat varieties required by various wheat
based industries.
ii) Resource management
Development of improved wheat production technologies (Irrigation and
fertilizer management, time and method of crop establishment, weed
management etc.) suitable for different agro-climatic conditions
Identification of farmers' problems through on-site inspection of farmers'
fields and solving them through adaptive research
Scaling up of resource conservation technologies (RCTs) to farming
communities through pluralistic approach.
iii) Research on crop protection
Detection of major diseases and insects on wheat, estimation of their
damage, identification and development of insects and disease resistant
wheat varieties and disease management techniques.

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iv) Outreach research activities

On-farm verification of station developed technologies through
farmers' field testing and mini-kit distribution of recently released and
pre-release wheat varieties and other technologies under farmers'
situations.
Provide farmers with technical knowledge through different media.

v) Source Seed production

Produce wheat nucleus and breeder seeds as per need
Provide breeder seed to different farms /stations, seed companies for
foundation seed production and
supervise them
Assist farmers in seed multiplication program through technical advice
Assist in wheat production in coordination with different stakeholders

vi) Wheat germplasm exchange

with different (CIMMYT, ICARDA, DWR- India, WRC-Bangladesh etc.)
national and international agencies

Interdisciplinary relationship
Possibility of a multi-pronged approach to wheat improvement when

frequent exchange of views pertaining to varied problems of agronomy,
disease, pests etc among breeders, agronomists, pathologists,
entomologists, soil scientists and seed producers engaged in wheat
Coordinated program helps through

bringing all the concerned scientists of diverse disciplines on one platform

allowing a successful formulation of strategy for wheat improvement
Association of interdisciplinary personnel is established at the workshop
held annually and at each of the testing stations through periodic
monitoring tours

Agricultural Research Stations or Farms participating in coordinated

trials:
Terai/Tars/ Lower valleys Mountain/Hills
Tarhara, Hardinath, Parwanipur, Pakribas, Kabre, Khumaltar, Lumle,
Rampur, Bhairahawa, Nepalganj, Jumla, Doti
Surkhet, Sundarpur

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Inter-institutional collaboration
1. Collaboration with International Maize and Wheat Improvement
Centre, Mexico (CIMMYT)

Nepal receives various kinds of support from CIMMYT. The yield,
screening and disease nurseries received are used in selecting
lines suitable to our agro-climatic condition

Training to young Nepalese scientists on wheat breeding,
pathology, production, agronomy, station management

CIMMYT Regional Office stationed at Kathmandu supports various
wheat development activities in the country

Regular visits and evaluation of wheat materials in Nepal by
CIMMYT scientists

2. Collaboration with International Centre for Agricultural Research

in Dry Areas (ICARDA, Syria)

Yield trials, nurseries and germplasms especially suited to the
rainfed environments of Nepal

Training support

3. Collaboration with All India Coordinated Wheat

Improvement Project (AICWIP, India)

Yield trials, advanced lines and other introductions for wheat

Participation in Indian wheat conference by Nepalese
scientists every year

Exchange of technical know-how

4. Collaboration with SAARC and other countries

Nepal has started exchange of wheat germplasm and
experimental materials with many countries like Bhutan,
Bangladesh, Pakistan, (under SAARC), China, Thailand, USA
etc

5. Collaboration with German Technical Assistance (GTZ)

Short term trainings and higher education and other
technical support

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TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

Maize (Zea mays L) (2N = 20)

An annual grass that can grow conventionally upto
2–3 metres (7–10 ft) in height, with many nodes
and casting off flag-leaves at every node
Grow about 3 millimetres a day
Being a monocot belong to family
Gramineae/Poaceae, tribe Maydae and genus Zea
A grass domesticated by indigenous peoples in
Mesoamerica in prehistoric times
A facultative long-night plant and flowers in a
certain number of growing degree days > 50 °F (10
°C) in the environment to which it is adapted
Known in many English-speaking countries as corn
The term maize derives from the Spanish form of
the indigenous Taino word maiz for the plant
Female inflorescence is ear whereas male
inflorescence is tassel
An ear contains from 200 to 400 kernels, and is
from 10–25 centimetres (4–10 inches) in length
with blackish, bluish-grey, purple, green, red,
white and yellow coloration
Called ‘Queen of cereals’- immense potentiality of
yield

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Importance
Most important cereal crops in the world agriculture economy both as food for
man and feed for animals
Maize and cornmeal (ground dried maize) constitutes a staple food in many
regions of the world
Leads first position in production (792 million tons in 2007) and productivity
and third position in area : world
Second most important food crop after rice in Nepal
Globally, cultivated on nearly 150 million hectares in about 160 countries
having wider diversity of soil, climate, biodiversity and management practice
that contribute nearly 37% in the global grain production
Contribution in Nepal: 6.88% of AGDP
Speciality corn: cultivated for various purpose other than grains

Quality protein maize (QPM): have balance amount of amino acids with high
content of lysine and tryptophan and low content of leucine and isoleucine

Baby corn: a young finger like unfertilized cobs with 1-3 emerged silk preferably
harvested within 1-3 days of silk emergence

Sweet corn: very delicious and rich source of energy, vitamins C and A; eaten as
raw, boiled or steamed green cobs/grain; a popular vegetables in USA, Europe

Pop corn: a common snack items in many parts of world

Waxy corn: have 100% amylopectin starch, mainly used for food and industrial
purpose

High oil corn: with more than 6% oil, low content of saturated fatty acid

Nutritive value of grain

Table: Nutritive value of sweet corn per 100g
Components Amount Components Amount

Water (g) 76 Magnesium (mg) 37

Energy (kJ) 360 Phosphorus (mg) 89
Protein (g) 3 Potassium (mg) 270
Fat (g) 1 Zinc (mg) 0.5
Carbohydrates (g) 19 Panthothenic acid (mg) 0.7
Fibers (g) 3 Vit B6 (mg) 0.1
Sugars (g) 3 Folate (μg) 42
Iron (mg) 0.5 Thiamin (mg) 0.2
Manganese (mg) 0.2 Riboflavin (mg) 0.1
Calcium (mg) 2 Niacin (mg) 1.8

Generally, the maize grains contains 10% protein, 4% oil, 70% carbohydrate, 2.3%
crude fiber, 10.4% albuminoides, 1.4% ash, significant amount of Vit A, nicotinic
acid, riboflavin, Vit E, low in calcium, fairly high in phosphorus quantity

Zein: the maize protein, deficit in tryptophane and lysine, the two essential amino
acids

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The various food products made from maize are as follows:

Corn flakes: corn flakes are very popular among urban people as break fast
cereals

Pop corn: It is a very common and popular snack because of its porous crunchy
structure. It contains comparatively higher proportion of fibre

Starch: Starch is made from maize by wet milling process; can be hydrolyzed and
enzymatically treated to produce syrups, particularly high fructose corn syrup, a
sweetener

Maize oil: maize contain high quality oil, most of the oil in maize grain is
contained in germ or Embryo

Beverages: Maize is used for making alcoholic beverages like whisky

Vegetable: Baby corn (small ears) is used as vegetable

Maize fodder: maize fodder is succulent, green, and nutritious with higher
digestibility

Feed: grains as a good feed for poultry, piggery and other animals

Roasted maize: green cob roasted and eaten by people with great interest
Corn ethanol: Maize is increasingly used as a feedstock for the production of ethanol
fuel. Increasingly ethanol is being used at low concentrations (10% or less) as an
additive in gasoline for motor fuels to increase the octane rating, lower pollutants,
and reduce petroleum use.
Industrial use: for manufacturing of paper goods, textiles, paints, etc; raw materials
for starch, milling agro-industries
Stigmas from female maize flowers, known popularly as corn silk, are sold as herbal
supplements.

Origin and history

Genetics of maize

Flour corn — Zea mays var. amylacea

Popcorn — Zea mays var. everta

Dent corn — Zea mays var. indentata

Flint corn — Zea mays var. indurata

Sweet corn — Zea mays var. saccharata and Zea mays var. rugosa

Waxy corn — Zea mays var. ceratina

Amylomaize — Zea mays

Pod corn — Zea mays var. tunicata Larrañaga ex A. St. Hil.

Striped maize — Zea mays var. japonica
Most authorities considered the central America and Mexico as the primary center
of origin where many diverse types of maize are found
Vavilov (1926, 1935):

Primary centre of origin: Central American centre or Mexican centre and south
American centre

Secondary centre of origin: China centre
Zeven and Zhukovsky (1975), Zeven and de Wet (1982): regions of diversity of
maize

Central American and Mexican region

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Four principal theories regarding the origin of maize are:

may be a direct domestication of a Mexican annual teosinte, Zea mays ssp.
parviglumis, native to the Balsas River valley in south-eastern Mexico, with up to
12% of its genetic material obtained from Zea mays ssp. mexicana through
introgression

may have been derived from hybridization between a small domesticated maize (a
slightly changed form of a wild maize) and a teosinte of section Luxuriantes, either
Z. luxurians or Z. diploperennis

may have undergone two or more domestications either of a wild maize or of a
teosinte

may have evolved from a hybridization of Z. diploperennis by Tripsacum dactyloides
Tripartite theory of Mangelsdorf and Reeves (1939) states that:

Cultivated maize originated from pod corn

Teosinte as a derivative of a hybrid of maize and tripsacum,

The majority of modern corn varieties are the product of admixture with teosinte
or tripsacum or both
Wild ancestors of corn are not found today yet the evolution of corn has been
traced through archeological and paleobotanical studies
Discovery of fossil maize pollen with other archaeological evidence in Mexico
indicates Mexico to be the native home of maize

Modern archeological and genetic studies revealed that teosinte was first
domesticated in southern Mexico around 4000 to 3000 BC
During 1400 BC, corn cultivation started in both Mexican coasts
American-Indians grew and selectively improved corn from 3400 BC to 1500
AD
It is believed that earliest domestication began with small kernel popcorns and
large kernelled types seems to have appeared later
Jugenheimer (1975): true flints distributed in tropics and sub-tropics,
originated from Buan and Argentine flints or celitos, that spread along the
Atlantic coast
Columbus reported that corn was grown in Cuba in 1492
Preserved pollen in new Mexico, USA, dates much earlier to 5600 years
Greatest genetic diversity of corn is available in the south American continent

Flint corn: common in Northen and central plain of America, Cuba,
Northen edge of south America

Dent corn: predominated in great plain of USA, Mexico

Sweet corn: largely distributed in corn belt of USA and Mexico
Introduced to India from America at the beginning of 17th century, during early
days of East India Company

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Area, Distribution and Production

World’s leading cereal crop cultivated in tropical to temperate regions about an
area of 158 millions ha with a production of 792 millions tones of grain (2007)

Area : USA is in first (22.16%) and China occupy 18.67% of total land

Production: USA stands first (41.83%) and China has produced 19.19% of total grains
Most leading countries are USA, Brazil, China, Mexico, India, Italy, France
In Nepal: cultivated in terai plains to mountain across all the developmental regions
Out of total maize area (2008/09)

Terai: 19.31%

Hill: 70.23%

Mountain: 10.46%

Major production domain: Eastern, central and western region

World scenario of maize production

Table: Area, production and yield of maize in world during 2007
Areas Area (ha) Production (metric tons) Yield (t/ha)
China 2,94,97,391 15,19,48,870 5.15
India 77,70,000 1,89,60,000 2.44
USA 3,50,14,640 33,11,75,072 9.45
New Zealand 17,030 1,85,627 10.9
Nepal 8,70,166 18,78,648 2.16
World 15,80,34,025 79,17,94,584 5.01

Area, production and yield of maize in Nepal

Table: Production (Mt) of maize in Nepal by ecological and developmental region during 2008/09
Ecological Developmental region Total
belts
Eastern Central Western Mid-western Far-western
Mountain 85804 66790 1160 16184 18890 188828
Hill 301542 305986 515201 193176 37303 1353208
Terai 122540 109218 31143 80920 44813 388634
Total 509886 481994 547504 290280 101006 1930669

Table: Area, production and yield of maize in Nepal by ecological region during 2008/09

Ecological belts Area (ha) Production (Mt) Yield (kg/ha)

Mountain 91496 188828 2063.78

Hill 614843 1353208 2200.90

Terai 169089 388634 2298.39

Nepal 875428 1930669 2205.40

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Trend of area coverage, production & yield of maize in Nepal

Area Production Yield
2.5
2400

2100
Area ('000 ha) & Production ('000 Mt)

2
1800

Yield (Mt/ha)
1500 1.5

1200
1
900

600
0.5
300

0 0
1964/65 1984/85 1994/95 2007/08 2009/10
Years

Figure: Area coverage, production and yield of maize in Nepal

(1964/65-2009/10)

Classification
On the basis of character of kernels
1. Flint corn (Zea mays indurata Sturt)
Entire outer portion of the kernel is composed of ‘hard’ starch, i.e. amylopectin which
restricts easy absorption of moisture and avoids spoilage
Smooth seed coat of kernels, sometimes short and flat
Colours: white, yellow, red-blue or their variable
Endosperm is soft and starchy in the centre and completely enclosed by a very hard outer
layer
matures early and its germination is better in cold and wet soil
Traditional farmers of remote hills have been cultivating in Nepal
Used for human food and livestock feed
Widely cultivated in Asia, Europe, and Central & South America Fig: Kernel of flint corn

2. Dent corn (Zea mays indentata Sturt)

Accounts for 95% of all maize in United States
The hard starch, is confined to the sides of the kernel Fig: Cob of dent corn
Amylose of ‘soft’ starch which forms the core and cap, contracts when the grain is
dried, producing the characteristic dent in the top of the kernel
Colour: yellow, white or red

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In Nepal, Khumal yellow, Rampur yellow are belongs to this

Chiefly used for livestock feeding
Also used for making different processed foods and industrial products

3. Sweet corn (Zea mays saccharata Sturt)

Fig: Kernel of sweet corn
Sweetest corn- sweeter test than other
Grown primarily as food and is harvested with about 70% moisture before hardening and
drying of the grain starts
Mainly grown in the United States and Canada
Predominated grain colour: Yellow and may be white in colouration
Kernel is soft and a good source of energy
About 20% of the dry matter is sugar, compared with only 3% in dent maize at green ear
stage
Also a good source of vitamin C and A
The kernel sugar absorbs water and makes the cell turgid and on drying these cells
collapse, making the grain shriveled and wrinkled

4. Floury/soft corn (Zea mays amylacea Sturt)

Kernels is composed largely of soft starch with little or no hard starch and can easily
crushed into flour
Possesses soft endosperm

Colour: white, blue or a variety of colours

Shape likes flint kernels
One of the oldest kind of maize and was preferred by the earlier native populations
because the kernels were easy to grind and make flour
Grown in south eastern USA, western south America, south Africa
Mainly used for human food

5. Pop Corn (Zea mays everta Sturt)

popular snack food in many parts of the world
Two types of popcorn:
Pearl popcorn: rounded kernels, yellow or orange colour
Rice popcorn: pointed white kernel Fig: Kernel of pop corn
Kernels are small, hard and it is an extreme form of flint maize
Have a very hard endosperm with a small amount of soft, moist starch in the center
When heated to about 1700C, the grains swell and burst, turning inside out. At this
temperature water held in the starch in the kernel tissue turns to steam and the
pressure causes the endosperm to explode.
Popcorn kernels consists of 19% moisture and expand to 30-40 times their original size
when popped

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6. Waxy Maize (Zea mays ceretina Kulesh)

Named for the, somewhat, waxy appearance of the kernels
China was the original source of the waxy gene (WX) and USA & China produce nearly all
the world’s waxy corn
Waxy maize starch is composed entirely of amylopectin, in contrast with common dent
maize starch, which is approximately 78% amylopectin and 22% amylose.
Waxy maize hybrids have been developed and are being grown to supply raw materials
speciality products of the wet milling starch industry for textile and paper sizing and corn
oil.

7. Pod corn (Zea mays tunicata Larrañaga ex A. St. Hil.)

Most primitive and oldest form of corn
Pod corns are characterized by having each kernel enclosed within a pod or husk
Whole ear is also surrounded by husks
Has no commercial or nutritional value

On the basis of maturity

1 Extra early Varieties which mature upto 75 days

2 Early Varieties which mature in between 80-85 days
3 Medium Varieties which mature in between 90-100 days
4 Full season Varieties which mature after 105 days

On the basis of use

1. For green forage and fodder purpose
2. For vegetable and salad purpose
3. For roasting (cob) purpose
4. For pop corn
5. Animal feed
6. Industrial uses

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TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

Adaptation: Climatic factors

Grown under a variety of climates in a large number of countries
Climate plays an important role in determining the growth and
development of crop
Productivity of crop is influenced by several physical and biotic
factors operating simultaneously at different stages of crop
development and this is determined by transpiration, water use
efficiency, assimilate partitioning and other plant processes
Versatile to adaptation that attributable to enormous genetic
variability available within the corn species
Grown mostly under various climatic conditions between 400S and
600N latitudes
Cultivated from sea level to the height of 3,700 masl
Grown in arid to humid, high rainfall zones, in cold and warm
temperature regimes and in sandy to clayey soils
Temperature, radiation, rainfall and other climatic factors influence
maize yield by directly affecting the physiological processes related
to grain production and also indirectly through diseases and insects

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Temperature
Corn is a warm season annual crop and requires considerable moisture and
warmth from germination to flowering
Although cultivars have been developed that can be grown in most of the
world, corn is best suited to regions where for 3 or 4 consecutive months the
average temperature is from 21-320C

Cardinal temperature
Maximum temp 40-440C
Minimum temp 8-100C
Optimum temp 32-350C

Optimum night temp: 11-180C

Ideal temperature regime for normal growth and development: 24-300C
Temperature above 260C: accelerates the growth too much so that yield falls
Temperature above 300C: susceptibility to diseases increases
Suitable temperature for germination: 210C and for growth: 320C
Low temperature reduces growth and extremely high temperature may retard
germination of seeds, particularly when it is combined with deficit moisture
Growing degree days (GDD/heat units) for normal development of maize: 1200-
2600 heat units

Extremely low (<140C) and high (>470C) temperature and low

humidity/precipitation have negative impact on emergence and growth
of maize plant
Minimum temperature for germination: 100C
Congenial temperature for flowering and early ripening: 270C-300C
Little growth occurs below 180C temperature
Maize plants will withstand, a light freeze in the seedling stage up to the
time when they are 15 cm tall
High temperature above 350C: more injurious to plant at tasseling stage
Extremely high temperature (> 400C) and low humidity during flowering
damage the foliage, desiccate the pollen and interfere with proper
pollination resulting in poor grain formation
Under drier condition with high temperature, the pollen grains dry out
immediately after bursting of pollen sac and become incapable to grow

Leads to negligible yield formation or even the crop failure
Magnitude of loss in yield depends on the duration of dry climate with
extremely high temperature during flowering and kernel formation
(milk stage)

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2.5

Yield (mt/ha)
1.5

0.5

0
20 25 30 35 40 45
Temp with dry climate (RH<30%)
Fig: A schematic diagram showing the relationship of yield formation with temperature
regime in a dry climate

Solar radiation
Play important role in growth and yield of maize
Maize is a photo-insensitive plant or day neutral plant i.e. it grows both
during short and long day conditions
However, short days accelerate their development
At high temperature, the influence of day length is slight
Short day 8-9 hr of sunshine is suitable for its growth and development

Since maize belongs to C4 physiology, it needs bright sunny days for an

accelerated photosynthetic cultivars and rapid growth of plants
Continuous bright sun devoid of irrigation results quick wilting or
withering of plants
Prolonged cloudy period is detrimental for the crop but an intermittent
sunlight and cloud or rain is most ideal for its growth and development
Can successfully grown in diverse climatic conditions during
spring, summer or warmer winter seasons

Rainfall & Moisture

Maize can be successfully grown in area having average rainfall of 500-
700 mm of well distributed throughout its growth period
Maize may takes an annual rainfall of 250-500 mm provided that the
field does not get flooded as water logging is hazardous for the crop at
any growth stages
Under scanty rains, the crop must be irrigated for better
growth, developments and yield of the crop specially after tasseling
stage

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Water is essential for maize crop starting from germination to kernel

formation

It requires less soil moisture during early phase of crop growth

Large quantities are required for high yields

Drought conditions lead to poor seed set and light test weight of
grain, thus, to generally lower yields and lower quality grains
Increasing the length of water stress for period (3-8 d) decreased root
and shoot DM, plant height and root length but increased leaf proline
accumulation
Water stress affects carbohydrate metabolism, nitrogen metabolism
Rainfall during 3-5 weeks before silking and from silking to 3 weeks
afterwards is important
Maize seeds absorb moisture about 50% of its weight for normal
imbibitions and germination and obviously, in water deficit dry condition
maize seed can not grow and ultimately would result in lower plant stand
Maize utilized water relatively efficiently
Transpiration coefficient: 280-350
During the period of intensive growth maize transpire 2-4 kg water/day

Consequently, a plantation of maize with 40,000-60,000 plants/ha
would use 80-240 tonne water/day

Maize requires 60-100 t water to form 100 kg of kernels i.e. 3000-4500 t

water throughout the crop duration to form 3-4.5 t/ha
Maize requires more than 50% of total water requirement in about 30-35
days after tasseling and inadequate soil moisture at the grain filling stage
results in a poor yield of shriveled grains
Dryness at the harvest period is also essential as it makes the harvesting
easier and reduces the danger of spoiling of crop by fungi

Relative humidity, Wind and Hailstorms

Optimum humidity: 80-85%
Because of terrestrial wind velocity, lodging of crop may takes place at
the grain filling stage and thus, result in heavy reduction in crop yield
Hailstorms are most harmful during the stages of jointing and silking

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Adaptation: Edaphic factor (soil)

Can grown in diverse soil condition-
sandy, oxisols, alluvial, inceptisols, vertisols, alfisols
Best adopted: in well drained sandy loam to silty loam
Good condition: Soil with good organic matter content having high
water holding capacity with neutral pH for higher productivity
Can grow successfully in soils whose pH ranges from 5.5-7.5
Requires large amount of essential minerals, thus, soil fertility must
be high to obtain high yields
Being sensitive to water logging condition, proper drainage is must
for normal growth and yield formation
Would not thrive on heavy clays, especially low lands
In high rain receiving regions, the soil should be light and
permeable, as water logging leads to yellowing (chlorosis) and
reduction in yield
Heavy clay soil and saline as well as acidic soil are not suitable for
maize crops
Avoid low lying field having poor drainage and also having higher
salinity

Growth stages of Maize

1. Germination and Seedling stage
The sprouting stage, which come about one week after sowing
Coleoptiles emerge from soil surface
Collar of first leaf visible
Bears about 2-4 leaves at this stage

2. Vegetative stage
Also know as knee-high stage or grand growth stage
Arrives at about 35-45 days after sowing (DAS)
Plants intensively developed stem and leaves depending on variety
Collar of the leaf number ‘n’ is visible and the maximum value of ‘n’ represents
the final no. of leaves, which is usually 16-23, but by following the lower 4-7
leaves have disappeared
Many agronomic practices are performed at this stage for good growth and
development

3. Tasseling stage or floral initiation stage

Male flower initiation take place
Tassel or male flower comes out about 55-65 DAS
Male flower comes out at the apex of the plant and the flowers are terminal

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At about 55 DAS the last branch of tassel is completely visible

Anthesis or male flowering, pollen shed begins
Tassel are formed at the apex after 14th to 15th leaves are come out

4. Silking or cob initiation stage

Is the stage at which the female flowers are formed
Female flower or cobs developed after about 75-90 days
Exactly cobs are auxiliary flowers
Silks are visible at this stage
In most cases, cobs are formed in the axis of 11th to 13th leaf

5. Grain filling and physiological maturity stage

Prevails 12-13 days after silking and lasts for about 40-42 days

a. Soft dough/milk stage

Commences after pollination and fertilization is over
Blister stage: kernels are filled with clear fluid and embryo can be seen
Milk stage: kernels are filled with white, milky fluid
Kernels begin to develop but they do not become hard

Can be guessed by seeing the silks in the top of the cob which remain partially
green and cover (husk) of cobs also green
Lasts for about 9 days
b. Dough stage
Kernels are filled with white paste
Embryo about half as wide as the kernel
Top part of kernel filled with solid starch
Lasts for about 10 days

c. Dent stage
If the genotype dent type, the grain are dented
Milk line is close to the base when the kernels is viewed from the side in both
flint and dent type
Lasts for about 12 days

d. Physiological maturity stage

Black layer is visible at the base of the grain
Grain moisture is about 35%
Leaves start drying off, silks get dried completely and become very brittle
Lasts for about 10 days

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TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

Field preparation
To provide better contact between seed and the soil, maize
kernels require seed bed which is

Friable

Well aerated

Moist

Weed free
There is no need of preparing extremely fine seed bed
Preparation of land begins with clearing residues of previous
crop
First ploughing is done by using soil inverting plough or discing
using either mechanical or drought power so that at least 20-
25 cm deep soil become loose and followed by 2-3 harrowing
or 3-4 intercrossing with local plough
Well leveled and uniformly graded field is necessary for proper
water management
Furrows, flat beds or broad beds are then made before sowing
the seeds depending on methods of planting

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Quality seed selection and treatment

Use always bold, healthy, vigorous seeds with uniform viability
Before planting, the seed lot should be tested for its germination and adjust the
quantity of seed accordingly
In Nepal, farmers use their own seed or recommended composite maize
varieties.
In either case, the seed lot should be

free from diseased and damaged seeds

free from other admixtures

in good germination percentage (85-90%)
Farmer’s are now practice to use hybrid maize for getting higher yield

The yield may be reduced by using the seed from one’s own hybrid crop by about
30% so that seed lots should be changed every year
However, the composite seed maize varieties do not have such characteristics
and therefore, farmers can use the seeds from his own composite crop for the
next year also provided no mixture has been allowed in the field at the
threshing floor.
It is advisable that the seed lot should be change after every 3-4 years.
Seed treatment
To protect crop from seed and soil borne diseases (Turcicum leaf blight, Pythium
stalk rot, etc) and insect-pests (Termites, Shoot fly, etc)
Treat the seeds with Bavistin or Derosal or Agrozin @ 3 g/kg of seed or Captan
@2.5 g/kg of seed or Imidaclorpid @4 g/kg of seed

Seed rate and spacing

Seeding rates, unlike those of most other crops, are expressed in terms of plant
density or no. of plants per ha

A population of 60,000-65,000 plants at harvest per ha would be needed to attain
maximum yield

However, the recommended plant density for Nepalese composite varieties is 53,000
plants/ha

In areas of extremely high yield potential with intense management seeding rates
may be as high as 75,000-87,500 plants/ha

In USA, seeding rates of sweet corn reach 150,000-175,000 plants/ha
Higher seeding rates are obtained either by leaving less space between rows of
plants or by planting more plant in a row
Yield increases more with narrower spacing between rows than with more
plants per meter of row
As plant density increases,

competition among plants for moisture and essential minerals increases and more
fertilizer and water are needed

shading become a serious problem because it may result in tall, weak stemmed
plants, lodging and reduced yields
Can minimize these undesirable effects by planting cultivars that tolerate
heavier seeding rates, that is, cultivar that do not become etiolated with shade
In comparison to shade non-tolerant plants, Shade tolerant plant may

have thinner leaves, partly because of a light epidermal layer

have a thinner cutin layer

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have leaf blades more erect or parallel to the culm rather than horizontal

have narrower leaves

have a lower light saturation point

produce less total vegetative growth, therefore, they may require less water and
essential minerals for comparable yields and their water use efficiency may be
relatively higher
In maize, it is very essential to maintain optimum plant in field, because unlike
tillering plants such as wheat, rice, maize can not compensate for lost space
10-20% more seeds than desired plant population would be normally required
to compensate for various field losses
Based on purpose, seed size, plant type, season, sowing methods, planter, etc.
the seed rate and geometry can be adopted as following:
Purpose Seed rate (kg/ha) Plant geometry (row × plant, cm)
Grain (Composite, Hybrid, QPM) 20-25 60×20-25, 75×20-30
Sweet corn 8 75×25, 75×30
Baby corn 25 60×20, 60×15
Pop corn 12 60×20
Green cob (normal maize) 20 60×20, 75×20
Fodder 50 30×10

In case of winter maize,

Plant population of about 90,000 plants per ha is desirable for realizing high grain
yield

So that, closer spacing with higher seed rate is recommended.

Before sowing, seeds should be soaked overnight in warm water (450C at the time
of seed soaking) which help in obtaining better plant stand and healthy crop.

Seed should be sown 4-5 cm deep

Depth of sowing
Would depends on the soil types and availability of moisture
However, the depth may be adjusted as 3-5 cm
In dry and sandy soil, it would be advisable to plant deeper
Fig: Ridge & furrow planting
Methods of planting
Depends on season, cropping system, soil conditions, moisture availability, etc.,
any one methods of planting can be adopted
1. Raised bed (ridge) planting
Best planting method of maize during monsoon and winter season both under
excess moisture as well as limited irrigation availability condition
Sowing should be done on the southern side of the east west ridges/beds,
which help in good germination
Maintain proper spacing

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Preferably, the raised bed planter having inclined plate, cupping or roller type
seed metering systems should be used for planting that facilitates in placement
of seed and fertilizers at proper place in one operation which helps in getting
good crop stand, higher productivity and resource use efficiency
Can save 20-30% water with higher productivity
Under temporary excess soil moisture/waterlogging due to heavy rains , the
furrows act as drainage channels and crop can be saved from excess soil
moisture stress

2. Furrow planting
Adapted in areas with low rainfall for proper crop establishment, growth and
higher productivity
During spring season evaporative losses of water from the soil under flat as well
as raised bed planting is higher and hence crop suffers due to moisture stress so
advice to grow maize in furrows
Common in mid and far western part of Nepal with low rainfall
3. Conventional/flat bed planting (with no earthing up)
Mostly adopted in situation like

Under heavy weed infestation where herbicidal weed management is not
economical in no-till planting

Rainfed areas where crop is taken on conserved moisture
Advice to use seed-cum-fertilizer planter
Most common in terai and hills of Nepal

4. Flat bed planting followed by earthing up

Adopted in areas where heavy storms during rainy season
Earthing up is done 40-45 days after sowing
Common in hills and high hills of Nepal

5. Zero-till planting
Maize can be successfully grown without any preparatory tillage under no-till
situation
Offers less cost of cultivation, higher profitability, better resource use
efficiency, etc
For adopting zero tillage

ensure good soil moisture at sowing

place seed and fertilizers in band using zero-till-seed-cum-fertilizer planter
Key success of no-till technology, however, depends on use of appropriate
planter having suitable furrow opener and seed metering system

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Time of sowing
Maize can grown round the year in all seasons, viz. monsoon, post
monsoon, winter and spring
a. Rainy season maize
Plants 12-15 days prior to onset of monsoon where irrigation facility exist
Early planting is advantageous likes

well establishment of plants themselves

by the time of heavy rains, the roots go deeper in the soil to give full
support to the plants

plants are able to tolerate and face adverse weather and environment
, insects and diseases attacked begins with onset of monsoon showers
In delay planting maize yield go down simultaneously
In rainfed condition, sowing of maize is generally done with the onset of rain
Generally, optimum time of sowing could be adjusted accordingly with
topography, varietal characteristics, etc.

Tarai and Plain areas:
 Late maturing varieties: Second fortnight of May to first fortnight of June

Early maturing varieties: Last week of June- first week of July

Lower Hills: May- Mid June

Mid and higher hills: last week of April- first week of May

b. Winter season maize

During winter, maize can be successfully grown where the temperature
doesn’t go below 120C and the winters are frost free
Optimum time of sowing is more important in winter maize

Temperature during the second fortnight of October to mid November and
upto December in most parts of country drops rather sharply.

This results in delay germination and plant growth receives a major setback.
Hence, any marked delay in sowing is likely to result in lower yield.

In late sown crops, there is increased incidence of common rust, which is
not a serious problem in timely sown crop.
The optimum sowing time is end of October to mid of November

c. Spring season maize

Optimum time of sowing: Mid February

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Cropping System

Crop rotation Intercropping

Maize - Wheat Maize + Soybean 1:1
Maize - Wheat - Mustard Maize + Urd 1:1
Maize - Chickpea Maize + Moong 1:1
Maize - Toria - Wheat Maize + Cowpea 1:1
Maize - Potato Maize + Groundnut 1:1
Maize - Potato - Wheat
Maize - Potato - Urd/Moong

/ relay cropping; - sequence cropping; + intercropping

TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

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Manures and Fertilizers

Crop growth and yield responses to fertilizer application varies with

Soil type

Its inherent nutrient status

Crop genotype
Longer duration genotypes response better than short duration genotypes
Corn requires large amount of essential minerals, thus, soil fertility must be high
to obtain high yield
Fertilizers must be used to ensure that soil fertility is high enough
Large amount of fertilizers are used with high seeding rates
Fertilizer balance is essential, the addition of single mineral may not greatly
change the yield, but combinations have a dramatic effect
N, P, K, Zn show significant effect in the maize

Nitrogen: If deficit
Plants are stunted in growth with pale yellow colour of foliage
In advanced stage of deficiency, older leaves become yellow and this symptoms
proceeds upwards from the base, yellowing starting from the tip of leaves and
advancing towards the base in ‘V’ shaped
Leaves die under severe N-stress
Reduced grain number
Small leaves and short plants

Phosphorus: If deficit
Stunted growth of plants
Poor root development
Purpling of leave at leaf tip and leaf margins and sometimes abnormally dark
green leaves
Delay maturity – specially silking
Potash: If deficit
Leaf discolouration by small whitish spots followed by scorching or browning or
yellow streaking of leaf edges
Leaf tip and margin may dry up
Stunted plants with smaller leaves, short and thin stems
Greater incidence of lodging
Large percentage of sterile or unfilled grains caused by poor pollen viability and
retarded carbohydrate translocation
Reduced 1,000-grain weight
Zinc: If deficit
Stunted growth
Pale green in colouration
Chlorotic spots are seen at the base of the leaves near the
margins, however, margins and midribs remain green
In severe cases the apical leaves become white, a symptom called ‘white bud’ of
maize

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Magnesium: If deficit
Orange-yellow interveinal chlorosis on older leaves
Reduced number of grains and 1,000-grain weight
May reduce grain quality (protein, starch content)
Boron
Deficiency results in

Disintegration of internal tissues

Root and shoot tips stop growing

Rate, Time and Method of application

Corn requires the greatest amount of N from about 2 week before tasseling (before
pollen is formed and shed) until 3 weeks after tasseling (in early stage of caryopsis
development and growth)
Of course, adequate N is essential throughout the life cycle, but to enhance proper
anther development, pollen formation and pollination, mineral balance including
adequate N, in the late vegetative stage of growth, is critical.
Corn can uses as much as 4.50kg of N per week per ha in the 5 week period before
and after flowering
If N related deficiencies are noticed, a side dressing of N fertilizer applied before
initiation of floral development (or before the jointing stage of growth when culms
elongate rapidly) will increase yield.
Over fertilization causes a number of problems

Late maturity

Tall, weak stemmed plants and lodging

Excessive, inefficient water use (to support the excessive vegetative growth)
Without adequate phosphorus, pollen may be shed before silks are mature and
receptive.

Results in poor seed set on the ear, unfilled florets at the tip of ear and misshapen
ears
A crop of maize yielding about 14 tonnes of dry matter (both grain and stover) takes
about 161 kg N, 34 kg P and 110 kg K per ha
Exact quantity of fertilizer that has to be applied to the soil will depend not only on
the plant requirement of individual nutrients but also on how much of them the soil
can supply
Need to replenish the amount of nutrients remove by plant through organic or
inorganic sources
Use of organic manures is

highly effective to achieve and sustain reasonable yield

helpful to improve water holding capacity and ensure good tilth

essential to maintain biological processes
A liberal quantity of bulky manure should be applied in field if available

Dose: @6 t/ha or even 10-15 t/ha
Sources: well decomposed FYM, compost, poultry manure, enriched compost, etc.
Need to apply these manures 4-6 weeks before sowing and worked well into the soil

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However, manures by themselves can not meet the high nutrient requirement
of plants, which are also in short supply, therefore, it becomes necessary to
supplement manure with chemical fertilizers to get high yield.
Fertilizer dose of maize, therefore, be related to the fertility status of the soil
(soil test result)
But, in case where soil test recommendation are not available, the general
recommendation for maize is given below (from literature):
Crop types Recommended dose (kg/ha)
N P2O5 K2O
Hybrid 100-120 60 40
Composite 80-100 30-40 20
Sweet corn 100-120 60 40
Baby corn 150 60 40
Pop corn 80-100 60 40

The dose of NPK also depends on the maturity period of variety

Early maturity verities: 60-80 kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O/ha

Medium maturing varieties: 100-120 kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O/ha

In Nepal, the recommended dose for both rainy and winter season maize is 6 t
FYM, 60 kg N, 30 kg P2O5 and 30 kg K2O per ha.
In terai region, we may go up to 90:45:45 NPK kg/ha for obtaining good yield.
Where the soils are deficient in Zinc, apply 20-25 kg ZnSO4/ha before
sowing
The deficiency of Zinc at later stages of growth may be corrected by foliar
application of 0.5% ZnSO4, dissolved in water with half the quantity of lime.
(I.e. 5 kg ZnSO4 + 2.5 kg hydrated lime in 1000 liter of water/ha)
Time of fertilizer application is as much as important as the quantity applied
As far as N is concerned, major part of N-uptake by the crop is over by the
tasseling stage.
N-use efficiency increased with split doses are applied.

Basal dose ⅓ of N + full dose of P2O5 and K2O at planting

Top dressed ⅓ of N at knee high stage (about 30-35 DAS)

⅓ of N at tasseling stage

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In case of nitrogenous fertilizers, care should be taken to apply fertilizer

Not to apply when the field is very wet after heavy showers because the
nitrate formed is most likely to lost out of feeding zone of the plant by
leaching
In case of winter maize, the fertilizer can be applied as:
Basal dose ¼ of N + full dose of P2O5 and K2O before sowing

Top dressed ½ of N at knee high stage (about 30-35 DAS)

½ of N at emergence of flag leaf stage

Method of fertilizer application is very important too.

Basal dose should be placed in soil and this can be done with the help of
fertilizer drill and if it is not possible, use a funnel attachment behind the
plough

Fertilizer should be placed about 3-5 cm to the side and 3-5 cm deeper than
the seed

The top dressed fertilizer should be applied in between two plants row 15-
20 cm away from the plants to avoid any leaf injury and cover with light soil
to obtain best response from nitrogen.

TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

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Water management
Maize is an efficient user of water in terms of total dry matter production.
Potentially, it is the highest yielding grain crop among cereals.
In Nepal, the rainy or summer season maize is generally grown under rainfed
condition while winter and spring season maize is totally depend on irrigation.
The depth and frequency of irrigation depend on climatic condition, soil
type, soil organic matter (SOM) content, crop variety and its growth stages.
Usually, 700-800 mm is needed per crop in equatorial zones where average
temperature are around 25-300C. However, there are inferences that suggest
that 460-600 mm rainfall may suffice if well distributed during the crop season.
It is a better practice to provide the crop with irrigation to alleviate stress during
the critical periods.
It is very susceptible both to excess water and moisture stress.
It is relatively tolerant to water deficits during vegetative and ripening periods.
It neither tolerate severe water drought nor water-logging particularly during
flowering and grain development.
Never allow water to stand in a maize field at any stage of its growth.
Proper management of excess water through appropriate drainage system
during rainy season is more important.
It has been observed that poor drainage or standing of water for 3-4 days may
reduce yield by 80-90%.
Do not allow maize plants to wilt due to water shortage at any stage of life cycle.

Young seedling, knee high stage, flowering and grain filling are the most
sensitive stages for moisture stress and hence irrigation should ensure at these
stages.
However, the most critical stages of maize are

Tasseling

Silking

Early grain formation
At tasseling to silking stage, water shortage even for 2 days can reduce maize
yield by 20%. The same for 6-8 days can pull down the yield by 50%.
A vigorously growing plants need 2-3 L of water per day during peak growing
season.
When the rain fails, 1-2 supplemental irrigations are required for rainy season
crop.
Higher temperature during any of the crop growth phases may necessitate
additional irrigation.
Timely availability of assured irrigation is one of the major factors determining
the success of crop in winter and spring season.
When soils are generally light, it is desirable to schedule the irrigation at 70%
soil moisture availability throughout the period of crop growth and
development.
In heavy soils, a moisture level of 30% during the vegetative stages and 70%
during reproductive and grain filling period is desirable for obtaining yield from
winter season crops.
4-6 irrigations are needed during the spring and winter season crops.

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Schedule of irrigation
Irrigation schedule based on the water requirements in different growth stages:
Number of irrigation Irrigation scheduling based on growth stages
6 2 irrigations upto flowering at an interval of 20-25 days + 1
essential at the time of flowering + 2 after flowering + 1 at the
early grain filling stage

5 1 at vegetative stage + 1 at flowering + 2 after flowering + 1 at

early grain filling stage
4 Avoid irrigation after dough stage

Accordingly the irrigation can be managed as

Number of irrigation Irrigation scheduling based on growth stages
6 Six leaf stage + Knee high stage + Tasseling + 50% Silking + Milky
stage + Dough stage
5 Knee high stage + Tasseling + 50% Silking + Milky stage + Dough
stage
4 Knee high stage + Tasseling + 50% Silking + Early grain filling stage
3 Knee high stage + Tasseling + 50% Silking

Supplemental irrigation at milking stage and dough stage have been

seen economically useful.
Maximum yield reduction is recorded when moisture stress occurs at
tasseling (51%) and silking (48%) followed by active vegetative (30%)
and milky stage (22%).
Farmers generally follow furrow irrigation method to apply water on
maize field.
First irrigation should be applied very carefully wherein water should
not overflow on the ridges/beds.
In general, the irrigation should be applied in furrows up to two-third
height of the ridges/beds.
In raised bed planting system and limited irrigation water availability
conditions, the irrigation water can also be applied in alternate furrow
to save more irrigation water.
However, skip furrow or paired row technology are also used to protect
the water from lost.

Based on pan evaporation

Give irrigation at IW/CPE ratio = 0.8-1.0

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Weed management
Due to abundant rainfall during rainy season, rapid weed growth
results and compete with the maize crop.
Weed emerge with the germination of maize seeds and grow along
with plants till the early growth period. This causes severe crop –
weed competition.
Failure of timely weed control would not only offer direct
competition to maize plant but also indirectly through reduction in
fertilizer use efficiency.
Losses through weed competition in early stages can not be
compensate by keeping the field weed free later.
In case of the weeds are not brought under control at right time,
there is 50-60% reduction in yield.

Critical period of competition

The period of the crop life cycle during which weed competition has the
most negative impact on crop yield

Critical period: 30-35 DAS depending upon soil, weedflora and climate

Important weeds of maize

Weed type Weed species
Narrow leaf/monocot Echinochloa colonum, Echinochloa crus-galli, Dactyloctenium
weeds/Grassy weeds aegypticum, Eleusine indica, Setaria glauca, Cynodon dactylon,
Phragmites karka, Sorghum halepense, Cyperus rotundus

Broad leaf/dicot weeds Celosia argentia, Commelina benghalensis, Phylanthus niruri,

Solanum nigrum, Amaranthus viridis, Portulaca oleraceae

Methods of weed control

1. Physical method: Manual weeding, mechanical weeding, burning
Hand weeding is most widely used manual method for controlling weeds
Two-three manual weeding effective for controlling all type of weeds

First weeding: 2 weeks after sowing to remove weeds and to maintain
soil in proper aeration

Afterwards, two hoeing at one week interval is given

Hoeing keeps weeds under control, makes soil friable, protect crust
formation and provides aeration to the developing roots

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Mechanical weeding: use mechanical weeder either operated manually

or power driven
Collect all the weeds in a place and then dry and burn

2. Good crop husbandry

Good variety selection: quality seed, free from weed seed
Proper planting method: leave top 3-5 cm of soil above the crop seeds
rough & dry and lower must be moist
Proper planting time: plant about 15 days before the break of monsoon
with the help of pre-sowing irrigation
Optimum seed rate and spacing: 20-25 kg/ha; adopt closer/narrower
crop geometry
Water and fertilizer management: apply water at critical stages and
properly utilize fertilizers
Minimum tillage
Summer fallowing

3. Herbicidal control
Widely used and most acceptable means in controlling weed due to
availability of different herbicides in market

A number of herbicides have been found effective in controlling annual

weeds of grassy and broadleaf nature
Herbicides Quantity (kg a.i. /ha) Time of application

Atrazine 0.75-1.5 After sowing

Metasulphan 0.30-0.50 7-12 DAS
Oxadiazon 0.5-0.75 After sowing
Trifluralin 1.5-2.0 After sowing
Pendimethalin 0.75-1.0 4-7 DAS

Simazine or Atrazine herbicides should be mixed with 1000 liter of water

and evenly sprayed on the soil surface just after sowing.
Alachlor as pre-emergence can be used in controlling weeds for initial 30-
45 DAS and the rate of application is 5 L per ha mixing in 1000 L water
and sprayed evenly in one ha.

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TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

Foliage removal practice

A practice of removing the leaves below the ear which are older, dry, diseased or
even in green condition
Under the high plant density condition,

light could not reach to the lower leaves

instead of formation of food, the leaves consumed the store food materials

So, crop benefits by the foliage removal practice
Foliage removing practice also helpful to increase yield in intercropping system

help to increase light penetration due to reduced shading and improves the yield of
intercrop (Finger millet) under maize
The practice is advantageous as

the green foliage become the good fodder for livestock,

it help to reduce the insect and disease attack,

it improves aeration in field

Earthing-up
Necessary in maize crop to

provide anchorage to the lower whorl of adventitious roots above the soil when they
begin to function as absorbing roots

prevent the plants from lodging

drain excess water from the field
Earthing-up is done at knee high stage or before flowering without causing damage
to maize plants

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Harvesting and Threshing

Corn ears are harvested manually when they are still green i.e. at physiological
maturity stage or a stage slightly ahead of full maturity
Do not wait for stalks and leaves to dry because they remain green in most of
hybrids and composites
Maturity indices are:

When the husk has turned yellow

Grain are hard enough having less than 30% moisture

Development of black layer in the placental-chalazal region of the seed

Progressive development of the milk line as a result of milky endosperm
solidification beginning at the seed apex and ending at the base
Timely harvesting ensures optimum grain quality and consumer preferences
Harvesting can be done with manual operation i.e. by hand picking or cutting
the whole plant and with mechanical picker-sheller
In developed country, harvesting is done with a mechanical picker-sheller that

removes the ear from the plant

removes the husk from each ear and

shells the grain (i.e. removes the kernel from cob)
The grain is shelled at 27% moisture or less.

In some places, corn is cut, bound and shocked before the ears are
picked, husked and shelled.
Traditionally maize is dried without removing husk either direct in sunlight
or in shed for few days and then husked is removed and dried in sunlight for
7-8 days depending on the intensity and duration of sunlight
Thereafter, grains are removed either by beating the cobs by sticks or with
the help of corn shellers.

Drying and Storage

Harvested corn ears are dried after removing the spathes.
Drying is easily achieved either naturally or artificially.
Naturally sun drying is done where artificial drying is not available.
Special open shed known as ‘corn cribs’ are used to dry corn cobs.
After shelling the dried corn grains are stored in bulk within sacks or in soils
or in metal bins or in earthen pots.
Kernels are dried to 13-14% moisture before storage.

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Artificial drying of corn is also becoming common practice in

developed countries.
In larger farms of USA, gas based or electric portable drier are used
to dry corn cobs and grains.
In Nepalese condition, for seed purpose maize cobs are completely
dried and stored in a special open shed without removing the husk
or in the outer side of the houses just beneath the roof.

Yield
Yield depends on seeding rates, soil fertility, moisture availability
& distribution and the effect of various pests
With improved agrotechniques, under irrigated condition

hybrids yield: 5-6 t grain/ha

composites yield: 4-5 t grain/ha
In case of rainfed, crop yield levels are about

2-2.5 t grain/ha for hybrids

1.5-2.0 t grain/ha for composites

Yield constraints
1. Biotic and Abiotic constraints

Disease and pest in maize crop
Regions Insects Diseases
Eastern mid hills Aphid, Army worm, Field Turcicum blight, Smut
cricket, Stem borer
Center/western mid hills Blister beetle, Cut worm, Ear rot
White grub, Stem borer
Mid/far-western mid hills Army worm, Blister beetle, Turcicum blight, Ear rot,
Cut worm, Field cricket, Smut, Stalk rot
White grub, Stem borer
Terai Blister beetle, Cut worm, Downy mildew, Ear rot, Leaf
White grub, Stem borer firing, Stalk rot
High hills Army worm, Cut worm, Field Turcicum blight, Smut, Stalk
cricket, White grub, Stem rot
borer

Soil fertility and crop management
 Primary inputs into maintaining and improving soil fertility is
manure/compost but do not adopt improved compost management
practice

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 Varies in quality of compost

 Do not have access to adequate quantities of manure/compost because of
diminishing access to quality fodder for their animals
 Only urea is used in accessible area and particularly phosphorus are now
limiting
 Soil erosion: results in losses of productive topsoil as most field are slope in
hilly areas and rainfall during monsoon can be intense.
 Labour intensive practices of weed control and shortage of labour it difficult
to control weeds
 Lodging: a common problem of currently used genotypes
 Specific recommendation for management of inputs that optimize the
maize-wheat system (mid/far-western hills) are generally not available
 In terai: micronutrients deficiencies, high temperature during flowering in
spring maize and drought are stresses that are occasionally problematic
 Less irrigation facility

2. Seed and varietal constraints

Low number of released varieties

Lack of ecology based varieties

Untimely available of seed

Genetic erodibility of the varieties/strains

Use of preceding season maize seeds

3. Institutional constraints

DADO has offices in headquarter and satellite offices at the service center and
sub-service center level but it has not been able to provide sufficient services to
farmers, especially in remote hills

Relatively large area each extension personnel has to serve

Majority of farmers rely on progressive farmers for information about new
technologies
4. Information constraints

Lack of information is most acute for farmers in the high-hills and remote areas
of the mid-hills

Many farmers in these areas did not know which improved varieties are suitable
for their farms and where to obtain them

Lack of knowledge of improved crop management practices including spacing,
fertilization, and choice of variety are other problems

Farmers, in many instances, could not identify insect pests, diseases, and
nutritional deficiencies in their crops and had no knowledge of pesticides that
could be used for their control

Do not know about the balance fertilization techniques
5. Input supply constraints

Improved maize varieties of farmer choice is not available

If available, the improved varieties are not suitable to their environment and
taste

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Currently no public or private institution marketing certified seed of newly

released OPVs in large quantities

Some hybrids seeds are imported and marketed in accessible area but the price
is three times higher than the improved OPVs

Some farmers group initiate to produce maize seed but their supply is small
compared to demand

Remoteness of the area; lack of awareness and demand of modern inputs; and
lack of purchasing capacity of the farmers causes difficulty to supply sufficient
quantity of seed and fertilizer in hills.

Absence of a stable government policy and the underdeveloped market: threat
to private sector in getting into input business

6. Other constraints

Processing mills: only available grinding stones and local water mills that can not
grind hard seed of improved maize

Slow Pace of adaptation of new technology: Excess maize production is not
easily disposed of at an attractive price because of the underdeveloped
marketing system, poor market infrastructure, and shortage of inputs that
indirectly slowed the pace of adaptation of new technology.

Use of marginal/steep land: because of population pressure and declining
productivity

Reason for high yield in winter

1. Mild and favourable climatic condition

Due to the lower night temperature during winter, the photorespiration
loss is lower in comparison to rainy or spring maize.

Leaf area index (LAI) of winter maize is one & half times more than rainy
maize due to more leaf area.

Winter maize has longer effective photosynthetic leaf surface so that the
photosynthesis and accumulation of photosynthates is more.

It also aids by the longer photoperiod of 7-9 hr or more against 3-5 hr
during rainy crop season.

Moreover, the longer growing duration of the crop helps further in raising
the yield levels.

2. Better water management

In absence of erratic rainfall, the crop during winter does not suffer from
water logging, leaching of fertilizers and damage from pre-flowering stalk
rot.

Most of the field operation can be under taken at the most desired time in
winter season.

Proper allocation of irrigation based on phenology increases the water
economy or water use efficiency of maize and hence increase the yield
level.

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3. Better response to nutrients

In view of more favourable growing conditions, the response to
application of nitrogen and other nutrients is better in winter maize.

The losses during winter can be checked effectively through appropriate
soil and water management practices.

With better response from every unit of fertilizers, which is the major
component of the cultivation cost, it is possible to reduce the production
cost during this season.

Due to limited moisture the nitrate leaching lost is low as compared to
rainy season so that the NUE is higher.

4. Establishment of better plant stand

Desired level of plant population that essential for realizing optimum yield
can be established because of better soil and water management and less
damage from disease and pest attack.

Upto 90,000-1,00,000 plant per ha in winter respond well in comparison to
rainy crops of upto 60-70,000 plant per ha. This increased the no. of cobs
and grain yields.

5. Management of disease and pests

Due to low temperature and humidity, most of the insect and pests
activities are limited.

Also most of the insects and pests are undergo hibernating stage.

So that the level of infection or infestation and extent of damage

due to various disease and insect pests is lower in winter
compared to rainy season.

6. Better weed management

In rainy season, weeds pose a major threats particularly in years
when continuous rain occurs, which fail to provide adequate
opportunity for manual weeding.

In winter, due to effective water management and low
temperature weeds can be controlled effectively.

This indirectly helps in improving the fertilizer utilization
efficiency.

7. Other factors

Successful intercropping of lentil, peas, cluster beans and other
legumes which help to increase N assimilation.

Lodging problem due to elongation of internodes in rainy season
maize compared to winter maize.

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TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

Research and Development: NMRP

National Maize Research Program (NWRP): located at Rampur Chitwan in inner terai
region, which is under National Agricultural Research Council (NARC)
Geographical location: 27040’ N latitude and 84019’ E longitude; 228 m altitude
Climate: humid and sub-tropical climate with cool winter (2-30C) and hot summer
(430C) and over 1500 mm annual rainfall
Soil: sandy loam in texture and slightly acidic
Responsible for the overall maize research activities in the country
Vision
Increase production and productivity of maize and maize-based cropping system for
improving food and feed security in Nepal
Mandate
Collect, characterize, utilize and conserve different local and exotic maize
germplasms
Develop high yielding, diseases and insect resistant early, extra early and full season
open pollinated varieties of maize suitable for different agro-environments
Develop high yielding disease and insect tolerant single cross and top cross hybrids
for hills and terai
Undertake basic, applied and adaptive research work on maize and maize based
cropping system
Serve as repository of information on maize and maize-based technologies

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Establish and strengthen national and international linkages for sharing of

information and exchange research materials and collaborative research work
Produce source seeds of maize (breeder, foundation and certified seeds), rice
and wheat (FS and CS) and distribute to different clients/stakeholders
Disseminate maize and maize based technologies to the different stakeholders
through electronic, print, media, booklets, folders, leaflets and posters

Objective

To develop high yielding open pollinated varieties (OPVs) and hybrids for hill and
terai

To develop resistant varieties to major insects and diseases

To develop drought tolerant varieties

To produce high quality breeder and foundation seeds

To accelerate the transfer of technology of maize and maize based farming
system

To strengthen national maize research system by developing infrastructure,
manpower, training and linkage

To establish technical collaboration with related national and international
research center

Collaborative research sites and coordinated organization

For technology generation, source seed production and on-farm testing

Hill stations: Agricultural Research Station (ARS), Dailekh; ARS, Surkhet; Lumle
Agriculture Research Center (LARC), Kaski; Hill Crop Research Program (HCRP), Kabre;
Pakharibas Agriculture Center (PAC), Dhanakuta

Terai stations: Regional Agricultural Research Station (RARS), Nepalgunj; RARS,
Parwanipur; RARS, Tarahara; Outreach Research Program (ORP), Sarlahi; National
Rice Research Program (NRRP), Hardinath

Major research activities and achievements

i) Hybrid maize development

Single, double, three-way and top-cross hybrid development for terai, inner terai
and foothill valleys

Emphasis is given for early maturing hybrids

Available hybrids being tested under 10 different field activities

About 500 inbred lines are developed and maintained under this activity

Example: Gaurav hybrid

Ii) Open pollinated maize varietal development and improvement

Long and short duration varietal development and testing for hill and terai
environments

Maize germplasm collection (local and exotic) and evaluation are being carried
out for developing high yielding, disease and pest resistance/tolerant

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Example: development of about 21 OPVs

iii) Quality protein maize development

QPM hybrids as well as OPVs for the hill and terai environment

Example: Poshilo Makai-1

iv) Crop management

Development of improved maize-based cropping system, cultivation practices
and verification in farmer’s fields

Optimum plant population for OPV: 53,333 plants/ha (75×25 cm)

Optimum plant population for hybrid: 66,666 plants/ha (75×20 cm)

V) Soil fertility management

Soil and plant sample collection and analysis to enable judicious use of chemical
as well as organic fertilizers for sustainable soil fertility management in maize-
based cropping system

IPNM: 120:60:40 kg NPK/ha, 0.5 kg Zinc, 0.5 kg Molybdenum, 20 kg Sulphur, 12
kg Manganese

Vi) Disease management

Lab and field experimentation of diseases tolerant maize genotypes selection
and the recommendation of effective control methods

Tolerant to Northern leaf blight (NLB): Shitala, Deuti, Manakamana 5 and

Manakamana 6

Grey leaf spot tolerant: Ganesh 1, Deuti, Shitala, Manakamana 3

Vii) Insect management

Screening of maize varieties against major insects/pests, use of
Trichogramma for the control of maize stem borer, management of storage
pests through botanical pesticides, insects monitoring and forecasting

Resistant to stem borer: Rampur composite, Gaurav

Viii) Agri-engineering research

On-station research on mechanization, resource conservation technologies
and post harvest technologies

Bed planting as a most profitable resource conservation technique for maize

Ix) Coordinated research program

Trial sets received from different commodity programs are tested under this
activity in different environments

X) Outreach research

Varieties/technologies identified superior in on-station experiments are
verified under farmers’ field condition at outreach sites of NMRP
(Nawalparasi, Makawanpur, Chitwan)

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Xi) Source seed production and distribution

NMRP produces source seed of different released varieties of maize, rice and
wheat and distributes it to different seed producing government organizations,
NGOs, CBOs for improved seed production

Maize varieties: Arun-2, Manakamana-4, Shitala, Deuti, Posilo makai 1, Rampur
composite

Collaboration with international organization

1. Collaboration with International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre,
Mexico (CIMMYT)

Headquarter is in Mexico and engaged in a world wide research program for
maize, wheat, triticale with emphasis on food production in developing
countries

Nepal receives various kinds of support from CIMMYT. The yield, screening and
disease nurseries received are used in selecting lines suitable to our agro-
climatic condition

Training to young Nepalese scientists on wheat breeding, pathology,
production, agronomy, station management

CIMMYT Regional Office stationed at Kathmandu supports various maize
development activities in the country

Regular visits and evaluation of maize materials in Nepal by CIMMYT scientists

2. The International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA)

An international research and training center located in Nigeria

It is engaged mainly in tropical agriculture of maize, tropical
legumes, cassava etc.

3. Asian Regional Maize Programme (ARMP)

A CIMMYT sponsored regional program for maize and is located at
Bangkok, Thailand.

The NMRP collaborates with this center for flow of
germplasm, exchange of regional scientists, training and workshop.

4. National Institutes

The NMRP collaborates with national maize research program
mainly in neighboring countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri
lanka and also with national organizations of
Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines, USA etc.

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TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

Fingermillet (Eleusine coracana L.Gaertn) (2N = 40)

An erect, tufted annual grass growing upto 60
to 122 cm in height
Belong to family Gramineae/Poaceae, sub-
family Chloridoideae and genus Eleusine
A self-pollinating plant species and also
known as African millet
Consists of a large numbers of slender and
fibrous root system; tiller profusely; stem is
compressed with round nodes
Tillers bear earhead at the end of culm which
consist of whorl of fingerlike spikes (L = 3-13
cm) in which spikelets are arranged closely on
both spikes of a slender rachis
The spikelets contain 3-8 seeds which are
very small in size and color vary from white,
orange-red deep brown and purple to almost
black (1000 grain wt = 1.5-2.5g)
Known as ‘Poor’s man diet’- because it is
grown in less fertile uplands in hill and
mountains

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Importance
An important staple food in parts of eastern and central Africa, India and northern
hills of Nepal
Main cereal crops for monsoon season in some hilly areas
Millets (a group of small seeded species of cereal crops) lead fifth position in
production (33.94 million tons in 2007) and in area : world
Millet is a fourth most important food crop in Nepal and a second most important
cereal crop of upland
Important minor cereal crop grown in the hills and high hills and is also grown in
terai in a very limited area of marginal land
Contribution in Nepal: 1.37% of AGDP
Grown for both grain and forage
Grain used for

making flour to prepare dishes like porridge (Dhindo) and varieties of rotee

many preparation likes cakes, sweets, baby food, noodles, fast meals, etc

making beer, local beverage/alcohol (Jand/Chhang and Raksi)
 It is estimated that about 70-80% of total millet production goes for making
beverages in Nepal.
A nutritive food for adults of different ages and also for pregnant women
Germinating seeds are malted and fed to infants also
Good for person suffering from diabetes and anaemia

A potential food for those suffering from lactose energy as well as vegans who
avoid all animal produce in their diet and often develop calcium and protein
deficiency
Straw used as

fodder for cattle

roofing materials
Green straws used for making silage which has sweet smelling and consumed
by cattle without any wastage
Nutritive value of grain
Table: Nutritional composition of millet grains (per 100g)
Components Finger millet Foxtail millet Proso millet Kodo millet
Energy (kcal) 328 331 341 309
Carbohydrate (g) 72.0 60.9 70.4 65.9
Protein (g) 7.3 12.3 12.5 8.3
Fat (g) 1.3 4.3 1.1 1.4
Fibers (g) 3.6 8.0 2.2 9.0
Minerals (g) 2.7 3.3 1.9 2.6
Iron (mg) 3.9 2.8 0.8 0.5
Calcium (mg) 344 31 14 26
Phosphorus (mg) 283 290 206 188

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Table: Essential amino acids content of millets (g per 100g protein)

Components Finger millet Foxtail millet Proso millet Kodo millet

Isoleucine 4.4 7.6 8.1 3.0

Leucine 9.5 16.7 12.2 6.7
Lysine 2.9 2.2 3.0 3.0
Methionine 3.1 2.8 2.6 1.5
Cystine 2.2 1.6 1.0 2.6
Phenyl alanine 5.2 6.7 4.9 6.0
Tyrosine 3.6 2.2 4.0 3.5
Threonine 3.8 2.7 3.0 3.2
Tryptophan 1.6 1.0 0.8 0.8
Valine 6.6 6.9 6.5 3.8
Histidine 2.2 2.1 1.9 1.5

Fingermillet also contains vitamin A, B, P in smaller quantities.

Starch forms the predominant carbohydrate constituent, though non-starchy
polysaccharides account for 20-30% of the total carbohydrates in most of millet grains.

Anti-nutritional factors viz. polyphenols, enzyme inhibitors and phytate, are present in
millet grains, mainly in seed coat and their content is eliminated or reduced by milling
or heat treatment.

Origin and history

Genetics of millets

Fingermillet - Eleusine coracana

Foxtail millet – Setaria italica

Pearl millet - Pennisetum glaucum

Barnyard millet- Echinochloa spp

Kodo millet- Paspalum scrobiculatum

Proso millet- Panicum miliaceum

Little millet- Panicum sumatrense

Guinea millet – Brachiaria deflexa

Browntop millet – Panicum ramosum
Believed that Uganda or a neighbouring region is the centre of origin of E.
coracana
Mehra (1962): consider E. coracana to be of African origin
Zeven and Zhukovsky (1975), Zeven and de Wet (1982): regions of diversity of
millets

African region: Pearl millet, Finger millet

Chinese-Japanese region: Proso millet, Foxtail millet

Hindustani region: Little millet

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De Condolle (1986): Fingermillet probably originated in India and from here, it

spread to Abyssinia and the rest of Africa through Arabia. It might have
originated from Eleusine indica, a grass that occurs in many parts of northern
India.
Originally native to the Ethiopian highlands and was introduced into India
approximately 4000 years ago
Though finger millet is reported to have reached Europe at about the
commencement of the Christian era, its utilization is restricted mostly to
eastern Africa and India.
Highly adaptable to higher elevations and is grown in the Himalayas upto an
altitude of 2500 m
In Nepal, the crop was probably introduced from India in ancient times

Area, Distribution and Production

Among small millets, finger millet accounts for 8 per cent of the area under millets
in the world
Most important small millet in the tropics and is cultivated in more than 25
countries in Africa and Asia, predominantly as a staple food grain
Widely distributed in South Asia (India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan), South East Asia
(China, Japan, Malaysia) and Africa (Uganda, Ethiopia, Kenya)

Major producers: Nigeria, Uganda, India, China

In Nepal: among millets, fingermillet is most dominating; cultivated
in terai plains to mountain across all the developmental regions
Out of total millet area (2008/09)

Terai: 3.78%

Hill: 76.13%

Mountain: 20.09%

Major production domain: western, eastern, and central region

World scenario of millet production

Table: Area, production and yield of millet in world during 2007
Areas Area (ha) Production (metric tons) Yield (t/ha)
China 8,00,500 17,51,000 2.19
India 1,08,00,000 1,26,70,000 1.17
Nigeria 50,56,000 80,90,000 1.60
Uganda 4,37,000 7,32,000 1.68
Nepal 2,65,160 2,84,813 1.07
World 3,49,63,783 3,39,49,456 0.97

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Area, production and yield of millet in Nepal

Table: Production (Mt) of millet in Nepal by ecological and developmental region during 2008/09
Ecological Developmental region Total
belts
Eastern Central Western Mid-western Far-western
Mountain 16089 25805 7 8785 5820 56506
Hill 52775 40393 108980 14823 7768 224739
Terai 6148 3040 740 160 350 10438
Total 76012 69238 109727 23768 13938 292683

Table: Area, production and yield of millet in Nepal by ecological region during 2008/09

Ecological belts Area (ha) Production (Mt) Yield (kg/ha)

Mountain 53427 56506 1057.63

Hill 202417 224739 1110.28

Terai 10045 10438 1039.12

Nepal 265889 292683 1100.77

Trend of area coverage, production & yield of millet in Nepal

Area Production Yield
400 1.20

350
Area ('000ha) & Production ('000Mt)

1.00
300
0.80
Yield (Mt/ha)

250

200 0.60

150
0.40
100
0.20
50

0 0.00
1964/65 1984/85 1994/95 2007/08 2009/10
Years

Figure: Area coverage, production and yield of millet in Nepal

(1964/65-2009/10)

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Classification
On the basis of structure of earheads
1. Palm type (Panje kodo) Fig: Palm type
The earhead has four to six fingers stretched apart form each other.
2. Fist type (Mudke kodo)
The earhead has the fingers adhered to a point forming a structure
similar to fist.
Fig: Fist type
On the basis of inflorescence morphology
Species Sub-species Races Sub-races
africana -
africana
spontanea -
laxa
elongata
reclusa

E. coracana sparsa
seriata
plana
coracana confundere
grandigluma
compacta -
liliacea
stellata
vulgaris
incurvata
digitata

Climate
Temperature
A crop of tropical and subtropical climate and can be successfully grown from
sea level to an altitude of 2500 m or even more
A heat loving plant and seeds germination start in temperature regime of 8-100C
absorbing moisture about 25% of its weight
Ideal temperature for germination and growth: 20-250C
Ideal temperature for proper development and good crop yield: 26 – 290C
Minimum temp for flowering: 150C
Under ideal temperature, light and moisture condition

Tillering starts = 15-20 DAS

Heading = 30-35 DAS

Flowering = 3-6 days after heading
Lower and/or higher temperature during germination, vegetative growth,
flowering and grain formation have negative impacts on stand establishment,
seed setting and consequently on yield.
Young plant of millet can’t withstand below 20C

Photoperiod
Belongs to light-loving plants of short day
Insufficient temperature, light and water during initial growth stages prolong
tillering and result in lower fertility percentage.

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In cloudy weather or in shaded condition, particularly during flowering, the

assimilation process declines and the vegetative period is prolonged and
consequently result in yield decline.

Rainfall
A relatively drought resistant plant species and grown in rainfed condition in
Nepal
Drought resistance of millets is conditioned by their capacity to withstand water
deficit and dehydration of tissues for longer period.
In a harsh drought condition, the plants look like dead but start regeneration
and growth immediately after rainfall or irrigation.
Grown in areas having annual rainfall between 50 to 100 centimeters
In regions of higher rainfall, it can be raised on well drained soils as a
transplanted crop.
Transpiration coefficients: 120-360
Can be grown under rainfed as well as irrigated conditions.

Soil
Can be grown on a wide variety of soils ranging from very poor to very fertile
soils

Thrives best on well-drained loam or clay loam soils

Alluvial with moderate fertility and good drainage, black soil with sufficient
drainage capacity also support good crop
Heavy soil with gravel and stone and with poor fertility and drainage are not
suitable.
Ideal pH: 5.5-7.5
Tolerates salinity better than other cereals

Cropping patterns
Cropping pattern Ecological regions
Fingermillet + Maize - Barley or Linseed Terai/Hills
Fingermillet – Mustard or Barley Terai/Hills
Fingermillet + Sweet potato – Barley Terai/Hills
Fingermillet + Maize – Wheat or Barley or Mustard Hills/High hills
Fingermillet – Potato Hills/High hills

- sequence cropping; + mixed or intercropping

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TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

Field preparation
Needs a friable, well-aerated, moist and weed-free smooth field for better
germination and crop growth
Ploughing is advantageous for moisture conservation
One deep plough with iron MB plough, immediately after the harvest of the
previous crops or at the arrival of pre-monsoon rainfall followed by one or two
harrowing is necessary.
Before sowing secondary tillage with cultivator and multiple tooth hoe to
prepare smooth seed bed is essential.
Soils are most friable after 2-3 monsoon shower that enhances the yield by
200-300 kg/ha compared to 2-3 wooden ploughing cycles.
Where the soil becomes very hard for ploughing, a shallow stirring should be
given by heavy bladed harrow or disc harrow; with the onset of monsoon, field
should be harrowed or ploughed with local plough 2-3 times and finally
leveled.
Leveling and clod breaking achieved using a plank harrow or sometime with
wooden mallets.
A properly leveled and uniformly graded field is must for proper water
management.

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Seed and sowing

Seed selection
Certified seed of improved varieties should be selected and cleaned
Use always bold, healthy, vigorous seeds with uniform viability
In Nepal, farmers use their own seed mostly.
The seed lot should be

free from diseased and damaged seeds

free from other admixtures

in good germination percentage
The seed lot should be changed after every 3-5 years.
Seed treatment
Treat the seeds with Thiram @2.5 g/kg of seed
Seed treatment Azospirillum brasilense (N fixing bacterium) and Aspergillus
awamori (P solubilizing fungus) @ 25 g/kg seed is beneficial.
If seeds are to be treated with seed dressing chemicals, treat the seeds first with
chemical and then with bio fertilizers at the time of sowing.
Seed rate
Population density of 500,000-625,000 plants/ha at harvesting is needed to
attain maximum yield
Higher or lower population than the optimum will reduce the yield.
To maintain the suitable crop geometry and plant populations by compensating
field losses, it is necessary to increase the seed rate by 10-20%.
Seeds are very small (400 seeds/g) and 10 kg seed rate will contain about 4
million seeds.

Seed rates for different methods of sowing are:

Line sowing : 8 to 10 kg/ha

Broadcast method : 10 to 12 kg/ha

Transplanted : 4 to 5 kg/ha
Maintenance of optimum plant population is an important pre-requisite for
getting higher yield under rainfed condition.
Poor germination, often, is the result of inadequate moisture after sowing in low
rainfall areas.
Under these conditions, the adoption of technique like seed hardening will not
only improve germination and subsequent plant stand but also impart early
seedling vigour and tolerance to drought.
Procedure of seed hardening technique:

Soak seeds (one kg seed per liter water) for six hrs. Use one litre water for every
kg seed for soaking.

Drain the water and keep the seeds in wet cloth bag tightly tied for two days.

When the seeds show initial signs of germination, remove seeds from the wet
cloth bag and dry them in shade on a dry cloth for two days.

Use these hardened seeds for sowing.

Depth of sowing
Depend on the soil type and availability of moisture
Ideal depth: 3-4 cm

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Methods of sowing
1. Broadcasting
Broadcast the seed over the well prepared field by using hand
After sowing, one stirring of soil is needed to cover it by soil
Requires relatively higher seed rate

2. Line sowing
Beneficial to sow in line than broadcast
Ensures better germinations, cuts down seed requirement and facilitates
intercultural operations as compared to broadcast method
Crop geometry: 20-25×8-10 cm

3. Transplanting
Can be raised by transplanting method in areas with adequate moisture level
Higher yield obtain in case of transplanted crop
Reduces seed rate, facilitates intercultural operations, shorten growing season
for farmer, enables better weed control, and increase the yield
Need nursery raising in well prepared beds
Age of seedling: 3-4 weeks old (21-28 DAS)
No. of seedling per hill: 2 in a well prepared main field
Before pulling, provide light irrigation to the nursery
Spacing: 25×8 cm or 20×10 cm
Depth of sowing/transplanting: 2-3 cm

Irrigate on third day after transplanting

In absence of timely rain, transplanted field should be irrigated regularly till the
seedling are well established.

Nursery raising for transplanted crop

In areas with adequate moisture, fingermillet can be raised by transplanting.
In Nepal, generally fingermillet is grown by transplanting so that nursery raising
is important for fingermillet cultivation.
Prepare seed bed thoroughly and should be free of weeds, friable and smooth
for better germination and crop stand.
Can be ploughed by using local plough or with the spade (if low area of main
field) or with disc plough if hard soil pan
Break down all the clods so that make it more friable and leveled
Time of nursery raising: May-June

Time of sowing/Growing season

Differ from place to place along with moisture distribution pattern
In rainfed condition:

Plant fingermillet in nursery with the interception of monsoon when at least 10-20
mm rainfall occurs

However, it can be sown in May-June

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Sowing should be done early in rainfed condition to avoid moisture stress at critical
stage of flowering.
In irrigated condition:

Recommended to done one week prior to onset of monsoon

However, it can be done in first fortnight of June.
In hilly areas, the planting can also be done as per the following schedule

Conditions Sowing time

High hill Mid April - May first week
Mid hill May second fortnight
Low hill June first fortnight

Manures and Fertilizer application

Addition of adequate quantity of organic manure is beneficial since it helps to
improve physical condition of soil which help to retain moisture for longer
period of time.
If millet is relayed with maize there is no need of applying organic matter
repeatedly.
The crop responds well to fertilizer application, especially to N and P.

Fingermillet yielding 7500 kg DM (grain+straw) take up about 51kg N, 58kg P

and 54kg K.
The exact amount of fertilizer to be applied in field would therefore depend on
the amount of these elements available in the soil.
However the general recommendation made to apply fertilizers in millet field
is:
Conditions FYM (t/ha) N (kg/ha) P2O5 (kg/ha) K2O (kg/ha)
Irrigated 5-6 40 20 20
Rainfed 5-6 40-60 20-30 20-30

In Nepal, the recommended dose is 6t FYM and 20:10:10 NPK kg per ha

FYM should be applied 2-3 weeks prior to sowing.
Entire P2O5 and K2O are to be applied at sowing, whereas nitrogen is to be
applied in 2 or 3 split doses depending on moisture availability.
In areas of good rainfall or in irrigated areas, half dose of recommended
nitrogen is to be applied at the time of sowing and remaining in two equal
splits at 25 – 30 (tillering stage) and 40 – 45 days after sowing (heading stage).

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However, in rainfed areas or where rainfall is uncertain, half dose of

recommended nitrogen is to be applied at the time of sowing and remaining 35
days after sowing.
Apply 8-10 cm deep in soil at the time of sowing.

Water management
Grown under rainfed condition during monsoon season so that it does not
require any irrigation. If long dry spell persists, then irrigation at tillering and
flowering stages would be required to obtain good yield.
Sensitive to water logged condition so there is essential to manage proper
drainage of excess water
Critical stage of crop/plant for irrigation: Tillering and Flowering stage.
Method of irrigation: To facilitate irrigation, ridges and furrows must be made
before transplanting of crop.
Number of irrigation routines:

For irrigated crop, depending on soil type, weather condition and duration of variety,
8 – 14 irrigations are required.

Irrigate the crop once in 6 – 8 days in light soils and once in 12 – 15 days in heavy
soils.

The luxuriant growth and satisfactory grain yields are possible with 3-4 well timed
irrigation in a monsoon crop. The irrigation can provided at
emergence, tillering, heading and flowering stages.

Weed management
With the availability of moisture in rainy season, different annual grassy and
broadleaf weeds emerge along with the crop seeds.
Essential to control weeds in initial stage of plant growth and development i.e.
30-35 DAS/DAT.
Yield lost due to weed infestation: 15-60%
Common weeds:
Galinsoga parviflora, Polygonum capitatum, Digitaria ciliaris, Setaria
glauca, Cyperus rotundus, Oxallis latifolia and Commelina banghalensis
Control measures:
Mechanical methods:

Two to three inter-cultivations and one hand weeding in line sown crop are ideal.
However, in broadcast crop two hand weeding can effectively manage weed
problem in field.

Stage of weeding: First weeding at 20-25 days after sowing and rest at an interval of
15 days.

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Chemical methods:

In irrigated areas, spraying of 2, 4 – D sodium salt @ 0.75 kg a.i. /ha after crop
emergence.

Alternatively, Isoproturon @ 0.5 kg/ha as pre-emergence spray is also effective. In
assured rainfall and irrigated areas atrazine @ 0.5 – 1.0 kg a.i. /ha as pre-emergence
is also effective in weed control.

Harvesting, Threshing and Cleaning

Fingermillet is ready to harvest in about 120-135 DAS/DAT depending upon
climatic condition and variety.
Maturity indices:

Ear heads turn brown

Grains are hard enough having less than 30% moisture
Harvesting should not delay to have all the leaves turn yellow or dry.
Ripe heads are harvested exclusively or the plants are cut at the base and
allowed to dry.
Heads on different tillers do not mature uniformly with many genotypes, in such
cases, extra 2-3 picking are needed to avoid shattering, bird damage, withering
and other losses.
Generally, under our condition heads are harvested with ordinary sickle and
after a week the straw is cut close to ground.

Earheads are heaped for 3-4 days to cure and dried in sunlight for few days. Then
after, threshing is done either manually beating the earheads with sticks or treading
under the feet of animals.
In some places, whole plant with earhead cut, heaped and then threshed.
Grains are separated by winnowing so that the produce become clean and have
good quality.

Drying and Storage

The threshed grains are dried in sunlight properly to lower moisture content to 13%
or less before storage
Fingemillet grains posses excellent storability.
Earhead or threshed grain are stored in dry, clean and airtight metallic bin, earthen
grains bins, polyethene bags or gunny bags.
Seeds resist insect and fugal attacks but it is preferable to dust the storage bags with
Lindane.

Yield
Under rainfed dryland condition: 1.0 t/ha
In irrigated condition: 2-2.4 t/ha grains with 6-8 t/ha fodder

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TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench.)

A moisture loving, cool climate, succulent, broad
leaved annual crop that reaches 2–5 ft (60–150
cm) in height
Has a single, succulent stem with several branches;
forms a dense, fibrous root system with a deep
taproot
Contain 300-500 flowers per plant which are vary
from white or light green to pink or red in
colouration
Flowers have 8 nectar sacs at the base of the
stamens and cross fertilization is a rule and the
crop is indeterminate in growth habit
Seeds of two types: large and dark colored (brown,
black or blackish grey) with triangular-shaped
sides or smaller and grey colored with a rounder
shape (Test wt.: 16-30 gm)
Known as pseudocereal and belong to family
Polygonaceae and genus Fagopyrum
Name 'buckwheat' or 'beech wheat' comes from
its triangular seeds, which resemble the much
larger seeds of the beech nut from the beech tree

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Importance
Has been grown in almost all the temperate region and countries of the world
Grown in high hills and mountainous region as an important cereal crops
Buckwheat in world: Area = 29,34,918 ha and production = 24,61,159 tonnes (in
2007)
In Nepal = cover a significant area in terai, hill and mountain and consider a
minor winter seasonal crop
Grown for both grain and forage
Food for human

Buckwheat grain utilized as food for humans in the form of flour

Flour use primarily for making buckwheat griddle cakes, and is more commonly
marketed in the form of pancake mixes than as pure buckwheat flour and eaten in
several countries

Some grain utilize in the form of groats (that part of the grain that is left after the
hulls are removed from the kernels) and the product marketed as whole
groats, cracked groats, or as a coarse granular product which are used for
breakfast food, porridge, and thickening materials for soups, gravies, and
dressings

Use for making noodles which play important role in cuisines of Japan
(Soba), Korea, Italy, etc

Use for making normal Nepali bread, Phulaura, Pakauda, biscuits, cake, etc.

Young shoots and leaves used as green vegetable

Feed for livestock

A satisfactory partial substitute for other grains in feeding livestock, however, has a
lower feeding value than wheat, oats, barley, rye, or corn

Grain should be ground and mixed with at least two parts of corn, oats, or barley to
one part buckwheat

When fed continually or in large amounts to certain animals, buckwheat grain may
cause a rash to appear on the skin

Small, smooth, rounded seed of tartary use for poultry

Middlings of buckwheat: rich in protein, fat, and minerals, and are considered a
good feed for cattle when not fed in large amounts or as the only concentrate

Straw sometimes used for feed when well preserved, but may cause digestive
disturbances when fed in large amounts
Honey crop

Use as a honey crop since it has a long blooming period, especially in winter when
other sources of nectar are limited

Honey is dark in color, and has a strong flavor unpleasant to some persons but
highly favored by others

One of the beekeepers' greatest sources of nectar, and the supply of buckwheat
honey generally exceeds the demand

30-100 kg of honey per ha of buckwheat plantation
Smother crop

Useful for controlling different types of weeds

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A good competitor because it germinates rapidly, and the dense leaf canopy soon
shades the soil and this rapid growth soon smothers most weeds

Used for controlling the quackgrass in the northeastern states in USA

The crop can be used to eradicate Canada thistle, sowthistle, creeping jenny, leafy
spurge, Russian knapweed and perennial peppergrass
Green manure crop

Can produce significant amounts of dry matter

Give upto 20 MT per ha of green biomass under favourable condition which is
equivalent to 600 kg of ammonium sulfate, 250 kg of super phosphate, 360 kg of
KCl so that it may be good green manure for low-input mountain farming system

When plowed under, the plant material decays rapidly, making nitrogen and mineral
constituents available for the succeeding crop and the resulting humus improves
physical condition and moisture-holding capacity of soil
Medicinal value

Contains a glucoside named rutin, a medicinal chemical that strengthens capillary
walls, reducing hemorrhaging in people with high blood pressure and increasing
microcirculation in people with chronic venous insufficiency

Contains D-chiro-inositol, a component of the secondary messenger pathway for
insulin signal transduction found to be deficient in Type II diabetes and Polycystic
ovary syndrome (PCOS)
Community festival

In Mustang, Manang and Dolpa, buckwheat is widely cultivated and used as a major
meal.

In mustang, the foothill of Annapurna and Dhaulagiri Himalayas, there is a tradition

of celebrating buckwheat sowing as a community festival. They strictly follow the
traditional regulation of sowing buckwheat at the same time.
Other values

Buckwheat hulls are used as filling for a variety of upholstered goods, including
pillows

Buckwheat has been used as a substitute for other grain in gluten free beer

Dry the green buckwheat plant that come out of thinning and store in the form of
powder to use it as soup during winter period

Ideal food for infants, pregnant women and people suffering from anaemia since it
contain highest amount of iron among all the cereals and legumes
Nutritive value of grain
Table: Chemical composition of buckwheat grains
Components Common Tatary Components Common Tatary
buckwheat buckwheat buckwheat buckwheat
Carbohydrate (%) 73 68 Fe (%) 0.01 0.01
Protein (%) 11 13 Ca (%) 0.03 0.04
Fat (%) 1.9 2 P (%) 0.3 0.2
Crude fibers (%) 1.3 1.5 Mg (%) 3.0 --
Ash (%) 1.5 1.9 Mn (%) 0.01 --
Cu (%) 0.01 --

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Table: Average amino acids concentration in buckwheat

Amino acids In seeds (%) Amino acids In seeds (%)

Isoleucine 0.39 Valine 0.85

Leucine 0.75 Histidine 0.23
Lysine 0.66 Glutamic acid 1.99
Methionine 0.15 Arginine 1.47
Cystine 0.18 Aspartic acid 1.20
Phenyl alanine 0.46 Glysine 0.61
Tyrosine 0.23 Serine 0.46
Threonine 0.43 Alanine 0.45
Tryptophan 0.14 Proline 0.41

Protein has biological value above 90%.

Antioxidants in seeds: 10–200 ppm of rutin and 0.1–2% of tannins

Rutin content is high in tatary buckwheat compared to common buckwheat

Aromatic compounds in seeds: Salicylaldehyde (2-hydroxybenzaldehyde), 2,5-
dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone, (E,E)-2,4-decadienal, phenylacetaldehyde, 2-
methoxy-4-vinylphenol, (E)-2-nonenal, decanal and hexanal

Fagopyrin in herb: 0.4 to 0.6 mg/g

Origin and history

De candole (1885), Batalin (1881) and Gen (1872): even in 19th century, the
eastern part of Asian continent was thought to be the native place of
buckwheat
Elagin (1959): previously argued that to be originated in the Himalayan region
of western China and northern India
Ohnishi (1995):

Postulated that buckwheat originated in south eastern part of China and was
distributed to other parts of East, South-East and South Asia

Isozyme analysis and ctDNA analysis have revealed wide phylogenetic variation
between F. cymosum, F. esculentum and F. tataricum, but, the discovery of F.
esculentum spp. ancestralis and F. homotropicum and the analysis of phylogenetic
relationship among them revealed that both species are closely related to
cultivated common buckwheat. Hence, they are the most probable candidate of
ancestor of common buckwheat.

Cultivated tatary buckwheat F. tataricum Gaert. has the wild ancestor F. tataricum
spp. potanini Batalin.
Prevalence of different forms of wild species like Fagopyrum cymosum and
Fagopyrum megacarpum in Nepal (Rajbhandari and Halley, 1991) and
Fagopyrum cymosum in northern India (Joshi and Paroda, 1991) provides basis
to suggest that buckwheat might have originated in these parts independently
as well.

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Buckwheat grown in China during the 5th and 6th centuries: Chinese writing
In India, buckwheat was introduced after 1200 AD and the crop is widely
grown from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Arunachal pradesh in the East
(Joshi and Paroda, 1991)
Introduced to Japan from China via Korea and to Europe via Russia
Introduced to Russia in 13th century from Asia, particularly from China and into
other countries of Europe and north America in 15th century
No historical evidence about the date of buckwheat introduction or cultivation
in Nepal but old religious tradition in relation to exclusion of buckwheat from
the food items in the kitchen of Brahmans provides basis to suggest that it
should have been cultivated since post-Rigvedic period i.e. 600-1200 BC.
During that period, the barter relations between Nepal (Jumla, Mustang), Tibet
and India (Uttar pradesh and Himanchal pradesh) were operational.

Taxonomy
The Eurasian genus Fagopyrum has 11 species
F. esculentum Moench, F. tataricum (Z) Gaertn, F. cymosum Meissn, F. suffruticosum
Fr. Schmidt, F. ciliatueum Jaeg, F. giganteum Krotov, F. capillatum Ohnishi, F.
callianthum Ohnishi, F. pleioramosum Ohnishi, F. homotropicum Ohnishi, F.
megacarpum Hara

F. esculentum has 3 subspecies: ssp. vulgare, ssp. multifolium and ssp.

Ancestralis
In Nepal, the following 4 species of buckwheat are prevalent
F. esculentum, F. tataricum, F. cymosum and F. megacarpum
F esculentum- grown upto an altitude of 3000m
F. tataricum- cultivated in the mountain agro-ecosystem in altitude of 3000-
3500m
F. megacarpum- newly described wild species that is different from F. cymosum
F. esculentum has two dinstinct botanical varieties: var. emagginatum and var.
sagittatum
The North American genus Eriogonum, and the Northern Hemisphere genus
Fallopia may be referred to as wild buckwheat.
In Nepal, three major ecotypes of common buckwheat i.e.
determinate, indeterminate common and indeterminate vigorous, occurring as
structural components of the polymorphic population have been identified an
described.

Determinate ecotype: within the group of F. esculentum ssp. vulgare

Indeterminate common and indeterminate vigorous: within the group of F.
esculentum ssp. multifolium

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Area, Distribution and Production

Buckwheat is mostly concentrated in the temperate regions of the world.
Widely distributed and cultivated in Russia, China, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, France,
Poland, United states, Brazil, Canada, Japan, Hungary, South Africa, Korea, India,
Bhutan, Nepal, etc.
Common buckwheat is by far the most important buckwheat species,
economically, accounting for over 90% of the world's buckwheat production
In Nepal: widely distributed throughout all hill and mountain districts covering
an altitudinal range of 300m (plain terai) to 4500m (high hills) above sea level;
Area cover: 50,000 ha (estimated)

World scenario of buckwheat production

Table: Area, production and yield of buckwheat in world during 2007
Areas Area (ha) Production (metric tons) Yield (t/ha)
Russia 13,05,000 10,04,850 0.77
China 9,00,000 8,00,000 0.89
Ukraine 2,37,000 1,60,000 0.68
Kazakhstan 1,42,600 80,000 0.56
USA 68,000 68,000 1.0
World 29,34,918 24,61,159 0.84

Climate
Temperature
Best thrives in cool, moist climate
Can be grown rather far north and at high altitudes, because its growing period
is short (10 to 12 weeks) and its heat requirements for development are low
Extremely sensitive to unfavorable weather conditions and is killed quickly by
freezing temperatures both in the spring and fall
High temperatures and dry weather at blooming time may cause blasting of
flowers and prevent seed formation
Minimum temperature for germination: 6-80C at which germination is very slow
and emergence is very poor
Ideal temperature for good germination: 16 – 220C at which emergence occur in
4-5 days after sowing
Temperature below 130C and above 350C have negative effect on growth of
plant
Critical temperature during flowering: 300C
Frost with temp ranging from 1.5-20C may cause devastating effect on growth
resulting to even complete crop failure.
Low temperature during flowering and seed formation: detrimental effect on
pollen tube growth, fertilization and seed formation resulting in low yield
Ideal temperature throughout the growth and development stage: 17-200C

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Photoperiod and light

Considered a short day plant, however, can be grown successfully during long
days with irrigation facility
Buckwheat is less demanding to light
Intensity of light for its growth and development: 1000 lux
Light plays important role in growth, development and yield
The fractional interception of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) in
canopies of buckwheat varies depending on genotype, altitude and direction of
sowing i.e. north-south or east-west.
The fractional interception of PAR is higher (0.73-0.78 μ mol m-2 s-1) in
determinate ecotype than indeterminate common or vigorous ecotypes.
Fractional interception of PAR in canopies of buckwheat increases with altitude,
is higher in the canopies of plant sown in north-south direction than those sown
in east-west direction.

Rainfall
Can be grown under rainfed as well as irrigated condition, but mostly grown as a
rainfed crop in Nepal
Very sensitive to deficit of soil moisture
Require enough soil moisture for growth and yield formation
Transpiration coefficient: 480-600
Found good performance of crop in areas having 100 mm well distributed
rainfall

Very sensitive to drought, high temp (>300C), low RH (<40%) and wind;
combined effect of all these factors may cause abortion of all embryos in 2-3
days thereby sharply reducing grain yield
Can’t withstand waterlogged condition

Soil
Grow in a wide range of soil types and fertility levels
Produces better crop than other grains on infertile, poorly drained soils if the
climate is moist and cool
Thrives best on well-drained light-medium textural soil like sandy loams, loams
and silt loams supplied with essential elements and water
Heavy, clay and silt soils are not suitable
Can grow in acidic soil but the ideal pH is 5-6
An efficient crop in extracting phosphorus of low availability from the soil
Tends to lodge badly on fertile soil with high organic and nitrogen content
Once lodge, plant does not return upright
Crusting on clay soil may result in unsatisfactory stand because of poor
emergence.
Better suited than other grains on newly cleared land, on drained marsh land or
on rough land with a high content of decaying vegetative matter

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TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

Cropping pattern
Cropping pattern Ecozones
Rice-Buckwheat-Fallow Terai/Hills
Maize-Buckwheat-Fallow Terai/Hills
Buckwheat-Wheat or Barley High hills/Mountains

Field preparation
Needs a friable, well-aerated, moist and weed-free smooth field for better
germination and crop growth
Avoid wet spots because buckwheat will not recover from flooding
Hard seedbed prevents to grow and develop the fine roots
A firm seedbed is best for successful buckwheat production because of its
relatively small seed size and its shallow root system.
A firm seedbed facilitates absorption of nutrients essential for rapid
growth, and tends to reduce losses from drought.
One deep plough with iron MB plough, followed by cross harrowing is
recommended for making good seedbed.

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Seed and sowing

Seed selection
Certified seed of improved varieties should be selected and cleaned
Use always bold, healthy, vigorous seeds with uniform viability
In Nepal, farmers use their own seed mostly.
The seed lot should be

bold with high quality

free from diseased and damaged seeds

free from other admixtures

in good germination percentage
Seed may retain its viability for several years, but seed that is no more than one
year old is best to use for planting
The seed lot should be changed after every 3-5 years.
Seed rate
Since seed size ranges from 16-30 gm per 1000 kernels, the ideal seeding rate
ranges from 40-80 kg/ha (or 16-32 kg/acre).
Heavier seeding rate: used in fields where weed population are higher than
desirable and where larger seeded varieties are being grown
Lighter seeding rate: used on clean fields
To heavy a seeding rate may be detrimental, as overly thick stands produce
spindly plants with short stems and few seeds.
Desirable Plant population:

66,000 plants per ha for indeterminate types

80,000 plants per ha for determinate types

Exhibits a high degree of plasticity – branching profusely to compensate for

lower plant populations
Thin stands of buckwheat produce strong plants that branch and resist lodging
on good land.
Thick stands produce plants that are spindly and have short branches and poor
seed set.
Use higher seed rate for broadcasting than drilled or line sowing
Spacing
Mostly depends on the ecotypes of crop

For indeterminate type: 15×10 cm

For determinate short type: 25×5 cm
Depth of sowing
Plants the seed one to two inches (2.5-5 cm) deep
Shallow placement if the soil is moist and loose
Deep placement under rainfed condition
Poor stands are likely when seeding is more than two inches (5 cm) deep due to
delay in emergence
Sowing method
1. Boradcasting
Mostly adopted practice for sowing buckwheat
Boradcast seed uniformly over the weed-free, well prepared field

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Use higher seeding rate for good crop yield

Broadcast seed can be incorporated into soil by raking, rolling or light discing .
Care should be taken to cover the seed with soil but not to bury the seed too
deeply.

2. Line sowing/ drilling

Beneficial to sow in line or to drill than broadcast
Require less seed, produces a more uniform stand and facilitate intercultural
operations
Can use seed drill machine or seed-cum-ferti-drill machine
Drill seeds in optimum depth of sowing (2.5-5 cm) depending on the soil
characteristics and moisture availability
May also be drilled into existing residue or killed sod, but good contact of the
seed with the soil is important

Sowing time
Vary slightly from eco-zones to eco-zones and soil moisture and temperature
also attributes for determining the sowing time
Since the crop grows rapidly and matures in a short growing season, the most
common practice is to seed the crop only 10-12 weeks before a killing frost is
expected.
Can also adjust according to temperature as it will germinate at 45° F (70C).

Sowing time can manage as

Mountains = mid April- early May

Hills = late July- mid August

Terai = late October-mid November
Buckwheat plants will emerge from the soil 3-5 days after planting and the time
required is influenced by depth of seeding and the temperature and moisture
content of the soil.

Manures and Fertilizer application

Has a modest feeding capacity compared to most other grains, and if fertilizer is
not applied, the removal of nutrients by a buckwheat crop may have a
depressing effect on the yield of the following crop
Typical nutrient removals by the grain for a 1200 lb/a (1360 kg/ha) crop are 9
lb/a (10.2 kg/ha) N, 3 lb/a (3.4 kg/ha) P2O5 and 12 lb/a (13.6 kg/ha) K2O.
Need to replenish these amount of nutrient either using organic manure or
chemical fertilizer
However, avoid the high fertile or rich soil
Excessively high nutrients i.e. nitrogen in absence of other nutrients may cause
lodging problem
Well responds to a balanced fertilization program
Addition of adequate quantity of organic manure is beneficial since it helps to
improve physical condition of soil which help to retain moisture for longer
period of time.

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High dose of FYM/compost may have a lodging problems

The exact amount of fertilizer to be applied in field would therefore depend on
the amount of nutrients elements available in the soil.
However the general recommendation made to apply fertilizers in buckwheat
field is:
FYM (t/ha) N (kg/ha) P2O5 (kg/ha) K2O (kg/ha)
5-6 20-30 20-40 10-30
In Nepal, the recommended dose is 6t FYM and 30:20:10 NPK kg per ha
Depending on the cropping history and organic matter level, the
recommended dose of N may varies.
If previous crop is legumes (like Alfalfa) no N is recommended and if the
previous crop is corn or small millets, the N application will be higher where
soil organic matter is 2% and lower where organic matter is 2-5%.
Potash is generally recommended if the crop is grown on sandy loam or potash
deficit soil.
FYM should be applied at least 2 weeks prior to land preparation.
Half of N and P2O5 and full K2O are to be applied at sowing
Remaining half of N and P2O5 apply prior to flowering during intercultural
operation

If sulphur deficit in soil, then apply sulphur @ 15 kg/ha.

Water management
Grown under rainfed condition during post-monsoon season
If long dry spell persists, then irrigation at flowering and seed formation stages
would be required to obtain good yield.
After seeding, irrigate as necessary to establish the crop.
Sensitive to water logged condition so there is essential to manage proper
drainage of excess water

Weed management
Generally, the crop is not infested by heavy weed population, however, different
types of annual grassy weeds and sedges may come in the field.
Critical period of crop-weed competition: 20-25 DAS
As a quick growing cover crop, buckwheat will shade and smother weeds or
outcompete them for soil moisture and nutrients.
Both living buckwheat and buckwheat residues have an allelopathic effect on
weed germination.
Buckwheat cover crop effectively suppressed spiny amaranth (Amaranthus
spinosus) and narrow-leaved plantain (Plantago lanceolata).
For troublesome weeds, can adopt control measures in buckwheat field.

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Control measures:
Mechanical methods:

The best means of controlling weeds is to destroy the young weed seedlings with
tillage prior to planting buckwheat.

Good, solid stands of buckwheat will compete with weeds which may germinate
later.

Intercultural operation often used to achieve weed control
Chemical methods:

There are no herbicides registered for use on buckwheat.
Harvesting, Threshing and Cleaning
Due to indeterminate growth habit of crop, mature seed, immature seed and a
few flowers will present at harvest.
Harvesting should be done at proper maturity stages to prevent from shattering
losses.
Harvesting should begin when 75% of the seeds have reached physiological
maturity and plants have lost a majority of their leaves.
The stage corresponds with the time the lower seed heads begin to shatter.
The best practice is to direct combine when the maximum number of seeds
have matured (75% of seed brown or black) and the plants have lost most of
their leaves.
When immature plants are harvested, green seeds and moist fragments of the
plants may cause difficulties in storing the grain.
Carefully harvest otherwise shattering would cause substantial yield loss.

Dry of 1-2 days on threshing floor for harvested product.

Threshed using various indigenous technique and clean the threshed grain
properly so that the quality of the grain will enhance.

Drying and Storage

Grain harvested with a combine may contain green plant fragments and require
careful drying for safe storage.
Drying of buckwheat grain prior to cleaning facilitates the removal of plant
fragments and immature seeds.
With the use of a grain drier, buckwheat can be harvested at a much higher
moisture content, thus minimizing the loss due to shattering.
Seed should be dried prior to storage if its moisture percentage exceeds 16. At
this moisture level, grain can be store safely.
At moisture level 11-12%, the seed can be stored for 2 years at 50C temperature
and 40% RH.
Should not store for longer time period before marketing since it contain a high
% of fat and flour will become rancid if stored for long period.

Yield
In Nepal: 800 kg/ha
With improved technique: 1.5-2.0 t/ha grains
Honey: 30-100 kg/ha

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TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

Barley (Hordeum vulgare L) (2N = 14)

An erect, tufted annual grass growing upto 75 to
100 cm in height
Belong to family Gramineae/Poaceae, sub-family
Pooideae, tribe Triticeae and genus Hordeum
A member of the grass family and diploid species
with self-pollinating behaviour
Consists of shallow and deep (75-150 cm) root
system; tiller profusely (2-5 tillers/plant); stem is
cylindrical and possesses 5-7 hollow internodes
separated by solid nodes
Tillers bear earhead or spike at the top of stem
which consist of spikelets attached at the nodes of
zigzag rachis
The three single-flowered spikelets found at each
nodes called triplet and with sessile central spikelet
in most barely species
Each spikelet has two glumes and a floret; seed is a
ripe caryopsis (8-12 mm long, 3-4 mm wide and 2-3
mm thick) (1000 grain wt = 35-45g)

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Importance
An important staple food for the people in Tibet, higher hills of Nepal and Bhutan
and use only as breakfast food in European countries
A major source of food for large number of people living in the cooler semi-arid
areas of the world, where wheat and other cereals are less well adapted.
Currently popular in temperate areas where it is grown as a summer crop and
tropical areas where it is sown as a winter crop
Grown in about 100 countries in worldwide and ranks fourth globally both in
terms of area harvested and production (136 million tons in 2007)
Ranks fifth position both in terms of area and production (0.023 million tons in
2008/09) in Nepal
Important minor cereal crop grown in the hills and high hills and is also grown in
terai in a very limited area
Contribution in Nepal: 0.22% of AGDP
Grown for both grain and forage
Uses of grains and straws
Food
Contains eight essential amino acids
Eating whole grain barley reduce blood glucose response to a meal or regulate
blood sugar
Can also be used as a coffee substitute

Flour used for making rotee, grain roasted and ground and used as sattu (ready
to eat flour) in Nepal
Dehulled (grain devoid of inedible, fibrous outer hull) or pearl barley (broken
and roughly grounded grains) may be processed into a variety of barley
products, including flour, flakes and grits.
Barley-meal is used in porridge and gruel in Scotland.
Alcoholic beverages
Barley is the best suited grain for malting
A key ingredient in beer and whisky production
Two-row barley is traditionally used in German and English beers
Six-row barley is traditionally used in US beers
Distilled from green beer, whisky has been made from barley in Ireland and
Scotland.
Non-alcoholic drinks such as barley water and barley tea (called mugicha in
Japan) have been made by boiling barley in water.
Animal feed
An important feed grain in many areas of the world not typically suited for
maize production, especially in northern climates - for example, northern and
eastern Europe
The principal feed grain in Canada, Europe, and in the northern United States
Used as animal feed to livestock and poultry

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Algicide
Barley straw, in England, is placed in mesh bags and floated in fish ponds or
water gardens to help reduce algal growth without harming pond plants and
animals.
Other uses
Straw used as fodder for livestock, roofing materials, as litter in cattle and
buffalo
Grains used for measurement in England
Hordeum vulgare varigate has been introduced for cultivation as an ornamental
and pot plant.
Nutritive value of grain
Table: Nutritional composition of barley grains (per 100g)
Components Amount Components Amount Components Amount
Energy (kcal) 352 Riboflavin (mg) 0.1 Iron (mg) 2.5
Carbohydrate (g) 77.7 Niacin (mg) 4.6 Magnesium (mg) 79
Protein (g) 9.9 Pantothenic acid (mg) 0.3 Phosphorus (mg) 221
Fat (g) 1.2 Vitamin B6 (mg) 0.3 Potassium (mg) 280
Fibers (g) 15.6 Folate (μg) 23 Zinc (mg) 2.1
Sugar (g) 0.8 Vitamin C (mg) 0.0
Thiamine (mg) 0.2 Calcium (mg) 29

Origin and history

Barley has known for thousands of years and it was cultivated before any
recorded history of man.
Barley genotypes have evolved around the ‘fertile crescent’ in central Asia and
other center is the southern tip of South America where nearly 17 species are
distributed.
Two theories regarding the origin of barley

One group of investigators considered Abyssinia as the principal centre of origin
because many diverse forms group wild there. These region particularly rich in
hulded, awned types.

Another group of investigators considers that the possible center of origin is south-
east Asia particularly China, Tibet, Nepal which is characterized by hull-less six
rowed varieties with short awn or no awn.
Wild barley (H. vulgare ssp. spontaneum) ranges from North Africa and Crete in
the west, to Tibet in the east. Tibetan barley has been a staple food in Tibet
since the 5th century A.D.
Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf (2000): The earliest evidence of wild barley in an
archaeological context comes from the Epipaleolithic at Ohalo II at the
southern end of the Sea of Galilee. The remains were dated to about 8500 BC.
The earliest domesticated barley occurs at Aceramic Neolithic sites, in the Near
East such as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B layers of Tell Abu Hureyra, in Syria.

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Crawford and Lee (2003): has been grown in the Korean Peninsula since the
Early Mumun Pottery Period (c. 1500–850 BC) along with other crops such as
millet, wheat and legumes
Introduce to India soon after the coming of the Aryans
All the cultivated barley are thought to have arisen from a wild species
Hordeum spontaneum a species very similar to present two-rowed barley.
Archeology also supports the two-rowed species as progenitor of six-rowed
species.

Area, Distribution and Production

Cultivation in globe is localized towards cooler temperature available in
Scandinavia, southern and central Europe, North America, central America and
the southern cone of South America.
Cultivation extends to northern latitudes of 700N and also cultivated in smaller
scale around the southern tip of South Africa between 30 and 350S latitudes
Grow in the plains and in cool arid regions of the Himalayas at the altitudes of
5000 masl.
IBPGR (1992): nearly 32 Hordeum species are widely distributed in temperate
countries of the world

Major area of barley cultivation are USA, Canada, Argentina, Middle East and
North Africa, China, Mangolia, etc.
Total barley world germplasm holdings are about 2,70,000.
In Nepal: cultivated in terai plains to mountain across all the developmental
regions
Out of total barley area (2008/09)

Terai: 3.67%

Hill: 49.56%

Mountain: 46.77%

Major production domain: Mid-western region

World scenario of barley production

Table: Area, production and yield of barley in world during 2007
Areas Area (ha) Production (metric tons) Yield (t/ha)
China 9,22,000 34,51,000 3.74
Poland 12,32,373 40,08,096 3.25

Russian federation 83,69,600 1,56,63,110 1.87

Japan 54,220 1,94,600 3.59

Nepal 26,106 28,082 1.07

World 5,54,41,486 13,34,31,341 2.40

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Area, production and yield of barley in Nepal

Table: Production (Mt) of barley in Nepal by ecological and developmental region during 2008/09
Ecological Developmental region Total
belts
Eastern Central Western Mid-western Far-western
Mountain 517 574 640 5585 2699 10015
Hill 1325 1553 3544 4898 914 12234
Terai 10 552 210 50 153 975
Total 1852 2679 4394 10533 3766 23224

Table: Area, production and yield of barley in Nepal by ecological region during 2008/09

Ecological belts Area (ha) Production (Mt) Yield (kg/ha)

Mountain 12075 10015 829.40

Hill 12793 12234 956.30

Terai 949 975 1027.40

Nepal 25817 23224 899.56

Trend of area coverage, production & yield of barley in Nepal

Area Production Yield
45 1.30

40
Area ('000 ha) & Production ('000 Mt)

1.10
35

0.90
Yield (Mt/ha)

30

25
0.70

20
0.50
15

10 0.30
1964/65 1984/85 1994/95 2007/08 2009/10
Years

Figure: Area coverage, production and yield of barley in Nepal

(1964/65-2009/10)

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Classification
Aberg and Wiebe (1946): classified all the cultivated barely
varieties into three distinct species based on the number
of rows of grain and their arrangement:
Six-row barley: Hordeum vulgare
Six-rowed barley with non-shattering spikes
All the three spikelets at each node of the spike are
fertile, thus, 3 seeds are formed at each node
Spikelets are in six distinct rows and arranged at a uniform
distance around the tough rachis
Common in some American lager style beers, especially Fig: Two-rowed and
when adjuncts such as corn and rice are used six-rowed barley
Two-row barley: Hordeum distichon
Two-rowed barley with non-shattering spikes
Only the medium spikelets are fertile i.e. only one spikelet at each node is fertile
and sets grain
Although the lateral spikelets are infertile, they possess all the floral organs
Has a lower protein content than six-row barley and thus more fermentable
sugar content
Traditionally used in English ale style beers, traditional German beers
Two-row barley: Hordeum irregulare
Central florets are fertile, whereas the lateral florets are reduced to rachilla

Climate
Temperature
Grown in all area from north to south pole- temperate to tropical regions and
cultivation extends to northern latitudes of 700N and at altitudes up to 5000 m
in cool arid regions of the Himalayas
A crop of temperate climate and it thrives best in areas having cool dry winters
with low rainfall
Growing period in the plains last for 3-5 months which may extend up to 6-7
months in the medium to higher hills
Crop can withstand cool humid and warm dry ( 320C) climates, but hot humid
climate disfavours its growth, mainly due to prevalence of diseases
Temperature affects barley at various growth stages
Higher temperature known as abnormalities
At higher temperature of 240C- florets number reduced as compared to 180C
Tillering affected by the day and night temperature
Require 12-150C during growing period and around 300C at maturity
Require lower heat to reach maturity than that of wheat and other winter
cereals
Major winter damages to barley is due to the direct effect of low temperature
on plant tissue, smothering and desiccation
Grow in temperature ranging from 3 – 380C

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Optimum temp for vegetative growth: 240C

Optimum temp for flowering: 300C
May germinate in temperature range of 4-300C
Maturation favoured by warm-dry weather

Photoperiod and Rainfall

Belongs to light-loving plants of long day
Cool period with short days during vegetative growth enhances tillering
Being drought resistant, barley suit in areas with scanty rainfall
Growing in area where wheat does not give economic yield
Rains at maturity cause discolouration of the grains, thus rendering them unfit
for malting
Uninterrupted growth of the crop can give normal bold, plump, mealy grains, fit
for malting
Intermittent drought during the growth period results in premature ripening
with high nitrogen content and shrivelled grains unfit for malting
Uniform moisture supply and bright sunshine at the ripening are important for
the production of clean bright kernels required by malting industry
Frost at flowering and hailstorms at the complete grain development stage
damage the crops

Soil
Thrives best on well-drained fertile loam or light clay-soils
Produced poor crop on heavy clay loams, poorly drained soil in region of
frequent rain
Grown on a wide variety of soil ranging in texture from sandy to heavy loams
and on the terraced slopes in the hills
Best suited in heavier soil with a high moisture holding capacity and a neutral to
slightly basic pH (7-8)
More tolerant to a saline-alkaline soil and less to acidic soils when compared to
other cereals
Growth unexcited to acid soil below pH 6 because of resultant Al toxicity that
results in retarding root growth, so, for correction need to apply Ca sources
Light sandy soil are poor for barley because growth often is erratic and the crop
is more likely to be ripened prematurely by drought
Being a salt tolerant crop, it can do well even in salt affected soils during the
early phases of the reclamation of these soils
Severe lodging occurs on highly fertile soils with excess of N, which in turn also
increases N content in the grain rendering it unsuitable for malting

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Cropping systems
Being a short duration crop is more suitable than wheat and other cereals crops
for late sown conditions under limited inputs of irrigation and fertilizers
Can be grown successfully after the harvest of paddy, cotton, rainy
fodder, groundnut, etc.
Barley is included in following common cropping systems

Cropping pattern Cropping pattern

Rice-Barley Maize-Barley

Sorghum-Barley Cotton-Barley

Foxtail millet-Barley Groundnut-Barley

Blackgram-Barley Moong-Barley

Cowpea-Barley Barley+Chickpea or Mustard or Linseed

- sequence cropping; + mixed or intercropping

TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

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Field preparation
Needs a good seed-bed for better germination and crop growth but does not
require a very fine seed-bed preparation
One ploughing with a soil-turning plough, levelling and one harrowing are
enough for sowing
Levelling helps in uniform distribution of seed, fertilizer and irrigation water
In rainfed areas, field preparation should be done with great care as
conservation of moisture is dependent on it. In these areas, ploughing or
harrowing should be done in the evening time and furrows should be kept
open whole night to absorb moisture from dew and then planking should be
done early in the morning.
For raising the crop under dryland, soil-moisture conservation after late
monsoon showers during middle of August to end of September, becomes
essential. Deep ploughing and discing followed by levelling and bunding should
be done after each rain to ensure proper soil moisture for germination and
growth under rainfed condition.
Under irrigated condition, a pre-sowing irrigation is needed to get optimum
plant stand.
Saline-alkali lands having very shallow ground water-table (1.5 m from ground
level) pose a problem of surface salinity. Such lands should be ploughed
deep, planked and left undisturbed for a week or a fortnight prior to sowing so
that

the salts move from lower soils layer to the upper soil zone and the lower layers
where seed and fertilizers are to be placed (root zone) become relatively free
from salts.
Areas where crop are attacked by termites, mix 2% Methyl Parathion dust in soil
@ 25kg/ha at the time of last ploughing.

Seed and sowing

Seed selection
Certified seed of improved varieties should be selected and cleaned
Use always bold, healthy, vigorous seeds with uniform viability
In Nepal, farmers use their own seed mostly.
The seed lot should be

free from diseased and damaged seeds

free from other admixtures

in good germination percentage
The seed lot should be changed after every 3-5 years.
Seed treatment
Treat the seeds with1:1 mixture of Thiram + Bavistin or Vitavax @2.5 g/kg of
seed to control the covered smut and leaf stripe
To protect the crop against white ants and soil-borne pests, treat with
Chlorpyriphos @4.5 ml/kg of seed and the seed should be dried overnight prior
to sowing.
Treat the seed with Oxycarboxin 0.25% for controlling the yellow rust
For sowing in rainfed and saline areas soak the seeds in water overnight at room
temperature for better and quicker germination.

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Seed rate and spacing

Varies depending on the availability of soil moisture and the extent to which the
soil is affected by abiotic stresses at the sowing time.
An optimum plant population per unit area is a prerequisite for maximizing the
utilization efficiency of different production inputs.
Depending on the soil moisture status and growing condition, the seed rate can
be adjusted as:

Irrigated timely sown : 75-80 kg/ha

Irrigated late sown and saline-alkaline soil: 100 kg/ha

For rainfed crops: 80-100 kg/ha (depending on soil moisture status at sowing)
Maintenance of spacing is also depends on the growing conditions

For irrigated crop: 22-23 cm between rows

For rainfed crop: 23-28 cm between rows

Depth of sowing
Depend on the soil type and availability of moisture and/or growing condition
Ideal depth for irrigated condition: 3-5 cm
Ideal depth for rainfed condition: 5-8 cm depending on soil moisture
In clay soils with tendency to crust, shallow planting is preferable.
Deep seeding is detrimental and it delays and reduces total emergence.

Time of sowing
Is an important aspect in successful cultivation of barley

Depending upon the elevation, temperature, soil type and moisture status, the
normal sowing time extends from middle of October to end of November.
Gives best result when shown between October 15 and November 15
Delayed sowings lead to considerable reduction in grain yield and production of
poor-quality grains, unfit for malting.
Under rainfed condition:

Third and fourth week of October , when the mean temperature falls to 230 to 250C

Sowing should be so timed as to ensure the maximum use of conserved soil moisture
as well as to avoid high temperature. Before this time, high temperature can lead to
etiolation and seedling mortality.
Under irrigated condition:

First to third week of November

Delayed in sowing beyond this time, leads to decline in grain yield through reduction
in tiller number and grain weight per spike; raises the protein content of the grain
thereby adversely affecting the malting quality
As a short-duration crop, with the availability of early maturing variety, it can be
grown under late sown condition upto the end of December to first week of
January.
At elevations above 2,300 m, barley may be sown as an irrigated crop in spring
and the sowing time extends from the end of April to the end of May, depending
on factors like the time of melting of snow from fields, suitable soil temperature
to ensure good germination & stand and availability of irrigation water.

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Methods of sowing
1. Broadcasting
Broadcast the seed over the well prepared field by using hand
After sowing, one light discing is needed to cover it by soil
Requires relatively higher seed rate
Also done on dry seed-bed roughed by a single light discing followed by one pre-
emergence irrigation
2. Seed drill or ‘Pora’ or ‘Kera’ method
Improved method of sowing seeds in rows
Ensures uniform seed placement, better germinations, cuts down seed
requirement, less lodging and facilitates intercultural operations as compared to
broadcast method
In kera method, seed is dropped by hand into the furrows and practiced under
irrigated condition
There should be enough moisture in soil for proper germination

Manures and Fertilizer application

Addition of adequate quantity of organic manure is beneficial since it helps to
improve physical condition of soil which help to retain moisture for longer
period of time and provides essential nutrients to plants also.

The essential elements for barley growth are

N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B, Mo, Cl, etc.
The exact amount of fertilizer to be applied in field would therefore depend on
the amount of these elements available in the soil.
However the general recommendation made to apply fertilizers in barley field
is:
Cropping situation N (kg/ha) P2O5 (kg/ha) K2O (kg/ha)
Irrigated 60-80 30-50 30-50
Rainfed (hills) 40 20 20
Rainfed (plains) 30 30 20
Late sown 40 30 20
Saline condition 60 30 30

Apply FYM or Compost @10-15t/ha

In Nepal, the recommended dose is 6t FYM and 30:20:10 NPK kg per ha
FYM should be applied 2-3 weeks prior to sowing.
Half of N plus entire P2O5 and K2O are to be applied at the time of sowing
Apply remaining half N with the first irrigation as top dressing
In rainfed crop, full amount of N, P2O5 and K2O should be placed 8-10 cm deep
in the soil at sowing time

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Excess N cause lodging, increase protein content in the grain and adversely
affect the malting and brewing quality
N fertilization of malting barley is a critical factor, and it should not be done
during grain development stages.
In areas with moderately saline (ECE 6-12 mmhos/cm)-cum shallow water table
(1.5 m from surface), the entire dose of fertilizer may be placed at 10-20 cm
depth at the time of sowing.

Water management
Grown either on conserved soil moisture from the preceding monsoon season
or under restricted irrigation
Because of low water requirement, can be grown as rainfed crop
Responds to irrigation in the drier areas and soil with low moisture retention
capacity
Usually needs 2-3 irrigation and on sandy soils, one to two extra irrigations are
needed
Critical stage of crop/plant for irrigation: active tillering stage (30-35 DAS), flag
leaf stage (60-65 DAS) and milk stage (80-85 DAS)
Most critical stage: Active tillering stage

Depending on the availability of irrigation water, the limited water can be used
efficiently as

If one irrigation available, apply at active tillering stage

If two irrigation available, apply first at active tillering stage and the next at the
flowering stage
On saline-alkaline soils, frequent light irrigations give better results than fewer
heavy irrigations
Waterlogging in the field must be avoided as it causes severe yellowing as well as
reduction in tillering.

Weed management
Weeds pose serious problem in irrigated areas, though barley is known to be a
good competitor of weeds
Essential to control weeds in initial stage of plant growth and development i.e.
within 40-45 DAS
Yield lost due to weed infestation: upto 40%
Common weeds:
Chenopodium album, Cirsium arvense, Anagallis arvensis Melilotus
alba, Melilotus indica, Avena fatua, Phalaris minor, Cyperus rotundus
Control measures:
Mechanical and cultural methods:

One hand-hoeing after first irrigation is quite useful

Use of weed-free seed and a well prepared seed-bed are essential for effective
control of weeds

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Chemical methods:

Spraying of 2, 4 – D @ 0. 5 kg a.i. /ha in 400 L of water 30-35 days after sowing or
2,4-D amine salt (72%) or 2,4-D sodium salt (80%) @0.75 kg a.i./ha in 700-800 L of
water per ha 35-40 DAS to control broad leaf weeds

Pre-plant application of Pendimethalin @1.0-1.5 kg a.i./ha on prepared top soil to
control wild oats and Phalaris minor

Use Isoproturon @0.75 kg/ha as post-emergence herbicide at 30-35 DAS to control
grassy weeds

Harvesting, Threshing and Cleaning

Harvesting time may alter depending upon climatic condition and variety.

As winter crops harvest from the end of April to end of May

As spring crops harvest from the end of July to end of September

As summer crop harvest in September-October
Maturity indices:

Plants turn yellow and dry up

Grains become hard and moisture content is about 18-20%

Plants become brittle and rigid

Stem breaks down with slight pressure
Harvest the crop immediately after it ripens otherwise it might lodge and
shatter grains
Prone to shattering than wheat so that to prevent losses from shattering, it is
useful to cut the crop in the early hours of morning
Harvest it before it is dead ripe (grain moisture = 18-20%)

Harvesting either done by using sickle or combine harvester

Threshing is done either trampling/treading under feet of bullocks or by running
tractor over the heaps of harvested crop or by tractor-operated threshers
Special care is needed to ensure least skinning and breaking barley grain during
threshing by adjusting the speed of thresher
Grains are separated by winnowing so that the produce become clean and have
good quality.

Drying and Storage

The threshed grains are dried in sunlight properly to lower moisture content to
13-14% or less before storage
Threshed grain are stored in dry, clean and airtight metallic bin, earthen grains
bins, polyethene bags or gunny bags.
As barley is hygroscopic, the store-rooms, store-pits or bins should be moisture
proof and should be fumigated to keep away the stored grain pests
Grains stored with more than 14% moisture become warm and deteriorate and
thus become unsuitable for malting

Yield
Under favourable conditions of manuring and management practices, improved
varieties are capable for giving grain yield of

2.5-3.0 t/ha under rainfed conditions

5.0-6.0 t/ha under irrigated timely-sown conditions

3.0-3.5 t/ha under late-sown conditions

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TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
(Agronomy)
Department of Plant Science
IAAS-Lamjung

Triticale (Triticosecale rimpaui)

A manmade cereal and is a hybrid of wheat (Triticum) and
rye (Secale) first bred in laboratories during the late 19th
century
Belong to family Gramineae/Poaceae, tribe Triticeae and
genus Triticosecale
Primary reproduction rule is self-fertilization, however,
cross fertilization is also occurs.
Triticale combines the high yield potential and good grain
quality of wheat with the disease and environmental
tolerance (including soil conditions) of rye
Depending on the cultivar, triticale can more or less
resemble either of its parents.
When crossing wheat and rye, wheat is used as the female
parent and rye as the male parent (pollen donor).
The resulting hybrid is sterile and has to be treated with
colchicine to induce polyploidy and thus the ability to
reproduce itself.
Triticale hybrids are all amphidiploid, which means the
plant is diploid for two genomes derived from different
species. In other words, triticale is an allotetraploid.

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Grown mostly for forage or fodder although some triticale-based foods can be
purchased at health food stores or are to be found in some breakfast cereals
Used as feed for swine, cows and poultry and is generally higher in protein (20-
40%) and amino acids than wheat or barley
Contain higher amount of lysine
Used as a finishing diet for livestock thus reducing the use of corn
Becoming a major part of nutritional management plans for dairies by providing
them with a good alternative to wheat silage and permitting year round silage
feeding
Straw can also be used as a bedding material
As a deep rooted rotational crop, it reduces soil erosion, can capture excess soil
nitrogen and requires very few pesticides.

History
First natural occurrence of wheat-rye hybrid was described by Wilson (1875)
In 1890, Rimpau in Germany succeeded in crossing wheat and rye
Earlier triticale hybrids had four reproductive disorders—namely, meiotic
instability, high aneuploid frequency, low fertility and shriveled seed.
In 1937, polyploiding action of dry colchicine was discovered and made the
fertile wheat-rye hybrid

Siosida and Mc Ginnis (1970): present are hexaploid that developed from inter
crossing newly sythesized hexaploid and more recently from inter crossing
octaploid and hexaploid type

Distribution and Production

Mostly concentrated in European and American continent
Has been distributed and cultivated in Poland, Germany, France, China,
Belgium, Australia, Hungary, Czech Republic, Sweden, Denmark, USA, etc.
Major producers: Poland, Germany, France, China
Table: Production of triticale in world during 2005
Areas Production (metric tons)
Poland 3.7
Germany 2.7
France 1.8
China 1.3
Belgium 1.1
World 13.5

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Climate and Soil

Climatic requirement is more or less similar with that of wheat crop
suitable for hilly areas and can be grown upto 4000 masl
Although, this crop can be grown in all types of soil however, it appears better in
light soils, particularly under non-irrigated conditions.
In addition, the crop appears to have adaptation for growing under relatively
higher temperatures and wet soil conditions compared to wheat.
It is expected to possess more drought resistance compared to wheat because
both the parental species are considered to be drought resistant.
Can grow satisfactorily in alkaline and acidic soils also.
Varieties

Paiger P.M.118

Armaliyo P.M. 108

E.P.T.72142

U.P.T. 7361
Cultivation practice
All the practices (viz. field preparation, intercultural operation, plant
protection, etc.) are like as in wheat cultivation
Sowing time
Non-irrigated October
Irrigated Mid November (mid Oct – late Dec)

Seed rate and spacing

Conditions Seed rate (kg/ha) Spacing (cm) Depth (cm)
Non-irrigated 75-100 20-30 5-6
Irrigated 125-150 15-20 5-6

Fertilizer application
Conditions N (kg/ha) P2O5 (kg/ha) K2O (kg/ha)
Non-irrigated 40 40 ---
Irrigated 150 60 40

Irrigation
Normally requires 5-7 irrigations

Harvesting and threshing

Normally mature in 120-150 days depending on variety and time of sowing
All the operations are like as in wheat production

Yield
About 25% higher than the improved wheat varieties

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