CHAPTER 5: SKELETAL SYSTEM

Developmental Aspects of the Skeletal System

 At birth, the skull bones are incomplete
 Bones are joined by fibrous membranes called fontanels
 Fontanels are completely replaced with bone within 2 years after birth

Skeletal Changes throughout Life

1. Fetus
 Long bones are formed of hyaline cartilage
 Flat bones begin as fibrous membranes
 Flat and long bone models are converted to bone
2. Birth
 Fontanels remain until around age 2
3. Adolescence
 Epiphyseal plates become ossified and lone bone growth end
4. Size of cranium in relationship to body
 2 years old – skull is larger in proportion to the body compared to that of an adult
 8 or 9 years old – skull is near adult size and proportion
 Between ages 6 and 11, the face grows out from the skull
5. Curvatures of the spine
 Primary curvatures are present at birth and are convex posteriorly
 Secondary curvatures are associated with child’s later development and are convex anteriorly
 Abnormal spinal curvatures (scoliosis and lordosis) are often congenital
6. Osteoporosis
 Bone-thinning disease afflicting:
 50 percent of women over age 65
 20 percent of men over age 70
 Disease makes bones fragile and bones can easily fracture
 Vertebral collapse results in kyphosis (also known as dowager’s hump)
 Estrogen aids in health and normal density of a female skeleton

I. Parts of the Skeletal System

A. Bones (skeleton)
1. Functions
 Support the body
 Protect soft organs
 Skull and vertebrae for brain and spinal cord
 Rib cage for thoracic cavity organs
 Allow movement due to attached skeletal muscles
 Store mineral and fats
 Calcium and phosphorus
 Fat in the internal marrow cavity
 Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)
2. Bones of the Human Body
 The adult skeleton has 206 bones
 Two basic types of bone tissue
 Compact bone
o Homogenous
 Spongy bone
o Small needle-like pieces of bone
 o Many open spaces
3. Classification of Bones on the Basis of SHAPE
a. Long bones
 Typically longer than they are wide
 Shaft with heads situated at both ends
 Contain mostly compact bone
 All of the bones of the limbs (except wrist, ankle, and kneecap bones)
 Examples: Femur and Humerus
Anatomy of a Long Bone
 Diaphysis
 Shaft
 Composed of compact bone
 Epiphysis
 Ends of the bone
 Composed mostly of spongy bone
 Periosteum
 Outside covering of the diaphysis
 Fibrous connective tissue membrane
 Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers
 Secure periosteum to underlying bone
 Arteries
 Supply bone cells with nutrients
 Articular cartilage
 Covers the external surface of the epiphysis
 Made of hyaline cartilage
 Decreases friction at joint surfaces
 Epiphyseal plate
 Flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in young, growing bone
 Epiphyseal line
 Remnant of the epiphyseal plate
 Seen in adult bones
 Marrow (medullary) cavity
 Cavity inside of the shaft
 Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults
 Contains red marrow for blood cells formation in infants
 In adults, red marrow is situated in cavities of spongy bone and
epiphysis of some long bone
b. Short
 Generally cube-shaped
 Contain mostly spongy bone
 Includes bones are a type of short bone which form within tendons (patella)
 Examples: Carpals and Tarsals
c. Flat
 Thin, flattened, and usually curved
 Two thin layers of compact bone surround a layer of spongy bone
 Examples: Skulls, Ribs, and Sternum
d. Irregular
 Irregular shape
 Do not fit into other bones classification categories
 Examples: Vertebrae and Hip bones
4. Bone Markings
 Surface features of bones
  Sites of attachment for muscles, tendons, and ligaments
 Passages for nerves and blood vessels
 Categories of bone markings
 Projections or processes – grow out from the bone surface
o Terms often begin with “T”
 Depressions or cavities – indentions
o Terms often begin with “F”
5. Microscopic Anatomy of Compact Bone
a. Osteon (Haversian system)
 A unit of bone containing central canal and matrix rings
b. Central (Haversian) canal
 Opening in the center of an osteon
 Carries blood vessels and nerves
c. Perforating (Volkmann’s ) canal
 Canal perpendicular to the central canal
 Carries blood vessels and nerves
d. Lacunae
 Cavities containing bone cells (osteocytes)
 Arranged in concentric rings called lamellae
e. Lamellae
 Rings around the central canal
 Sites of lacunae
f. Canaliculi
 Tiny canals
 Radiate from the central canal to lacunae
 Form a transport system connecting all bone cells to a nutrient supply
6. Formation of the Human Skeleton
 In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage
 During development, much of this cartilage is replaced by bone
 Cartilage remains in isolated areas: bridge of the nose, part of ribs, and joints
7. Bone Growth (Ossification)
 Epiphyseal plates allow for lengthwise growth of long bones during childhood
 New cartilage is continuously ossified
 Older cartilage become ossified
o Cartilage is broken down
o Enclosed cartilage is digested away, opening up a medullary cavity
o Bone replaces cartilage through the action of osteoblasts
 Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stops
 Bones are remodeled in response to two factors:
o Blood calcium levels
o Pull of gravity and muscles on the skeleton
 Bones grow in width (called appositional growth)
8. Types of Bone Cells
a. Osteocytes – mature bone cells
b. Osteoblasts – bone-forming cells
c. Osteoclasts – giant bone-destroying cells
 Break down matrix for remodeling and release of calcium in response to
parathyroid hormone
 Bone remodeling is performed by both osteoblasts and osteoclasts
9. Bone Fractures
 Fracture – break in the bone
  Bone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization
 Two types of bone fractures
o Closed (simple) fracture – break that does not penetrates through the
skin
o Open (compound) fracture – broken bone penetrates through the skin
 Common types of fractures
o Comminuted – bone breaks into many fragments
o Compression – bone is crushed
o Depressed – broken bone portion is pressed inward
o Impacted – broken bone ends are forced into each other
o Spiral – ragged break occurs when excessive twisting forces are
applied to a bone
o Greenstick – bone breaks incompletely
 Repair of bone fractures
o Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed
o Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus
o Fibrocartilage callus is replace by a bony callus
o Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch
B. Joints
1. Functions
 Hold bones together
 Allow mobility
2. Classification
a. Functional Classification of Joints
 Synarthroses – immovable joints
 Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable joints
 Diarthroses – freely movable joints
b. Structural Classification of Joints
 Fibrous joints
 Generally immovable
 Bones united by collagenic fibers
o Types
 Sutures – immobile
 Syndesmoses
 Allows more movement than sutures but still
immobile
 Example: distal end of tibia and fibula
 Gomphosis – immobile
 Cartilaginous joints
 Immovable or slightly moveable joints
 Bones connected by cartilage
o Types
 Synchrondrosis - immobile
 Symphysis
 Slightly moveable
 Example: pubic symphysis, intervertebral
joints
 Synovial joints
 Freely moveable
 Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity
 Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity
 Features of Synovial Joints
o
 Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage) covers the ends
of bones
 Articular capsule encloses joint surfaces and lined
with synovial membrane
 Joint cavity is filled with synovial fluid
 Reinforcing ligaments
o Structures Associated with the Synovial Joint
 Bursae
 Flattened fibrous sacs
 Lined with synovial membranes
 Filled with synovial fluid
 Not actually part of the joint
 Tendon sheath
 Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon
3. Inflammatory Conditions Associated with Joints
 Bruritis
 Inflammation of a bursa usually caused by a blow or friction
 Tendonitis
 Inflammation of tendon sheaths
 Arthritis
 Inflammatory or degenerative diseases of joints
 Over 100 different types
 The most widespread crippling disease in the United States
 Initial symptoms: pain, stiffness, swelling of the joint
o Clinical Forms of Arthritis
a) Osteoarthritis
 Most common chronic arthritis
 Probably related to normal aging processes
b) Rheumatoid arthritis
 An autoimmune disease – the immune system
attacks the joints
 Symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation of
certain joints
 Often lead to deformities
c) Gouty arthritis
 Inflammation of joints is caused by a deposition of
uric acid crystals from the blood
 Can usually be controlled with diet
 More common in men
C. Cartilages
D. Ligaments

II. Subdivisions of the Skeleton

A. Axial Skeleton
 Forms the longitudinal axis of the body
1. Three Parts
a. Skull
 Two sets of bones: cranium and facial bones
 Bones are joined by sutures
 Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable joint
 Paranasal Sinuses
  Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal cavity
 Functions of paranasal sinuses
 Lighten the skull
 Give resonance and amplification to voice
 The Hyoid Bone
 The only bone that does not articulate with another bone
 Serves as a moveable base for the tongue
 Aids in swallowing and speech
 The Fetal Skull
 The fetal skull is large compared to the infant’s total body
length
 Fetal skull is ¼ body length compared to adult skull
which is 1/8 body length
 Fontanels – fibrous membranes connecting the cranial bones
 Allow skull compression during birth
 Allow the brain to grow during later pregnancy and
infancy
 Convert to bone within 24 months after birth
b. Vertebral Column
 Each vertebrae is given a name according to its location
 There are 24 single vertebral bones separated by
intervertebral discs
o Seven cervical vertebrae are in the neck
o Twelve thoracic vertebrae are in the chest region
o Five lumbar vertebrae are associated with the lower
back
 Nine vertebrae fuse to form two composite bones
 Sacrum
o Formed by the fusion of five vertebrae
 Coccyx
o Formed from the fusion of three to five vertebrae
o “tailbone” or remnant of a tail that other vertebrates
have
 Primary curvature are the spinal curvatures of the thoracic and sacral
regions
 Present from birth
 Form a C-shaped curvature as in newborns
 Secondary curvatures are the spinal curvatures of the cervical and
lumbar regions
 Develop after birth
 Form an S-shaped curvature as in adults
o A Typical Vertebrae
 Body
 Vertebral arch (pedicle and lamina)
 Vertebral foramen
 Transverse processes
 Spinous process
 Superior and inferior articular processes
c. Bony Thorax
 Forms a cage to protect major organs
 Consists of three parts
  Sternum
 Ribs
o True ribs (pairs 1-7)
o False ribs (pairs 8-12)
o Floating ribs (pairs 11-12)
 Thoracic vertebrae
B. Appendicular Skeleton
 Composed of 126 bones
1. Limbs (appendages)
a. Bones of the Upper Limbs
 Humerus
 Forms the arm
 Single bone
 Proximal end articulation
o Head articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula
 Distal end articulation
o Trochlea and capitulum articulate with the bones of the
forearm
 Forearm – it has two bones
 Ulna
o Medial bone in anatomical position
o Proximal end articulation
 Coronoid process and olecranon articulate with
the humerus
 Radius
o Lateral bone in anatomical position
o Proximal end articulation
 Head articulates with the capitulum of the
humerus
 Hand
 Carpals – wrist
o Eight bones arranged in two rows of four bones in each
hand
 Metacarpals – palm
o Five per hand
 Phalanges – fingers and thumb
o Fourteen phalanges in each hand
o In each finger, there are three bones
o In the thumb, there are only two bones
b. Bones of the Lower Limbs
 Femur
 Thigh bone
 The heaviest, strongest bone in the body
 Proximal end articulation
o Head articulates with the acetabulum of the coxal (hip)
bone
 Distal end articulation
o Lateral and medial condyles articulate with the tibia in
the lower leg
 Lower Leg – has two bones
 Tibia
 o Shinbone; larger and medially oriented
o Proximal end articulation
 Medial and lateral condyles articulate with the
femur to form the knee joint
 Fibula
o Thin and sticklike; lateral to the tibia
o Has no rule in forming the knee joint
 The Foot
 Tarsals
o Seven bones
o Two largest tarsals, the calcaneus (heel bone) and talus
 Metatarsals – five bones from the sole of the foot
 Phalanges – fourteen bones from the toes
o Arches of the Foot
 Bones of the foot are arranged to form three strong
arches: two longitudinal and one transverse
2. Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
 These bones allow the upper limb to have exceptionally free movement
 Composed of two bones:
a. Clavicle
 Collarbone
 Articulates with the sternum medially and with the scapula
laterally
b. Scapula
 Shoulder blade
 Articulates with the clavicle at the acromioclavicular joint
 Articulates with the arm bone at the glenoid cavity
3. Pelvic Girdle
 Formed by two coxal (ossa coxae) bones
 Composed of three pairs of fused bones
 Ilium
 Ischium
 Pubis
 Pelvic girdle = 2 coxal bones, sacrum
 Bony pelvis = 2 coxal bones, sacrum, coccyx
 The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis
 It protects several organs
 Reproductive organs
 Urinary bladder
 Part of the large intestine
a. Gender Differences of the Pelvis
 The female inlet is larger and more circular
 The female pelvis as a whole is shallower, and the bones
are lighter and thinner
 The female ilia flare more laterally
 The female sacrum is shorter and less curved
 The female ischial spines are shorter and farther apart;
thus the outlet is larger
 The female pubic arch is more rounded because the angle
of the pubic arch is greater