CHAPTER 2: BASIC CHEMISTRY

 Isotopes and Atomic Weight

 Atomic Weight
o Close to mass number of most abundant isotope
o Atomic weight reflects natural isotope variation
 Radioactivity
o Radioisotope
 Heavy isotope
 Tends to be unstable
 Decomposes to more stable isotope
o Radioactivity
 Process of spontaneous atomic decay
o Use to tag biological molecules for medical imaging
o PET scan

 Molecules and Compounds

 Molecule – two or more atoms of the same element combined chemically
 Compound – two or more atoms of different element combined chemically

 Chemical Reactions
 Atoms are united by chemical bonds
 Atoms dissociate from other atoms when chemical bonds are broken

 Electrons and Bonding

 Electrons occupy energy levels called electrons shells
 Electrons closest to the nucleus are most strongly attracted
 Each shell has distinct properties
o The number of electrons has an upper limit
o Shells closest to the nucleus fill first
 Bonding involves interactions between electrons in the outer shell
 Full valence shells do not form bonds

 Inert Elements
 Atoms are stable (inert) when the outermost shell is complete
 How to fill the atom’s shells?
o Shell 1 can hold a maximum of 2 electrons
o Shell 2 can hold a maximum of 8 electrons
o Shell 3 can hold a maximum of 18 electrons
 Atoms will gain, lose, or share electrons to complete their outermost orbitals and reach a stable state
 Rules of Eight
o Atoms are considered stable when their outermost orbital has 8 electrons
o The exception of this rule of eights is Shell 1, which can only hold 2 electrons

 Reactive Elements
 Valence shells are not full and are unstable
 Tend to gain, lose, or share electrons
o Allow bond formation, which produces stable valence

 Chemical Bonds
 Ionic Bonds
 o Atoms become stable through the transfer of electrons
o Form when electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another
 Ions
Result from the loss or gain of electrons
o
 Anions are negative due to gain of electron(s)
 Cations are positive due to loss of electron(s)
 Covalent Bonds
o Atoms become stable through shared electrons
o Electrons are shared in pairs
o Single covalent bonds share one pair of electron
o Double covalent bonds share two pairs of electrons
o Covalent bonds are either nonpolar or polar
 Nonpolar
 Electrons are shared equally between the atoms of the molecule
 Electrically neutral as a molecule
 Polar
 Electrons are not shares equally between the atoms of the molecule
 Have positive and negative side or pole
 Hydrogen Bonds
 Weak chemical bonds
 Hydrogen is attracted to the negative portion of polar molecule
 Provide attraction between molecules

Patterns of Chemical Reactions

 Synthesis Reaction (A + B → AB)
 Atoms or molecules are combine
 Energy is absorbed for bond formation
 Decomposition Reaction (AB → A + B)
 Molecule is broken down
 Chemical energy is released
 Exchange Reaction (AB + C → AC + B)
 Involves both synthesis and decomposition reactions
 Switch is made between molecule parts and different molecules are made

Biochemistry: Essentials for Life

 Organic Compounds
 Contain carbon
 Most are covalently bonded
 Includes carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
 Inorganic Compounds
 Lack carbon
 Tend to be simpler compounds
 Includes water, salts, and some acids and bases

Important Inorganic Compounds

 Water
 Most abundant inorganic compound in the body
 Vital properties
o High heat capacity
o Polarity/ solvent properties
o Chemical reactivity
 o Cushioning

 Salts
 Easily dissociate into ions in the presence of water
 Vital to many body functions
 Include electrolytes which conduct electrical currents
 Acids
 Release hydrogen ions (H+)
 Are proton donors
 Bases
 Release hydroxyl ions (OH-)
 Are proton acceptors
 Neutralization Reaction
 Acids and bases react to form water and a salt

pH
 Measures relative concentration of hydrogen ions
 pH 7 – neutral
 pH below 7 – acidic
 pH above 7 – basic
 Buffers – chemicals that can regulate pH change

Chemical Reactions
 Dehydration synthesis – monomers or building blocks are joined to form polymers through the removal of
water molecules
 Hydrolysis – polymers are broken down into monomers through the addition of water molecules