LECTURES

ON

FRICTION
(Introduction and basic theories)
 This famous portrait titled Mona Lisa, which is one of the
most-discussed works of art ever and also the creator of
this magnificent piece of art, Leonardo da Vinci needs
no introduction.
However, such was the versatility of Leonardo Da
Vinci (1452-1519) that even in the study of friction, he has
been widely credited with the first quantifiable
investigations of friction, and with the definition of the
two fundamental ‘laws’ of friction.

Leonardo was fully familiar with the basic concepts of friction, lubrication and wear, which
taken together is known today as Tribology. The word tribology derives from the Greek
tribos which means rubbing. In literal sense it is the science of rubbing. The word tribology
was first coined almost 450 years after the death of Leonardo da Vinci.

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 Leonardo never published his findings on friction and he never got credit for his visionary
findings. His notebooks comprise a diverse collection of writings and sketches with a
complex history, where study of friction of simple blocks, screw threads, wheels and axles
and many more is evident.
Leonardo’s basic laws of sliding friction, stated in1493
were later articulated by Guillaume Amontons (1663-
1705) and Charles August Coulomb (1736-1806).
These simple statements, which have wide
applicability, are:

• The force of friction acting between two sliding

From Codex Arundel, British Library, London
(Arundelfolio41rc.1500–05)
Reference: Ian M. Hutchings, Leonardo da Vinci's studies of friction,
Wear, Volumes 360–361, 15 August 2016, Pages 51-66
surfaces is proportional to the load pressing the
surfaces together(i.e. the forces have a constant
ratio, often called the coefficient of friction),and
• The force of friction is independent of the apparent
area of contact between the two surfaces.

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Whenever one contacting surface has a tendency to slide over another surface, the
tangential force generated between the contacting surfaces is known as friction
force and it always opposes the cause which creates the tendency to slide.

In machines and processes, such as, all types of bearings, power screws, gears, flow of
fluid through pipes and flow of air over a moving car, we desire to reduce the friction.
Sometimes lubrication is also used to reduce friction between the mating parts of a
machine. Whereas, in certain situations like brakes, belt drives, car tyres, even in shoes
used for normal walking, we look for maximisation of friction.

Due to friction there is a loss of energy which is dissipated in the form of heat and the
mating parts will be subjected to wear.

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Let us look at the types of frictional resistance encountered in mechanics.

Fluid Friction: It is developed when adjacent layers in a fluid body (liquid or gas) moves
with different velocities. The measure of the frictional force is dependent on relative
velocity between the layers (velocity gradient)and the viscosity of the fluid. This topic
will be treated further in the course of fluid mechanics.

Internal Friction: It occurs in all solid materials that undergoes cyclic loading. For highly
elastic materials the recovery of deformation is associated with very little loss of energy
caused due to internal friction. However for materials of lower limit of elasticity and
can undergo appreciable plastic deformation during loading, the internal friction due
to deformation may be considerable. The mechanism of internal friction is associated
with shear deformation; that will be treated in the course of material science.

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Let us focus on the Dry Friction, which is the most common type of frictional resistance that
we will study in the course of basic mechanics. Dry friction arises between two un-
lubricated solid surfaces in contact, having a tendency to slide or sliding.

n
P
t

Fig. 1b R1 R2 R3 Fig. 1c
Fig. 1a

In the Fig.1a, a force P is acting on a block of mass m, the corresponding free body
diagram (FBD) is shown in Fig.1b. Here N is the normal force, F is the friction force and the
reaction R is the resultant of N and F. The frictional force F will be always acting opposite to
P which creates a tendency of sliding of the block. The contact surfaces are never truly
smooth, the irregularities on the surfaces offer resistance to relative motion as shown in
Fig.1c. The friction force F is the sum of the components of R in the t direction and the
normal force N is the sum of the components of R in the n direction. Therefore, R will be
nearly vertical for a very smooth surface.
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 n
In the beginning, the irregularities are in close mesh and offer
P
more resistance to relative motion. But as the force P increases
t
the contacts move more closer to the top of the hump and the
R1 R2 R3
relative motion of the block is initiated. This explanation helps us
Fig. 1c
to understand that why less force is required to maintain motion
than that required to initiate the motion of the block.
Friction force is independent of projected area of contact. The true contact area is
much lesser than the projected area, as only the peak of the asperities support the load
and also high stresses are produced at the contacts. With the increase in load, the
material is subjected to yielding, crushing or tearing at the points of contact, resulting in
the increase of true area. The other factors that influence dry friction are molecular
attraction at the very close contacts, generation of high local temperature and
adhesion at the contact points, relative hardness of the materials in contact, presence
of films of oxide, dirt etc. However, studies on the effects of the factors mentioned above
are beyond the scope of the explanation presented here.
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 The path OI, shown in Fig.1d represents the increase of friction force F
with the increase in applied force P. However, there is no relative motion
between the bodies in this zone till the frictional resistance reaches its
maximum value at the point I. Then after, with slight increase in P, relative
motion between the bodies initiates; this is known as point of impending
Fig. 1d motion or impending slippage. At this point only, the magnitude of
maximum friction is proportional to the normal reaction and written as,

Fmax = μs N, where μs is the coefficient of static friction. ...(A)

However, in the zone of static friction (OI), for any other point, excluding I, the friction
force may be determined from the equations of equilibrium.

After the slippage, kinetic friction prevails with the subsequent motion. Kinetic friction is
normally less than the maximum static friction force and written as,
Fk = μk N, where μk is the coefficient of kinetic friction. ...(B)
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 Once again, referring to Fig. 1b, we can write in general,
μ = F/N = R sin φ /R cos φ = tan φ (impending condition)

Fig. 1b
Thus, visual look of angle φ gives us an idea of surface roughness; smaller
value of φ represents a smoother surface and vis-à-vis.

Let us solve a problem to summarise what we have learnt so far.

Problem statement: What is the range of P for which the block is in equilibrium?
Let P=Peq when the body is in equilibrium. The force P is gradually increased and impending
motion up the plane is observed when P=Pmax (Fig. 2b). Similarly, when P is gradually
decreased, for impending motion down the plane let P=Pmin (Fig. 2c).
Equilibrium equations:
Normal to incline → N – mg cos300 = 0, or N= mg cos 300 = 849.6 N …(1)
(Fig. 2b) along the incline → Pmax – F – mg sin300 = 0, or Pmax = μN + mg sin300 = 745.4 N
…(2)
(Fig. 2c) along the incline → Pmin + F – mg sin300 = 0, or Pmin = – μN + mg sin300= 235.6 N
…(3) 9
 Equation
P F Remark
Note that by considering impending motion the equations (2) and (3) could be used
Impending motion
solved by substituting F=μN (Eq. A), which we get from the law of friction. The 745.4 254.9 2 up the plane

range of P for which the given body is in equilibrium is 235.6 N < P < 745.4 N. Friction
650 159.5 2
down the plane
Friction
550 59.5 2
For any other value of P, within the equilibrium zone either of the equations (2) or down the plane

(3) may be used to determine F, where sign associated with F shows the actual 490.5 0.0 2 No Friction
Friction
direction of the friction force. Fig. 2d shows friction forces in the equilibrium zone 450 -40.5 2
up the plane
Friction
for few values of P. 350 -140.5 2
up the plane
Fig. 2d Impending motion
What we have learnt by solving the problem ? 235.6 254.9 3 down the plane

▪ If impending condition is considered, it is necessary to indicate actual direction of friction force in

the FBD as magnitude and direction of friction force are known from the physical consideration
stated in equation (A).
▪ If friction force is unknown (not an impending condition), then we use equilibrium equation.
▪ Moment equation can not be written if point of application of F and N is not known.
▪ Correct assumption of condition of impending motion helps to simplify or solve a problem as the
friction term in the equilibrium equations are known. 10
Example Problem: What is the minimum force P required to create motion of the blocks?
W2
1m W1
P N1 When force P is applied (Fig. 3a), (i) the top block may
P F1
W1 W1 = 1 kN
1m

W2 = 1.2 kN topple, (ii) the top block may slide over the lower block
μ1 =0.35 O F2
W2 F1 and (iii) two blocks may slide together.
μ2 =0.15 N2
N1
Fig. 3b Fig. 3c
Fig. 3a Let us examine each possibilities.

(i) At the impending toppling condition, friction and normal force will act at O; also may be considered to act
along the perpendicular axis at O (Fig.3b). The equations of equilibrium are:
N1 - W1 =0 or N1 = 1kN ...(1)
P - F1 = 0 or P = F1 = μ1N1 = 0.35x1 kN =350 N ...(2)
P x 1 – W x 0.5 =0 or P = 500 N ...(3)
Comparing the values of P from (2) and (3), it is observed that the top block will slide before toppling takes
place. Therefore, condition (ii) prevails.

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 Next, considering FBD of the lower block(Fig. 3c), equations of equilibrium are:
N1 – N2 + W1 =0 or N2 = 2.2 kN ...(4)
W2
N1 Both F1 and F2 can not be at impending condition simultaneously. As F1 is
F1
considered to be at impending condition, so F2 has to be determined from
F2 equilibrium equation.
N2
Fig. 3c F2 - F1 = 0 or F2 = F1 = 350 N …(5)
The maximum value of F2 = μ2N2 = 0.15 X 2.2 kN = 330 N < 350 N …(6)
Therefore, from equations (5) and (6), it is observed that the lower block will slide
over the ground surface before impending slippage takes place at the interface of
the blocks. From equation (5), the actual value of F1 = 330 N.
Hence, condition (iii) is satisfied, which is: two blocks will slide together over the
ground surface .
One may also investigate the possibility of two blocks may topple together.
However, this is a remote possibility.

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Slipping and rolling friction
P
Fig.4a shows that force P is applied to the handle of a roller on a
P
horizontal ground. A magnified view shows how the force is transmitted
O
to the roller through the shaft attached to the handle. The roller is
Fig. 4a moving towards right for which a frictional resistance between the shaft
W
and roller body is shown as an equivalent anti-clockwise moment MO .
The FBD of the roller is shown in Fig.4b.
PH MO
Pv The force PH , required for rolling at uniform speed, merely overcomes
F
Fig. 4b (i) the resistance from the ground and (ii) that at the shaft and roller
R N
interface. At any instant during rolling there is no relative motion
between the roller and the ground at the point of contact.
Therefore, large amount of friction force is reduced in rolling of a body compared to slipping.
However, some resistance is offered during rolling, but that is smaller than the friction at the
impending slippage. In most problems we may neglect MO as shaft and roller interface is normally
lubricated or fitted with bearings; similar to our concept of frictionless pulley or pin joints.

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 W
It is evident from Fig.4b that when MO = 0, F and PH do not exist (Fig. 4c). This

PH MO means that no resistance to the roller exist from the ground and the roller will
Pv continue to move at a uniform speed without stopping, which never happens
F
R N
Fig. 4b in practice. The roller shown in Fig.4c is named as Free Wheel. In the reality,
the bodies in contact will deform, and R will act at a distance a, shown in Fig.
W
4d. Here we consider that a horizontal force P is acting to overcome ground
resistance only. We observe that,
Pv
W= N = R cos φ …(1) and P = F =R sin φ …(2).
N Fig. 4c Normally the contact area is small, thereby angle φ is also small and that
sin φ=tan φ = a/r … (3). Combining (1), (2) and (3) we get,
W
P= Wa/r …(4)
P r where a is the co-efficient of rolling resistance and it has a unit of length.
r
A typical electric locomotive to haul Rajdhani express at 120 kmph with 19
F
a
φ coaches, consumes only around 3000kW. This is possible because wheels and
Fig. 4d
N R
tracks are made of hardened steel, therefore contact deformation is small
and for that a is very small and resistance to rolling is also low.
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 W1
N1
1
Problem Statement: What is the minimum force P
F1
1
P O P required to rollout the cylinder (Fig. 5a)?
r d
d = 200 mm
2 r = 600 mm W2 There are two possibilities to rollout:
W2
W1= 2000 N F2
2
Fig. 5a W2= 3000 N N2 Fig. 5b (i) Impending slippage at 1 and rolling over the ground at 2.
μ1=0.3, μ2=0.2
(ii) Impending slippage at 2 and rolling over the block at 1.

(i) Impending slippage at 1 and rolling over the ground at 2.

The FBD of the roller is shown in Fig.5b. The direction of F1 must be opposite to the direction of impending
slippage. However, F2 is unknown and can be determined from the equilibrium equations which are:
N1= W1 =2 kN (from FBD of top block, not shown) …(1)
N2= N1+ W1= 5 kN …(2)
P= F1 + F2 …(3)
and ∑ MO =0, F1 x 400 = F2 x 800 …(4)
F1 = F1(max) =μ1N1 = 0.3 x 2 kN = 600 N; from equation (4), F2= 300 N < F2(max) = μ2N2 =0.2 x 5kN = 1000N
As F1> F2 and F2< F2(max), condition (i) is satisfied. To roll the cylinder, from equation (3) we get P=900N
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 N1 (ii) Impending slippage at 2 and rolling over the block at 1.
1
F1
O P From the FBD shown in Fig.5b, we observe,
F2(max) = μ2N2 = 0.2 x 5kN = 1000N and from equation (4) we get, F1 =2000N
W2
F2
N2
2 Here, F1 > F1(max) , therefore, the cylinder will not roll but slip at both 1 and 2.
Fig. 5b
From equation(3), the required force, P = F1 + F2 = 3000N >> 900N (i)

Conclusion: Cylinder will slip at 1 and roll over the ground at 2 for P=900N.

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 Problem Statement: determine the horizontal force P
P W
needed to push the beam at a constant speed over series of
ab = 0.2 mm
ag = 0.4 mm
massless rollers. Co-efficient of rolling resistances given at the
W = 1.2 kN
r = 15 mm contact surfaces are for all the rollers taken together (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6
The FBD of the beam is shown in Fig.6a. All internal and external forces are
Ws
assumed for a single roller. Co-efficient of rolling resistances at the top and
Ps bottom of the roller are the distances a1 and a2 respectively as shown in Fig. 6b.
F1 R1 and R2 are the reactions from the beam and the ground at the deformed
N1
R1 Fig. 6a contact points. It is observed that the massless roller is a two force member,
a1 hence we can write, R1 = R2 and the line of action do not pass through the center
R1 F1 of the roller. Now, equilibrium equations suggest that,
N1 Ps = F1 (Fig.6a) and F1 = F2 = F (Fig.6b) ...(1)
≈ 2r
r Ws = N1 (Fig.6a) and N1 = N2 = N (Fig.6b) ...(2) and
N2
F2
R2
N x (a1+ a2) = F x 2r ...(3), therefore, combining (1), (2) and (3) we get,
a2 Fig. 6b Ps = F = Ws (a1+ a2)/2r or for all rollers P = W(ab+ ag)/2r = 24 N
For roller with weight Wr , N2 = N1 + Wr , P = (W x ab+ N2 x ag)/2r
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