Fundamentals of Roadway

Geometric Design:
Horizontal Alignment and
Superelevation

Rod E. Turochy, Ph.D., P.E.

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Fundamentals of Roadway
Geometric Design:
Horizontal Alignment and
Superelevation
• Horizontal Alignment Concepts

• Stationing and Bearings

• Horizontal Curve Design

• Superelevation Transition

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Horizontal Alignment and

Superelevation

Objectives:

• Understand basic philosophies in

establishing a horizontal alignment

• Review concepts of stationing and

bearings

• Analyze relationships among horizontal

curve elements

• Design a horizontal curve

• Describe superelevation transition of a

roadway

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CIVL 4530 – Fall 2020
Unit 5: Horizontal Alignment 1
 Horizontal Alignment

• Road viewed from a plan view

• Centerline consists of tangents and

horizontal curves

• Alignment should be selected as to conform

to the existing terrain (as governed by
minimum curve radii) and to minimize impact
on surrounding properties

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Horizontal Alignment:
Initial Steps

• Step 1: Tentatively establish a series of

horizontal tangents from one end of the
project to the other.

• Step 2: Fit a horizontal curve at each point

of intersection (PI) between two adjoining
tangents

• A curve facilitates a change in the direction

of a road by an amount Δ (the difference
between the direction of the first tangent and
the second).

• Δ = central (or intersection) angle

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Horizontal Alignment:
Curve Concepts

Design criteria:

• Curve radius and rate of superelevation

must be safe for the design speed

• Must provide adequate stopping sight

distance

• Typically circular in shape

• On occasion, a spiral curve may be used (to

provide for a “smoother” transition in and out
of curve)

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CIVL 4530 – Fall 2020
Unit 5: Horizontal Alignment 2
 Horizontal Alignment:
Curve Stationing

• Stationing:

• PC: Point of curve (where curve begins)

• PI: Point of intersection (where tangents meet)

• PT: Point of tangency (where curve ends)

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Stationing Calculations

• Stationing is the concept of assigning

distances along a line, such as a survey
baseline (initial field survey) or centerline
(design)

• Every location along a baseline or centerline

has a station:

10+00.00 45+30.12

• The “+” is a placeholder, not a mathematical

operator
• Note: Common convention is to carry all
distances to the nearest 0.01 ft

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Stationing Calculations

• The “+” placeholder marks intervals of 100 ft

, typically called a “whole station” or “full
station”

• So…the distance from station 13+00.00 to

station 14+00.00 is 100.00 ft

Example: How far apart are these two

stations?

10+00.00 45+30.12

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CIVL 4530 – Fall 2020
Unit 5: Horizontal Alignment 3
 Stationing Adjustments/Equations

• The stationing pattern can change along a

baseline or centerline

• This can happen when the roadway under

design ties into an existing roadway -- the
stationing will not automatically coincide

• This is typically addressed using “ahead”

and “back” stationing and an “equation” at
the point in which this change occurs

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Bearings Calculations

• A bearing refers to the direction and

orientation of a line

• The bearing of a line is always referenced

as a rotation from a north-south meridian
For example:

References a line that is

rotated clockwise 73°30’48”
east of due north

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Bearings Applied:
Calculating Central Angle of a
Horizontal Curve

• An initial attempt at establishing a horizontal

alignment involves drawing tangents

• These tangents have bearings

• The angle turned from one bearing to the

next (at the PI of a curve), along a baseline
or center line, is the difference between the
bearings…

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CIVL 4530 – Fall 2020
Unit 5: Horizontal Alignment 4
 Bearings Applied:
Calculating Central Angle Of a
Horizontal Curve

• Three “cases” can exist…

• Case #1: In the same quadrant  subtract!

• Case #2: Angle turns across a N-S meridian  add!

• Case #3: Angle turns across a E-W line  add, then

subtract from 180°

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Example: Bearings and

Intersection Angles

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Types Of Horizontal Curves

(& Combinations Thereof)

• Simple: A segment of a circle of radius R.

• Compound: Two or more simple curves, of

radius R1, R2, etc., that turn in the same
direction, with any two successive curves
having a common tangent.

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Unit 5: Horizontal Alignment 5
 Types Of Horizontal Curves
(& Combinations Thereof)

• Reverse: Two simple curves, typically with

equal radii ,turning in opposite directions and
with a common tangent or endpoint.

• Spiral: Transition curves of changing radii that

connect the tangent with the circular curve or
with another curve when large differences in
radii exist.

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Horizontal Curve Geometry

• Seven key elements of a simple (circular)

horizontal curve are typically defined:

• Δ or I (central, turning, or intersection angle)

• R (Radius) and/or D (Degree of curvature)

• L (Length of curve)

• T (length of Tangent)

• C (length of long Chord)

• E (External ordinate)

• M (Middle ordinate)
• Relationships exist so that if any two
variables are known….

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Radius & Degree of Curve

• Degree of curve is another way to express

“how sharp” a curve is…

• The angle subtended from the center of

curve while traversing a 100 ft arc along the
curve (going from one full station to the next)

• Therefore, degree of curve is simply another

way to express the radius:

100 ft L 2R
 
D  360

• Degree of curve is to 100ft as Δ (I) is to the

length of the curve

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CIVL 4530 – Fall 2020
Unit 5: Horizontal Alignment 6
 Horizontal Curve Geometry

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Horizontal Curve Data From

Geometric Layout Sheet

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Horizontal Curve Data: East Glenn

Avenue

• Built in 2000
• Designed in the
metric system
• V = 80 km/h =
50 mph

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CIVL 4530 – Fall 2020
Unit 5: Horizontal Alignment 7
 Example: Horizontal Curve Data
East Glenn Avenue

Design speed = 80 km/h = 50 mi/h

• ∆ = 145°04’17”
• R = 301.00 m = 987.52 ft
• L = 762.13 m = 2500.38 ft
• e = 7.5%

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Design Of Horizontal (Simple)

Curve
• Procedure:

• Locate horizontal tangents

• Locate station of the PI and the central

angle, Δ

• Stations (and lengths) are typically

calculated to the 0.01 ft (e.g. Sta 19+25.53)

• Angles are typically presented in degrees-

minutes-seconds (e.g. Δ = 50º 22’ 30”)

• Central angle is the difference between the

bearings of the two tangents

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Design Of Horizontal (Simple)

Curve
• Determine radius and degree of curve based
on design speed and maximum rate of
superelevation
v2
R
15(e  fs )

• This formula, derived from physics concepts,

has been set up for particular set of units:

• R (radius) in ft

• V (design speed) in mi/h

• e (superelevation rate) as a decimal

• fs (side friction) as a decimal

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CIVL 4530 – Fall 2020
Unit 5: Horizontal Alignment 8
 Design Of Horizontal (Simple)
Curve

• Notes on selecting a horizontal curve radius:

• Use largest radius practical, rather than the

calculated minimum, if possible, to minimize
the extent of superelevation (avoid e = emax)

• Historically (before computer-aided design):

• Curves were typically designed using degree of

curve, D …

• R is converted to D and then rounded down to

nearest whole number (sometimes to 0.5º or
0.25º when D is small)

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Back in the Day….

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Horizontal Curve Design (Cont.):

Radius & Superelevation
Current ALDOT Practice

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CIVL 4530 – Fall 2020
Unit 5: Horizontal Alignment 9
 Horizontal Curve Design (Cont.)

Find the stations of the PC and PT

• Calculate length of tangent: 

T  R tan
• STA PC = STA PI – T 2

• Length of Curve: R

L
• STA PT = STA PC + L 180

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Horizontal Curve Design (Cont.)

• Calculation of other curve elements

• Long chord (from the PC to the PT)

C  2 R sin
2
• Middle ordinate


M  R (1  cos )
2
• External distance


E  R{[1 /(1  cos )]  1}
2

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Example: Horizontal Curve

Calculations

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Unit 5: Horizontal Alignment 10
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Unit 5: Horizontal Alignment 11
 Compound Curve

2 or more horizontal curves in succession that:

–are in the same direction but have different radii

–share a common endpoint (the PT of the 1st

curve is also the PC of the 2nd curve), referred
to as the PCC (point of compound curve)

Uses (acceptable according to the Green Book):

–ramps and loops at interchanges

–approaches to at-grade intersections

–difficult terrain

–generally not used except in these

circumstances

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Compound Curve

Design considerations:

• ratio of radii in any two successive curves

that constitute a compound curve should not
be greater than 1.5:1

• approaching at-grade intersections, this

ratio can be up to 2:1; a minimum length
criterion is imposed for each of two
successive curves when the ratio of radii is
2:1

• when the ratio of radii must be greater than

2:1 due to design or right-of-way
constraints, a spiral curve should be used
between simple circular curves

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Reverse Curve

2 horizontal curves in succession that:

–are in opposing directions but may have the

same radii

–share a common endpoint (the PT of the 1st

curve is also the PC of the 2nd curve),
referred to as the PCC (point of compound
curve)

Uses (acceptable according to the Green Book):

–ramps and loops at interchanges

–temporary detours

–severe right-of-way constraints

–generally not used except in the above

circumstances

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CIVL 4530 – Fall 2020
Unit 5: Horizontal Alignment 12
 Reverse Curve

• In general highway sections, it is preferable

to have two simple circular curves
connected by a tangent section rather than a
reverse curve

• minimize drivers’ difficulty in maintaining

lane position

• tangent allows for transition into

superelevation to begin before curve begins

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Superelevation Transition

• Superelevation / Attainment of superelevation /

Transition to superelevation:

• Superelevation transition length: The distance

along a roadway required to transition from
normal crown to full superelevation

–Length of transition is a function of:

–Design Speed

–Rate of Superelevation

–Pavement Width

–Number of Lanes

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Superelevation Transition

After a horizontal curve has been designed:

• (radius and rate of superelevation

determined)

The next question is…

• How do we transition from normal crown

section to full superelevation?
•  Calculate the superelevation transition
length (STL)

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CIVL 4530 – Fall 2020
Unit 5: Horizontal Alignment 13
 Superelevation Transition

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Placement of the Transition

• Some of the rotation into full superelevation

should occur on the tangent and some on the
curve itself

• AASHTO (Green Book) recommends placing

the PC at between 60% and 80% of the
transition length

• ALDOT: 80/20 split (of the entire STL)

• Many states, including Virginia, use 2:1

(66.7%/33.3%) split
• VDOT: this split is of the superelevation runoff
portion only, not the entire STL

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Superelevation Diagram
(Profile View)

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CIVL 4530 – Fall 2020
Unit 5: Horizontal Alignment 14
 Superelevation Diagram
(Section View)

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ALDOT Procedure for

Undivided Highways:
Determination of Critical Stations

Find station at beginning of transition (end NC):

• Remember the 80:20 split!

• Multiply STL by 0.80 and subtract from PC

Find station of zero crown (ZC) or crown removed

(CR) [outside lane is level]:

• Multiply STL by the ratio of the change in cross-

slope from NC to ZC (typically 0.02, from -0.02 to 0)
to the total change from NC to e (typically 0.02 + e)

• Add this product to the station at end NC

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ALDOTALDOT Procedure
Procedure for
For Undivided
Undivided Highways:
Highways:
Determination of
Determination of Critical
Critical Stations
Stations

Find station of reverse crown (RC):

• Multiply STL by the ratio of the change in

cross-slope from NC to RC (typically 0.04,
from -0.02 to +0.02) to the total change from
NC to e (typically 0.02 + e)

• Add this product to the station at end NC

Find station at end of transition:

• Add STL to the station at end NC

• Should be the same as multiplying STL by

0.20 and adding to the PC

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CIVL 4530 – Fall 2020
Unit 5: Horizontal Alignment 15
 Superelevation on Low-Speed
Subdivision Streets

• Streets that are intended for low speed

residential traffic (e.g., streets in
subdivisions that would be posted at 25
mph) typically do not have horizontal curves
superelevated (normal crown section is
carried through such curves)

• Such streets would typically be functionally

classified as urban local streets
• This is often addressed in design standards
of cities, counties, or states that have
responsibility for county roads

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Fundamentals of Roadway
Geometric Design:
Horizontal Alignment and
Superelevation
• Horizontal Alignment Concepts

• Stationing and Bearings

• Horizontal Curve Design

• Superelevation Transition

93 94

Fundamentals of Roadway
Geometric Design:
Horizontal Alignment and
Superelevation

Rod E. Turochy, Ph.D., P.E.

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CIVL 4530 – Fall 2020
Unit 5: Horizontal Alignment 16