Understanding Shakespeare Othello

3 AUDIOBOOK COLLECTIONS
6 BOOK COLLECTIONS
UNDERSTANDING
SHAKESPEARE:
OTHELLO
UNDERSTANDING
SHAKESPEARE:
OTHELLO
Robert A. Albano
MERCURYE PRESS
Los Angeles
UNDERSTANDING SHAKESPEARE:
OTHELLO
Robert A. Albano
First Printing: August 2010
All Rights Reserved © 2010 by Robert A. Albano
The text presented in this volume appeared earlier

as part of Understanding Shakespeare's
Tragedies (2009).
No part of this book may be reproduced or

transmitted in any form or by any means, graphic,
electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, taping, or by any information storage
retrieval system, without the written permission of the
publisher.
MERCURYE PRESS
Los Angeles
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction ………………………………. 11
Act I ................................................. 17
Act II ................................................. 53
Act III ................................................. 73
Act IV ................................................. 91
Act V ................................................. 109
Final Comments ........................................... 121
Other Books by Robert A. Albano
Middle English Historiography
Lectures on Early English Literature
Lectures on British Neoclassic Literature
Understanding Shakespeare's Tragedies
Understanding the Poetry of William Wordsworth
Robert Albano is an Associate Professor of English

Literature in Taiwan.
NOTE: All act and scene divisions and lines numbers
referred to in this text are consistent with those found
in The Norton Shakespeare (Stephen Greenblatt,
editor).
INTRODUCTION
Just as Macbeth may be viewed as a play

primarily about ambition, the play of Othello may be
viewed as a tragedy primarily concerning jealousy.
Shakespeare usually presents his audience not only
an impelling dramatic experience, but also a study of
a strong and intense emotion, desire, feeling, or
passion that overwhelms the protagonist and
conquers his rational abilities. Thus, once again,
Shakespeare is presenting a play where the principal
conflict could be termed as one of Reason vs.
Emotion. During Shakespeare’s time the Christian
viewpoint was that God has presented man with a
special gift – Reason. And with that gift man is
capable of controlling his whims, passions, and
desires. A man who did not control his emotions was,
therefore, viewed as weak and lazy. Shakespeare,
however, did not agree with this Christian
perspective. Time and again, play after play,
Shakespeare presents a strong, noble, virtuous
aristocrat who becomes trapped by a powerful
emotion and who is defeated by it. This situation
happens to Macbeth, it happens to Othello, and it
happens to Lear. Shakespeare understood, more so
than most of his contemporaries, just how powerful
and overwhelming the emotions could be.
Shakespeare realized that emotions could become so
powerful that they could ruin or destroy a man.
11
Understanding Shakespeare: Othello
To describe a Shakespeare play with just one

word, though, is a huge oversimplification. And,
indeed, the play of Othello is about more than just
jealousy. But this particular drama, perhaps more so
than any other of Shakespeare’s tragedies, has eluded
some critics. These critics have overlooked the
richness of the play because it does not contain the
complex structure of the other tragedies. Othello
does not contain any subplots or lengthy comic
interludes. All of the scenes relate directly to the
main action of the story. And, thus, certain critics
have dismissed the play as being somehow less rich
and satisfying than Shakespeare’s other major
tragedies.
Yet, Shakespeare never is quite that simple.
And in this play, Shakespeare adds another
dimension and point of interest for the audience with
the character of Iago. The character of Iago is the
antagonist to Othello. Iago is, quite certainly, the
villain of the play. But Shakespeare develops this
character far more carefully and subtly than villains
of other Renaissance plays. One of the ways
Shakespeare develops this character is by the use of
the soliloquy (a speech or monologue that reveals the
inner thoughts of the character). Typically, the
protagonist delivers the lengthy or principal soliloquy
in the early acts of a tragedy. But in Othello Iago
delivers not just one, but three of these speeches.
Shakespeare liked to stretch the boundaries
and limitations of playwriting. Shakespeare liked to
12
experiment and move in new directions. And he was

doing so in Othello with his character of Iago. By
having this character present three speeches in the
early part of this play, Shakespeare has taken the
attention off of Othello and placed it on his villain.
Iago becomes the central point of attention in the play.
In a sense, viewing the play from a different
perspective, one could examine the character of Iago
as a protagonist. Indeed, he is a vicious and cruel
protagonist. And in the literature of later centuries
such negative protagonists are referred to as anti-
heroes. Although Shakespeare is not the first writer
to present an anti-hero in literature, this play does
establish an innovation in literature because the
boundaries have become blurred: the audience cannot
simply point to Iago as the villain of the piece or as
the protagonist of the piece. But like Othello, Iago is
a figure who experiences a tragic fall. And like
Othello, that fall is due to an overwhelming passion
or desire.
One aspect of Iago’s character that has caused
many critics to pass over him is his evil nature. The
major question for some critics and audience
members is this: Is Iago just too evil to be
believable? Indeed, the extent of Iago’s evil is quite
great; and many people cannot believe that anyone
could be so downright wicked. But other critics and
audience members believe that there are many Iagos
in this world, as accounts in history and newspapers
often seem to indicate.
13
The character of Iago is actually quite a

complex figure. And a successful production of this
play requires an extremely gifted actor who can make
the character both fascinating and repulsive to the
audience at the same time. The audience is intrigued
by this character and wants to learn more about him.
Yet, at the same time, the audience hates this figure
and hopes for his capture and punishment.
As with most Shakespeare plays, the role of
fate must be taken into consideration in a study of
this play. There are no witches or other supernatural
agents in Othello. But there is a supernatural force,
unseen and unheard, that propels events into a certain
tragic path. At first events occur to the favor of Iago,
who proclaims himself superior to the forces of fate.
But in time the forces of fate catch up with the
wicked figure who believes that he can manipulate
the lives of others like so many puppets on his strings.
Finally, a word should be said about
postmodern productions of Othello in America.
Perhaps sometime around the 1960s theater
producers envisioned an Othello who represented or
symbolized the black man who struggled up from
slavery to achieve greatness. Indeed, the problem of
slavery during the 19th century forms a sad chapter of
American history; and civil rights movements of the
20th century certainly did need to point to that tragic
past in order to pave the way toward a better future.
But Shakespeare’s play, written centuries earlier, has
nothing to do with that. Othello is an aristocrat. He
14
is a nobleman from northern Africa. And, as such, he

bears far more in common with Shakespeare’s other
tragic heroes, such as Macbeth or Lear, than he does
with the black slaves of America. In short, the
connection of Othello to slavery is misleading and
inappropriate. It is a misinterpretation of the play.
However, the issue of prejudice does play a
role in this play. Just as today, prejudice existed in
Shakespeare’s time. And Shakespeare was certainly
aware of this and included some of the attitudes
towards black Africans that appeared in his time. But
prejudice is not the major focus or issue of this play.
The play of Othello succeeds because the members of
the audience can relate to and sympathize with
Othello. The members of the audience feel the
passion and experience the anguish of this man. The
members of the audience even come to identify
themselves with Othello. In this manner,
Shakespeare actually overcomes the prejudices of his
own audience, who see Othello not as a black man or
as an aristocrat, but just as a man, someone who is
human just like themselves.
15
ACT I
ACT I, 1: IAGO, THE CON MAN
The first scene begins in the middle of a

conversation between Iago and Roderigo. They are
talking on a street in Venice, a port city on the east
side of Italy. Roderigo is a gentleman, which
indicates he is a man of high social standing. He is
also, apparently, a man of some wealth. But, as will
be quickly revealed, Roderigo is also something of a
fool. Roderigo is in love. But the woman he loves
does not love him in return. So, like any stereotyped
unrequited lover, Roderigo acts foolishly. He will
do anything to win Desdemona; and he does not think
rationally.
Iago is an ensign in the navy of Venice. At
the time of the story, Italy is politically divided into
city-states. Each city has its own military force and
its own independent rulers. In this case, a duke rules
Venice. An ensign in the Venetian navy is an
extremely high and honorable rank. In fact, Iago
holds the third highest rank in the service. Only the
Captain (Othello) and the Lieutenant (Cassio) rank
above him.
Iago, as will also be quickly revealed in the
play, is a false friend to Roderigo. Iago does not
actually like Roderigo at all, but Iago somehow
learned about Roderigo’s foolish love. And, so, Iago
17
has decided to take advantage of him. The clever

Iago knows that this unrequited lover will do
anything to win Desdemona. Roderigo is even
willing to spend all of his money to get Desdemona.
And the greedy Iago realizes that he can easily take
away Roderigo’s money and tell him that he is using
it to buy expensive gifts for Desdemona. Thus, Iago
is becoming rich by fooling the foolish Roderigo.
Iago, then, is also a con man (from confidence man):
he knows how to con or cheat people out of their
money by falsely gaining their confidence.
The first few lines of the play indicate that
Roderigo has been giving his money to Iago.
Roderigo complains that Iago has his “purse as if the
strings were thine” (2-3: thine means yours). The
word purse here refers to a money-bag, and Roderigo
is complaining that Iago is spending all of his money.
More importantly, Roderigo is upset because Iago
has just told him that Desdemona has eloped (run
away to get married) with Othello. Roderigo now
feels crushed; he feels that his life is over. He is also
beginning to realize that he foolishly gave his money
away to Iago.
18
ACT I, 1: PREFERMENT
The first scene then begins to develop the

motivation and reason for Iago’s actions throughout
the rest of the play. And, at first look, Iago’s reasons
appear to be justified.
Iago tries to explain to Roderigo that he had
no idea that Desdemona would ever run away with
Othello, and Roderigo mentions that Iago had said
that he hated Othello (6).
Iago then begins a speech about his feelings
toward Othello. Apparently, the Venetian navy lost
its lieutenant; and Othello had to choose a
replacement. Iago, as next highest ranking officer
and as an experienced soldier, would be the logical
choice. But, instead, Othello chose Cassio to be the
lieutenant. In addition to having experience and high
rank, Iago also arranged for three high officials of the
city to personally recommend him to Othello. But
Othello ignored all of this and still chose Cassio.
Iago complains that Othello is too full of pride (12).
Iago is saying that Othello ignored logic and
references because he is too proud to accept advice
from others. Iago, who proves to be a good judge of
character, may be right. Othello is essentially a good
man, but he does have his faults.
Iago further complains that Cassio was a poor
choice. For one, Cassio is a Florentine (from the city
of Florence: line 19). Although Florence is a city in
Italy, it has its own government. Thus, Cassio is a
19
“foreigner” to Venice. Of course, Othello, who

comes from Africa, is also a foreigner in the service
of Venice. But more importantly, Cassio is a scholar
(“arithmetician” in line 18) who only knows about
war from history books. He may know about the
theory of war, but he has no experience. As Iago
expresses it, this is “mere prattle without practice”
(25). The word prattle suggests empty talk. Such
theory is useless without having any experience
(practice) to know whether the theory will work in
any particular military situation. Iago makes a good
and valid point. Cassio is not as well qualified as
Iago.
Iago’s scorn and bitter contempt for Othello is
clear when he refers to Othello as “his Moorship”
(32). This is an invented word, punning on worship.
The expression “Your Worship” is often used in
Britain as a title of honor for persons of high standing.
Othello is a Moor, a tribe of people in northern Africa
(and from the word Moor comes the name Morocco,
the country in northwestern Africa). Iago, then, is
ridiculing Othello and suggesting that he is not really
deserving of honor or respect.
Iago’s speech then becomes less specific and
more general as he talks about “the curse of service”
(34). Since all commoners and even many minor
aristocrats are in the service of others, Iago’s words
have meaning for them. Most people realize that
there is truth to Iago’s words. Iago asserts that
“Preferment goes by letter and affection, and not
20
by old gradation” (35-36). Here, preferment refers

to promotion, to moving up on the social scale. The
word letter indicates letters of recommendation, and
the word affection refers to whether the person who is
doing the hiring or promoting likes the applicant or
not. Thus, Iago is stating that people who get
promoted do so because they have someone famous
write them letters of recommendation or because the
boss or executive in charge likes them. The
promotion has really very little to do with experience
or ability (suggested by the word gradation). In both
the Renaissance and in more recent times, numerous
people have had the misfortune to be passed over for
promotion and see someone less qualified get the
position that they should have had instead. Thus,
many people can relate to Iago and feel sympathy for
him.
When Roderigo comments that Iago should
leave the service, Iago says no. He then comments
that there are two types of servants (a servant being
anyone who is in the service of others). The first
type of servant (44-49) slaves away for his master
and barely gets enough food to live on. And when he
is too old, his master kicks him out and leaves him
with nothing. The second type of servant (49-54),
though, really serves himself and merely presents the
“shows of service” on his master. That is, he
pretends to be a good servant; but at all times he is
really attempting to make money for himself (the
expression “lining their coats” means to hide money
21
within the layers of one’s clothing). Thus, the second

type of servant stays with his master until he gets
enough money to leave him. The passage also
suggests that this second type of servant is cheating
his master in some way or another or stealing from
him in order to make the money that he desires.
This passage is a classic example of social
criticism. Most servants were treated badly by their
masters. The fact that some, or perhaps many,
servants deliberately set out to cheat their masters is
understandable. They had to look out for themselves
because their masters clearly would not.
Iago clearly places himself in the second
category of servants. Not only is he a scoundrel or
villain, but he has no hesitation to hide the fact. The
reader should keep in mind that what Iago is
suggesting is essentially an act of treachery. And
one should not forget that Dante considered this the
greatest sin of all. In The Inferno the sinners of
treachery are placed in the ninth and deepest level of
hell. Iago’s relationship to Othello is one of master
to servant. Nearly everybody during the Middle
Ages and most people during the Renaissance
considered that relationship to be sacred. Thus,
Iago’s bold statement would be shocking to many of
the theater-goers in Shakespeare’s day. Yet, at the
same time, many of those theater-goers might
sympathize with Iago when he utters these
memorable lines:
22
But I will not wear my heart upon my sleeve

For daws to peck at. (64-65)
The heart metaphor here means to display openly

one’s feelings or thoughts. A daw is a scavenger bird,
like a crow or raven; and to peck means to chew or
tear to pieces. Iago is thus declaring that he will not
allow anybody, including his master, to use him up
and then spit him out. Iago will not allow himself to
be treated badly. And, indeed, many individuals
during the Renaissance would also understand Iago’s
feelings and sympathize with him. Thus, at the
beginning of this play, Shakespeare has already
presented a complex villain – one who both shocks
the people in the audience and yet gains their
sympathy.
23
ACT I, 1: IAGO’S FIRST ATTEMPT TO RUIN

OTHELLO
Iago then advises Roderigo that the best way

to proceed, if he wishes to get Desdemona, is to
inform Desdemona’s father. Roderigo wishes,
naturally, to stop the wedding between Othello and
Desdemona. Or, if a wedding ceremony has already
taken place, to have the wedding annulled (or
canceled). And, of course, Iago is hoping that
Brabanzio, Desdemona’s father, will seek revenge
and bring harm to Othello. A daughter was, after all,
considered the property of her father at that time in
history.
Iago and Roderigo then go out on the street in
front of Brabanzio’s house late at night and yell up to
him about Desdemona’s elopement. At first
Brabanzio does not believe them. But after he checks
his daughter’s room, he comes out of his house with
servants to find his daughter and Othello. Iago, the
reader should note, leaves the scene (after line 160)
before Brabanzio can see him. Iago wishes to ruin
Othello, but he wishes to be blameless in case the
situation does not turn out the way he hopes. Thus,
Roderigo will be left alone to receive any criticism or
blame that may come. Iago thus uses Roderigo for
his own personal gain.
The language that Iago and Roderigo use to
describe Othello in this scene is worthy of note. Iago
shouts to Brabanzio that “an old black ram is
24
tupping your white ewe” (88-89). A ram is

associated as being a highly lustful animal, and the
word tupping means having sexual intercourse. The
word white connotes purity and innocence.
Desdemona is thus an innocent white lamb being
raped by the lascivious black ram. Of course, the
prejudice against black men is also clearly expressed
in this line as well. Iago also refers to Othello as a
“devil” (91) and a “Barbary horse” (113). The word
Barbary indicates Arab or foreign origins, but is also
related to the word barbaric (savage, primitive,
uncivilized). Thus, before Othello even appears on
the stage, the audience envisions or imagines a brute,
a creature of lust and savagery. And, because of the
animal imagery, they may believe that Othello, or
any black man, has more in common with animals
than he does with white men. Iago’s language thus
makes use of and contributes to the popular prejudice
of the day regarding blacks and Africans.
25
ACT I, 2: TWO-FACED IAGO
Being two-faced means being hypocritical or

deceitful. Iago hates Othello, but he shows a face of
friendliness and comradeship to his general. In other
words, he shows a false face to Othello. The second
scene begins on another street in Venice. Iago is
telling Othello about how Roderigo has informed
Brabanzio about the elopement. Iago complains that
Roderigo has acted dishonorably (line 8). Ironically,
Iago is actually revealing to the audience that he
himself is dishonorable.
Iago’s opening lines are especially full of
irony. Iago tells Othello that he would readily kill
Roderigo except that such an act goes against his
“conscience” (2). Iago claims that even though he
killed many enemies during times of war, he cannot
kill those who are not his enemies or kill during times
of peace. The line is ironically humorous because the
audience already knows that Iago appears to have no
conscience at all. Even more ironic is Iago’s
statement regarding his own nature: “I lack iniquity,
sometime, to do me service” (3-4). The word
iniquity means evil or wickedness. And, as the
audience will soon clearly realize, there are no limits
to the wickedness of Iago. What makes the line even
more ironic is Iago’s addition of the word service.
The word serves as a sign (a semiotic device) to have
the audience recall Iago’s previous comments about
service and the two kinds of servants. As he stated
26
quite clearly in the first scene, Iago only serves

himself.
Shakespeare humorously adds to the irony of
the scene when, in response to a question by Othello,
Iago responds with emphasis by swearing to Janus
(line 33). Janus was a Roman god with two faces.
This, Iago swears to the idea of being two-faced. In a
way, this is like telling Othello that he cannot be
trusted. But, unfortunately, Othello misses this clue
and trusts Iago far more than he should.
27
ACT I, 2: THE PROUD AND NAÏVE OTHELLO
Some critics suggest that Othello is too proud

and that hubris (or pride) is his tragic flaw.
Certainly, Othello is a proud and noble man; and the
opening lines spoken by him (which creates the
audience’s first impression of him) contribute to this
image of a man who may be excessively proud. In
regards to his obtaining Desdemona as his wife,
Othello tells Iago the following:
I fetch my life and being

From men of royal siege, and my demerits
May speak unbonneted to as proud a fortune
As this that I have reached. (21-24)
The word siege refers to rank or social position.

Othello may be said to be boasting of his aristocratic
potion. More importantly, the word demerits means
deserts (something that he deserves or is worthy of).
Othello is thus saying that he deserves to have a wife
like Desdemona and that he is more than worthy
enough to be her husband. He adds that he has no
need to add any other qualifications for his being
worthy (suggested by speak unbonneted) to have
achieved such a glorious destiny (or proud fate). The
word proud indicates Othello’s happiness in gaining
Desdemona as his wife. But Shakespeare was
certainly aware of the impact of this word. The actor
portraying Othello should say these words in a proud
28
and joyful voice. The audience is meant to get a

sense of Othello’s pride. But, at the same time, the
audience should also sense Othello’s jubilation and
happiness at being married. His love is stronger than
his pride. He tells Iago that he would never give up
his freedom (free condition in line 26) for anything,
but with one exception (24-28). And that exception
is Desdemona. To Othello, Desdemona is worth
more than land and sea combined. So, the audience
should get a sense of Othello’s pride in this passage.
But, more importantly, they should also see the
intensity of Othello’s passion for his new wife.
Another aspect of Othello’s character should
also be noted – his naiveté. Othello is essentially a
good and honest man, but he wrongly assumes that
most other men are good and honest as well. And,
worst of all, Othello believes Iago to be a good and
honest man. Throughout the play Othello refers to
Iago as “honest Iago.” Of course, Iago is not honest
at all; but this irony is lost upon Othello. And this
error in judgment is the actual fatal flaw of Othello.
Fatal flaw, in the true Aristotelian sense, actually
refers to a flaw in action (in the judgment or decision)
made by the protagonist. Aristotle, in his Poetics,
discusses the concept of fatal flaw in his section on
plot, and not in his section on character. Thus, a fatal
flaw does not refer to a personality trait (as some
scholars have mistakenly asserted). Othello’s
mistake or error is to trust Iago implicitly. Othello
never once questions that Iago may be lying. Othello
29
never suspects that Iago might be dishonest. And this

error in judgment leads to Othello’s downfall.
A hint of Othello’s naïve quality appears in
his statement to Iago when Iago warns Othello to
hide from Brabanzio and his men. Othello refuses to
run away and tells Iago, “My parts, my title, and my
perfect soul shall manifest me rightly” (31-32). By
the word parts, Othello is referring to his goodness,
his honesty, and his sense of honor. The words
perfect soul indicate that he is a man without sin and
without evil intent. Othello is essentially stating that
goodness also prevails or honesty always wins. He is
saying that innocent men are never wrongly accused.
But, of course, Othello is very wrong in believing
that.
30
ACT I, 2: CYPRUS, SARCASM, AND MAGIC
Before Brabanzio comes to accuse Othello of

stealing his daughter, Cassio (Othello’s new
lieutenant) arrives and informs Othello that the Duke
of Venice wishes to see him immediately. Venice is
in conflict with Turkey over the island of Cyprus.
Cyprus has long been an island of dispute and war
because of its strategic location in the Mediterranean
Sea (south of Turkey). At this point in time, Cyprus
is ruled by Venice; but a Turkish fleet or navy is
moving toward Cyprus to attack. The Duke of Venice,
then, wants Othello to sail to Cyprus with his forces
and protect the island from the invaders.
When Othello goes inside to tell his wife that
he must leave, Iago sarcastically informs Cassio
about Othello’s relationship with Desdemona. Iago
comments, “He hath tonight boarded a land-carrack.
If it prove lawful prize, he’s made forever” (50-51).
The word carrack refers to a merchant ship, a ship
containing items of great value. Iago’s metaphor
refers to Desdemona. Iago is implying that
Desdemona is an object of great value on the land.
But Iago is not referring to Desdemona’s virtues as a
treasure: he is referring to the wealth belonging to her
father. Iago’s snide comment includes a double-
entendre (a pun with a sexual implication). The
word boarded refers literally to going aboard a ship,
but the word was also used in the Renaissance to
suggest a man having sexual intercourse with a
31
woman. When Iago adds the comment about “lawful

prize,” he is questioning whether Othello and
Desdemona’s marriage is legal or not. But the real
insult is with the last three words of the sentence:
“he’s made forever.” The word made here means to
be financially well off. Othello is then implying that
Othello has married Desdemona for financial gain.
This line, then, really says more about Iago himself.
Iago is the one who looks out only for himself and
would not hesitate to marry in order to gain a treasure.
Later in the play, Iago’s relationship with his own
wife, Emilia, is not so good; and a plausible reason
for that is that Iago did not marry her out of love.
As Othello and Cassio walk to the Duke’s
palace, they encounter the angry Brabanzio and his
men. Brabanzio believes that Othello must have used
magic, perhaps a magic potion, to win Desdemona as
his wife. In the first scene, Brabanzio mentions
magical “charms” (I, 1: 172); and in this scene
Brabanzio also suggests magical powers by the use of
the following expressions: “enchanted her” (I, 2: 64),
“chains of magic” (66), and “foul charms” (74).
Brabanzio is basically accusing Othello of witchcraft,
of a type of magic that is associated with evil and the
devil. The word foul does indicate evil in this
passage. Although Brabanzio had been friends with
Othello, his friendship did not remove his essential
attitude of prejudice. He refers to Othello’s being
black (“sooty bosom” in line 71) as the primary
reason why Desdemona would never accept Othello
32
under ordinary (non-magical) circumstances. Not

surprisingly, Christians of earlier times might readily
believe that individuals from pagan lands could be
connected to the devil in some way. Barabanzio then
decides to go with Othello before the Duke so that he
(Brabanzio) can accuse Othello of using dark magic
on his daughter.
33
ACT I, 3: A ROUND UNVARNISHED TALE
The third scene begins with the Duke and the

members of his counsel discussing the various
messages they have received from Cyprus. The
messages disagree about the number of Turkish ships
on the water and whether the ships are actually
sailing for Cyprus or for some other land. The Duke
knows, however, just how much the Turks want
Cyprus; and he knows that he needs to take
immediate action.
Before the Duke can finish telling Othello
about his mission to Cyprus, Brabanzio interrupts and
complains about how his daughter has been stolen.
The Duke promises that he will bring full justice
against the man who had unlawfully taken
Desdemona (65-69). But then Brabanzio tells the
Duke that the guilty man is Othello (71). The Duke
needs Othello’s help urgently to settle the matter in
Cyprus, and he is shocked that Othello could be
guilty of such a crime. So, he asks Othello to defend
himself.
Othello’s defense is one of the longest
speeches in the play. He begins (in line 76) by
admitting that he has indeed married Desdemona. He
then excuses himself for being “rude” in his speech
(81). He is stating that he is not a very accomplished
or polished speaker, that he is not very good at
making speeches. Shakespeare, here, is perhaps
having a little fun with this ironic line; for what
34
follows is an extremely smooth and polished speech.

This is not intended to suggest that Othello is a liar.
Othello is a man of war, a man of action. He is not a
politician or a rhetorician. But Shakespeare is a poet.
The speech is beautifully written to suggest or
symbolize the beauty of truth. The audience is
meant to accept Othello’s statement about being a
poor speaker as the truth even though his speech
indicates otherwise. This is a good example of
poetic license (an act of a writer who breaks
conventional rules or presents an idea contrary to fact
in order to achieve an artistic effect). Shakespeare
wants the audience to be moved emotionally by the
language in this speech. A “rude” or plain speech
would not have this effect.
Othello continues to state that he will relate
“a round unvarnished tale” (line 90 – a simple and
plain story), but he is interrupted by Brabanzio.
Brabanzio’s interruption, which is full of prejudice,
again suggests that Othello used magic to win
Desdemona. Brabanzio does not believe there is any
other possible explanation:
It is a judgement maimed and most imperfect

That will confess perfection so could err
Against all rules of nature. (99-101)
Brabanzio means that only a person who cannot think

clearly and rationally would believe that Desdemona
(referred to as “perfection”) could act in such an
35
unnatural way without being drugged or charmed by

magic. Brabanzio, like most people of his day,
believes that a well-raised white woman could never
fall in love with a black man. He sees the black man
as an entirely different species, and individuals from
different species should not mate. Brabanzio is
stating that the mixing of black and white people
goes against the rules of nature. To him, such mixing
is like having a cat mate with a dog.
The Duke, however, readily realizes the
weakness of Brabanzio’s logic. Othello then requests
that Desdemona should be called forth to speak
before the Duke as well. As they wait for
Desdemona to arrive, Othello begins his unvarnished
tale and his extremely eloquent speech (beginning in
line 127).
Othello begins by explaining how he became
friends with Brabanzio and was often invited to
Brabanzio’s house. There, Othello would relate the
story of his life. Being a warrior and a man of action,
Othello’s life was one full of adventure and
excitement. He had traveled in many exotic places
and often risked losing his life.
In his account, Othello also describes the
strange and fantastic people and creatures that he saw:
And of the cannibals that each other eat,

The Anthropophagi, and men whose heads
Do grow beneath their shoulders. (142-44)
36
The word anthropophagi is another way of saying

cannibal or man-eater.
During the Middle Ages several travel books
were written (such as Mandeville’s Travels), and
Shakespeare’s description comes from such books.
Such travel books were often full of exaggeration,
and many passages were purely imaginary. The
writer might claim to have seen a unicorn or some
other fantastic creature. Some of these travel books
also contained illustrations. The man whose head
grows beneath his shoulders is depicted in one. The
drawing shows a man whose face is directly on his
chest and who looks like he does not have a head at
all.
Most people during the Middle Ages and
Renaissance did not travel much or at all. Thus, the
fantastic and imaginary elements of a travel book
were accepted as truth. And such books were also
extremely popular. They excited the minds and
imaginations of the readers. In the same way,
Othello’s tale excites and delights Brabanzio. More
to the point, the tale also delighted Desdemona.
Othello explains that as he told his story to
Brabanzio, Desdemona would sometimes stop at the
doorway and listen (144-49). But because
Desdemona also had household chores to attend to,
she could never hear the complete story. So, later,
Othello met with Desdemona privately and retold his
entire life story to her. Desdemona feels pity for
Othello when he tells her of the dangers that he faced
37
and the difficulties that he encountered (160).

Desdemona is moved emotionally by the tale and
falls in love with the teller, and Othello cannot but
help return the love to the sweet and emotional girl.
This is the only witchcraft I have used. (168)
Othello declares that he did use magic to win

Desdemona, the magic of love. But he did not use
any other kind of magic or potions or charms to win
her love.
38
ACT I, 3: A DIVIDED DUTY
The Duke and other members of his counsel

are moved by the speech, but Brabanzio is not
convinced. He wants to hear what Desdemona has to
say for herself. Desdemona explains that she has a
divided duty (180). She respects her father and
owes him for raising her, but she also has a duty to
serve her husband Othello just as Brabanzio’s wife
had a duty to serve Brabanzio. During the Middle
Ages and continuing on into the Renaissance, a
daughter was frequently viewed as the property of the
father until she was married. And then she was the
property of her husband. But (as one can see in
Romeo and Juliet), the father had the right to choose
a husband for his daughter. Desdemona had not
received the permission of Brabanzio to get married,
and Brabanzio is extremely angry.
Brabanzio, more or less, disowns his daughter.
He tells Othello that he can have her even though
Brabanzio does not like the situation (191-94). And
he tells Desdemona that he is happy that he does not
have any other children, for he would never trust any
of them. He says that he would “hang clogs” on
them if he did have other children (197). A clog is a
block of wood that would be tied to the legs of
prisoners so that they could not run away. In other
words, Brabanzio is stating that he should have tied
up or chained Desdemona so that she would not have
been able to run away with Othello.
39
ACT I, 3: IMPARTIAL ADVICE
The Duke, well aware of Brabanzio’s anger

and sense of disappointment, attempts to advise
Brabanzio. The Duke wants to reconcile Brabanzio
to Othello and Desdemona, he wants them to become
friendly to one another. And, so, the Duke tries to
propose a moral or lesson (sentence in line 198) to be
learned from the experience. The reader should also
note here that Shakespeare switches poetic styles
from blank verse to rhymed couplets (beginning in
line 201: ended-depended, takes-makes, thief-grief,
and so on). The change draws the audience’s
attention to a slight digression on the topic of
impartial (or objective) advice.
The Duke asserts the following:
To mourn a mischief that is past and gone

Is the next way to draw new mischief on.
(203-04)
The Duke is advising Brabanzio that there is nothing

else he can do about this situation; there is no remedy
(201). Therefore, the Duke suggests that Brabanzio
should just accept the situation and stop being so
angry about it. He adds that being angry will just add
to the problem. It will just make it worse.
The Duke then describes the problem and
solution in more philosophical terms. He notes that
40
the only way to overcome the problems brought on

by destiny or fate (fortune in line 205) is through the
use of Patience. The Duke uses personification here
for both Fortune and Patience. The Duke is telling
Brabanzio to be calm or just smile in the face of his
problem. That is the way to defeat the injuries or
harms that Fortune brings. In other words, the Duke
is telling Brabanzio to just accept the marriage and
not be bothered by it. The Duke tells Brabanzio
simply to smile in the midst of his trouble.
Brabanzio, though, does not find the Duke’s
advice useful at all. And, to show the Duke how
ridiculous the advice is, Brabanzio (in a splendid
example of verbal irony) advises the Duke to do the
same regarding the Turkish invasion of Cyprus:
So let the Turk of Cyprus us beguile,

We lose it not so long as we can smile. (209-10)
The word beguile here means to cheat or steal. Thus,

Brabanzio is saying this: So, we should allow the
Turks to steal Cyprus from us; as long as we smile,
the loss of Cyprus will not matter to us.
Brabanzio then proceeds to explain that the
objective observer (someone who is not directly
involved the situation and who does not feel the
emotions that accompany that situation) can easily
accept such sayings or morals and believe that they
are easy to follow. But when a person is in the same
situation, he will find that the advice is difficult or
41
perhaps even impossible to follow. Brabanzio knows

that the Duke would never follow his own advice
regarding Cyprus, and he is telling the Duke that he
cannot follow the advice regarding the marriage for
the same reason.
This passage is another fine example of
Shakespeare illustrating the Reason vs. Emotion
Conflict. The objective or detached person may
think or know that his advice is reasonable, but one
cannot always follow reasonable advice when the
emotions are involved. Brabanzio is experiencing
many emotions: anger, disappointment, sadness, loss.
He cannot simply smile away those emotions. Nor
could the Duke smile away similar emotions if he
should lose Cyprus.
Brabanzio sums up his argument with the
following:
But words are words. I never yet did hear

That the bruised heart was pierced through the ear.
(217-18)
In this line, the word pierced means cured (a boil or

cyst might be cured by lancing it, by piercing it with
a needle). Thus, Brabanzio is saying that a broken
heart cannot be cured by words or that sorrow cannot
be relieved by words. Shakespeare, perhaps the
greatest poet of all time, certainly understood the
power of words. But even more so, Shakespeare
understood the power of emotions. Time and again,
42
Shakespeare expresses the belief that emotions are

more powerful than reason.
43
ACT I, 3: A FATAL ERROR REGARDING

DESDEMONA
Othello, who is on his honeymoon, must give

up his personal desires for business. Othello must
immediately set sail for Cyprus. So, Othello asks the
Duke to take care of his wife while he is away (line
234). Othello knows that Desdemona cannot stay
with her father, and they do not yet have a house to
live in. Before the Duke responds, Desdemona
makes a request. She asks the Duke if she can go
with Othello to Cyprus (line 258). Othello also
thinks this is a good idea.
Obviously, under normal conditions, a wife
would never go with her husband to a place of war.
The wife would be a distraction to her husband, and
she could get harmed. Othello argues that because he
is not a young man, his wife will not be a distraction
to him. He argues that he is not lustful like a young
man and that he can control his emotions:
When light-winged toys

Of feathered Cupid seel with wanton dullness
My speculative and and officed instruments,
That my disports corrupt and taint my business,
Let housewives make a skillet of my helm.
(267-71)
Basically, Othello is stating that women can cook his
brains in his own helmet if he ever allows sexual
desire (wanton dullness) to interrupt or interfere with
44
his business. Or, to state it another way, Othello is

declaring that he would never allow his emotions to
interfere with his business. In this sense, the passage
becomes an ironic example of foreshadowing.
Othello, at Cyprus, will allow an emotion to interfere
with business. But the emotion will not be lust. It
will be jealousy.
This passage also indicates foolish pride in
Othello. He believes that he is superior to his
emotions. He believes that his ability to reason is
superior to his emotions. Perhaps in the past Othello
always had been master of his emotions. But there is
a first time for everything. When an emotion is
extremely powerful, then it can conquer even the
strongest of minds and the smartest of men. But
because Othello is not aware of this, he makes a fatal
error of judgment: he allows Desdemona to go to
Cyprus. If Desdemona had been left in Venice, the
tragedy that follows would never have occurred.
45
ACT I, 3: FALSE FORESHADOWING
As Othello is leaving, Brabanzio warns him

that he better be careful in regards to Desdemona.
Brabanzio tells him, “She has deceived her father,
and may thee” (292). This is a kind of false
foreshadowing. Desdemona will not deceive
Othello, and Othello at this point trusts her
completely. But later that trust will disappear, and
Othello will think that Desdemona has deceived him.
The line suggests that Desdemona is capable of
deception. Yes, Desdemona did deceive her father.
But she did so out of love for Othello. Love is a
powerful emotion that causes one to act irrationally
and unnaturally. And jealousy is also a powerful
emotion that produces similar actions.
46
ACT I, 3: THE GARDEN METAPHOR
Toward the end of the first act, Iago converses

again with Roderigo. Roderigo is upset and
depressed that nothing has happened to Othello for
taking away Desdemona. Roderigo’s hope of
winning Desdemona as his own wife is apparently at
an end, and Roderigo feels that there is nothing else
left to live for. Roderigo wants to commit suicide
(line 304). Iago realizes that he can use Roderigo
further for his own purposes, and so Iago convinces
Roderigo to stop feeling sorry for himself and take
action for his own benefit.
Iago asserts that he would rather be a baboon
than to be a man who would kill himself because of
unrequited love (lines 312-13). On the one hand,
Iago does make sense. The unrequited lover does
act pathetically. The unrequited lover is often a
foolish and ridiculous figure. And, in that sense, he
is such a sorry example of humanity that even an
unreasonable, wild animal, like a baboon, has a better
life. On the other hand, Iago comes across as an
individual who has never experienced deep passion
and love for anyone else. He does not understand
how much a strong and powerful passion can move
one to extreme and irrational acts.
Through Iago Shakespeare again brings up
the conflict of Reason vs. Emotion. And he does so
through the use of the garden metaphor. Like many
Christian elders believed and taught, Iago believes
47
that Reason, the rational mind, is the king over

passions and emotions. Iago believes that he is in
control of his emotions and that only weak
individuals allow their emotions to take control over
their bodies. Iago explains it this way: “Our bodies
are our gardens, to the which our wills are gardeners”
(317-18). The word wills in this case does not imply
emotions, but something more along the lines of
control (or self-control). Iago is stating that people
can control their bodies in exactly the same way a
gardener can control a garden. A gardener can decide
what herbs or vegetables to plant, and he can decide
what weeds or plants to remove from the garden. As
long as the gardener tends to his garden and works
hard at it (the word industry in line 321 suggests
work), the garden can be whatever he wants it to be.
The metaphor suggests that an individual can make
his body whatever he wants it to be. The person has
complete control over what thoughts, what ideas, and
what emotions he wants to have. In other words,
Iago is suggesting that a person can remove the
foolish thoughts and feelings of unrequited love
simply by the power of his own mind.
Iago, thinking that the metaphor may not be
understood by Roderigo, then states the matter rather
directly: “We have reason to cool our raging
motions” (325). The word motions means emotions
or desires. Shakespeare is showing Iago’s viewpoint
on the conflict in very clear and precise terms. Of
48
course, Shakespeare did not at all agree with Iago on

this topic.
Having affected a change in Roderigo, Iago
then tells him how to proceed. He recommends that
Roderigo follow Othello and Desdemona to Cyprus
and see how circumstances might change. Iago
suggests (although he does not really believe it) that
Othello may get tired of Desdemona and Desdemona
may get bored with Othello. Iago suggests that
Roderigo may eventually get his chance. In the
meantime, Iago repeatedly advises Roderigo to “put
money in thy purse” (lines 333, 335, 336, 338, 340,
and so on). The comical exaggeration has a double
meaning: (1) Iago is telling Roderigo to save up his
money so that he will be ready when Desdemona
does become available once again. But (2) Iago is
planning to cheat Roderigo out of more money.
49
ACT I, 3: IAGO’S FIRST SOLILOQUY –

SPORT AND PROFIT
The first act ends with Iago’s first soliloquy.

He begins by boldly referring to Roderigo as a “fool”
who is only valuable to Iago because Iago is able to
cheat him out of large sums of money (line 365).
Iago continues to suggest that Roderigo is beneath
him, that he is inferior to him. But then Iago adds
that Roderigo actually serves two purposes: “sport
and profit” (368). By sport, Iago means
entertainment. Iago feels that cheating people and
manipulating them is fun. It is a source of pleasure.
This is the first deeply insightful comment about Iago.
Although he comes up with other reasons for his
cruel and vicious actions (such as profit or revenge),
the primary reason for his evil actions is
entertainment. It is pleasure. This is why so many
people find Iago to be so utterly and completely evil.
Not only does he hurt others, but he takes enjoyment
in hurting them. Destroying people is fun to him.
Iago then turns his thoughts to Othello. Iago
hates Othello for not giving him the promotion, but
Iago realizes that being turned down for promotion is
such a petty or small reason for carrying out a cruel
vengeance against him. And Iago does want to hurt
Othello in an extremely cruel way. Iago then
indicates that someone had once suggested to him
that Othello had slept with Emilia (Iago’s wife). Iago
does not really believe this – “I know not if it be
50
true” – but he believes that this reason will justify the

evil actions that he intends to take against Othello
(369-72).
Iago then begins his plot or scheme against
Othello. Iago also wants vengeance against Cassio
for becoming lieutenant (the position that Iago feels
that he himself deserves). So, he plots an act of
“double knavery” (376). He creates a scheme to
harm both Othello and Cassio together. Because
Cassio is a handsome man (line 374) and because
Othello is a trusting man (lines 380-81), Iago believes
that to convince Othello that Cassio is having an
affair with Desdemona will be an easy task. Iago
realizes that someone as simple and trusting as
Othello will readily become overwhelmed by
emotion. Iago realizes that jealousy will cause
Othello to act irrationally and violently. Iago knows
more about Othello then Othello does about himself;
for Othello mistakenly believes that he is always in
control of his emotions.
At the end of the speech, Iago himself
suggests the connection to pure evil and the devil:
“Hell and night must bring this monstrous birth to the
world’s light” (385-86). The evil idea is likened to a
newborn monster that will come out in the world with
the help of Iago’s evil assistance (“hell”) and the
right amount of time (“night”). However, the
passage could also be interpreted as a metaphor that
employs personification. Hell (Iago himself) and
Night (the late night hour in which Iago is making his
51
plans) are the parents of the evil idea. In this reading,

Iago thus symbolizes evil or the devil. But
Shakespeare avoids this oversimplification by
creating a line that can be interpreted in two different
ways.
52
ACT II
ACT II, 1: ANTI-FEMINIST LITERATURE
The location changes to the island of Cyprus

in the second act of the play. A terrible storm is
blowing, and the ships of both the Turks and the
Venetians are having difficulty. Othello’s ship,
which led the navy of Venice to Cyprus, moves into
the storm first and meets with great difficulty. Thus,
a second ship carrying Cassio and a third ship
carrying Iago and Desdemona are able to arrive at
Cyprus before Othello does.
The good news for Othello and Venice is that
the storm sinks most of the Turkish ships, and those
that remain realize that they are not powerful enough
to attack Cyprus. So, they return to Turkey. Thus,
Othello and Venice win the battle without even
having to fight. The reader should note that this is a
good example of Shakespeare bringing in fate as an
influence on the events of the play. Fate appears to
be favorable to Othello at this point, but actually the
easy victory allows unfavorable events to proceed as
the story progresses.
The reader should also note that the storm is a
symbol (much in the same way that a storm is
symbolic in Lear). The storm here indicates a change
53
that will occur in the personality of Othello.

Othello’s calm and peaceful personality that he
revealed in Venice will soon become troubled and
stormy in Cyprus.
The scene begins with Montano, the governor
of Cyprus, and other gentlemen of that island
watching the events at sea. Cassio arrives first (line
43), and shortly afterwards Iago and Desdemona
arrive along with Emilia (Iago’s wife) and Roderigo
(line 83).
In this scene the character of Iago reveals his
misogyny (hatred of women). This trait is first
revealed when the gallant Cassio kisses Emilia to
welcome her. Iago, who is not at all jealous, jokingly
says to Cassio:
Sir, would she give you so much of her lips

As of her tongue she oft bestows on me,
You would have enough. (103-05)
Basically, Iago is saying that Emilia talks too much

and scolds him too much. He is implying that Cassio
would grow tired of her kisses just as he has grown
tired of listening to her.
When Emilia objects, Iago continues by
making comments about all women in general
(indicated by the pronoun you):
54
You are pictures out of door,

Bells in your parlours; wildcats in your kitchens,
Saints in your injuries; devils being offended,
Players in your housewifery, and hussies in your beds.
(112-15)
By pictures, Iago is saying that women, when they

are out in public, appear to be sweet and charming.
And by bells, he is suggesting that they sound sweet
and charming in their homes when they have guests
(the parlor is where guests would be entertained).
But in the parts of the house where there are no
guests (such as the kitchen), women display a
completely different and dangerous personality. Iago
adds that women also pretend to be innocent (saints);
but, when they are angry, they are like devils. Then
Iago adds that women are like gamblers (players)
when it comes to managing the household affairs. He
is suggesting that they foolishly throw away the
household money. And, finally, Iago insults women
by saying they are like prostitutes when they are in
the bedroom. Iago clearly does not have anything
nice to say about women, and one can guess what his
relationship with his wife might be like.
Desdemona thinks that Iago is joking or being
playful. She is worried about Othello, who is still on
his ship in the stormy sea. So, to take her mind off of
her worries, she asks Iago what he has to say about
her. Iago is first reluctant to say anything offensive,
55
but Desdemona urges him to speak his thoughts.

Iago then proceeds to describe four types of women.
The first type is the woman who is Beautiful and
Smart:
If she be fair and wise, fairness and wit,

The one’s for use, the other useth it. (132-33)
The word fair means beautiful. Iago is saying that a

woman uses her beauty to attract a man and get him
to marry her. She also uses her intelligence for just
one purpose: to find a way to trap the man into
marriage.
The other three types of women are also
negatively described like the first:
(1) Beautiful and Smart (see above)

(“fair and wise”)
(2) Ugly and Smart She uses her intelligence to
(“black and witty” in line trick an attractive man.
134)
(3) Beautiful and Stupid She uses her foolishness to
(“fair and foolish” in line trick some unsuspecting
137) man.
(4) Ugly and Stupid She is still smart enough to
(“foul and foolish” in line imitate the actions of smart
143) women in order to trick a
man into marriage.
Iago is thus stating that every woman in the

world fits into one of these four categories. He is
56
stating that all women are basically out to trap a man

into marriage. This is anti-feminist literature. But
these clever and witty comments also would produce
much laughter in the Renaissance audience. And
many a man back then might have categorized his
own wife in such a way.
Desdemona then asks what Iago would have
to say about a virtuous woman (147). Iago then adds
a fifth category of women, and concludes that she
would only be good “to suckle fools, and chronicle
small beer” (162). Iago is suggesting that this fifth
type of woman, the virtuous woman, is a fool; and
her children will also be fools (suckle means to
breastfeed). The word chronicle here means to
manage household affairs, and small beer is a cheap
beer sold to commoners. Thus, the virtuous woman
will foolishly end up as a wife for some poor
commoner. Not only does Iago think negatively
about women, but he also does not think too highly of
virtue either.
If Iago were just joking, his words could be
taken for that of a witty clown. But as the play
continues, the audience discovers that Iago sincerely
means what he says. He has no love for either
women or virtue.
57
ACT II, 1: THE SCHEME DEVELOPS
The reader should notice that Iago, when he

sees Cassio talking with Desdemona, speaks in an
aside (a line revealing his thoughts, not heard by the
other characters on stage). Iago notes how Cassio is
gallant and courteous and kisses Desdemona in a
polite, knightly manner (168-76). This gallantry is
observable to everybody, but most people do not
think that Cassio’s actions mean anything serious.
However, Iago is clever enough to know that if he
plants a seed of suspicion or doubt into someone’s
mind, those innocent actions can then be interpreted
in a not-so-innocent way.
To test this idea, Iago immediately tells
Roderigo that Desdemona is in love with Cassio (line
215). The reader should also note that the dialogue
moves from poetry to prose at this point. The prose
indicates (1) that the level of conversation is socially
lower since Roderigo is of a class lower than that of
Iago and (2) that the speech is less elevated because
Iago speaks of schemes and tells lies. Iago basically
tells Roderigo that Desdemona is a young girl with a
healthy sexual appetite and that she will eventually
grow tired and bored of Othello. He then adds that
Cassio is a charming man who would willingly take
advantage of an attractive girl like Desdemona.
Roderigo at first doubts Iago, but Iago is able to
convince him.
58
Iago then instructs Roderigo to find an

opportunity to quarrel or fight with Cassio. Iago
explains that Cassio is hot-tempered and will disgrace
himself. And once that happens, Iago will see to it
that Cassio loses his position as Othello’s lieutenant.
Then, as Iago explains, Cassio will be gone and
Desdemona will turn her attentions to some other
man (meaning Roderigo).
Iago is thus setting his scheme in motion, but
he still has not figured out all of the details.
59
ACT II, 1: IAGO’S SECOND SOLILOQUY
Iago begins his second soliloquy by

suggesting that the lies he told to Roderigo are
credible or believable and that Othello is such an
innocent and unsuspecting individual that he will also
readily believe the lies (lines 273-78). In other words,
Iago is convinced that Othello will believe his lies as
easily and quickly as Roderigo believed them. The
careful reader should also note the pun Iago uses to
describe Othello: Iago states that Othello will prove
to be “a most dear husband” to Desdemona (278).
The word dear means (1) affectionate. But it also
means (2) costly or expensive. In this case, Iago is
not talking about money. He is stating that the cost
of Othello’s love or affection to Desdemona will too
great; for, if Iago’s scheme works, it will cost
Desdemona her life. Even at this early point in his
plotting, Iago realizes that the consequences will be
most serious and deadly.
Iago also reveals the cold and despicable
aspect of his personality when he ironically states
that he loves Desdemona too (line 278). Iago does
not mean he has affection for Desdemona. He loves
her because he can use her and manipulate her to
bring serious harm to Othello. She is like a tool that
he can use in whatever way he wishes and then toss
away when he no longer has need for it. Once again,
Shakespeare is indirectly bringing in the issue of fate.
If Desdemona did not love Othello, Iago would never
60
have been able to come up with such an evil scheme

against Othello. If Desdemona had not come to
Cyprus, Iago would not be able to put his plot in
motion. If Othello and Desdemona had been married
at a later date, Iago would not be able to accomplish
such a great act of evil. Likewise, if Cassio were not
such a gallant man, the scheme would not work. But
everything has come together in such a way that Iago
is able to scheme and plot an act of terrible evil
against Othello. Iago is an opportunist, and the
opportunity is ripe.
An intriguing line that is open to some
speculation occurs when Iago states that although he
feels no lust (or love or affection) for Desdemona, he
is guilty of “as great a sin” (280). What is that sin?
Iago supplies one possibility himself when he adds
the word revenge in the next line of his soliloquy.
Revenge certainly could be viewed as a sinful act.
But since lust is one of the Seven Deadly Sins,
another of the seven sins might be what Iago is
actually referring to in this line. A good possibility is
envy. Iago is certainly envious of Cassio for taking
the position of lieutenant away from him. However,
since Iago’s main attention concerns Othello, perhaps
another of the seven might be even more appropriate.
Iago is not angry. He is extremely cool and
calculating in his thoughts and actions. And Iago is
also greedy, but that certainly is not a main concern
of this play. But the reader may seriously want to
consider the characteristic of pride in Iago. Iago
61
clearly states that he is superior to Roderigo, and he

also believes himself to be superior to Cassio.
Further, Iago’s plots and schemes indicate that he
believes that he is superior to Othello as well. Iago is
certainly cleverer and more worldly-wise than
Othello. Finally, Iago even believes himself to be
superior to fate, as noted in the discussion of the first
act. Iago is clearly a proud individual. Thus, a
deconstructive reading of this play might position
Iago as the central figure and as a man who falls from
greatness because of his pride. Or Iago may also be
viewed as a foil to Othello (a foil is a character in
literature who functions to provide a contrast to the
protagonist). Both Othello and Iago may be viewed
as men who fall because of their pride.
In his soliloquy Iago again brings up the idea
that he suspects Othello of being too friendly with his
wife Emilia (lines 282-83), and he adds that maybe
Cassio also is being too friendly with Emilia (line
294). But the addition of Cassio to this kind of
suspicion reveals that Iago himself does not really
believe it. They are more of his lies. He feels the
need to justify or rationalize the actions he is about to
take. He intends to commit an act of great evil. If he
is found guilty, he will need a story or an explanation
to tell others.
Iago’s evil is an act of fraud and treachery.
Dante placed sinners of fraud in the eighth level of
hell and sinners of treachery in the ninth level of hell.
These were the deepest levels and the ones where the
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sinners received the most painful punishments.

Iago’s act of fraud and treachery becomes all the
more serious or grievous because, as he notes,
Othello feels “love” for him (295). Othello treats
him kindly and generously. But Iago wants to
destroy his mind. Iago wishes to push Othello to the
furthest extreme of “madness” (298). Iago wants to
destroy Othello’s soul. And this is what makes Iago
one of the worst villains and most treacherous
characters in literature.
63
ACT II, 2: THE HERALD’S ANNOUNCEMENT
An extremely brief scene occurs where a

herald or messenger is announcing to the people of
Cyprus that there is to be a celebration, a grand feast
and party. In fact, the event will be a double
celebration: (1) to celebrate the victory of Venice
against the Turks, and (2) to celebrate the wedding of
Othello and Desdemona. Everybody in Cyprus will
be celebrating, and the celebration will last six hours
(from 5:00 PM to 11:00 PM). The events of the third
scene (in Act II) will take place between those hours.
64
ACT II, 3: DISCRETION
The third scene begins sometime around 5:00

PM. The feasting and celebration have begun.
Othello, who is anxious to start his honeymoon,
places Cassio in charge of keeping order and
watching guard over Cyprus. He warns Cassio “not
to outsport discretion” (3). In other words, he is
telling Cassio to remain discreet (careful, cautious)
throughout the night. He is telling Cassio to remain
in control and to keep order. Even though everybody
else can get wild and enjoy themselves, those in
charge of order and safety must be discreet.
Although Cassio agrees with and accepts Othello’s
command, the words soon become ironic. In very
little time, Cassio will lose all control and be the
exact opposite of discreet.
Cassio has a weakness. He cannot control his
liquor: he gets drunk very easily (lines 29-30). Iago
learns of this weakness and convinces Cassio to have
just one drink to toast the wedding of Othello and
Desdemona. Cassio tries to refuse, but Iago will not
accept a refusal. Cassio takes the drink, and very
quickly becomes quite drunk. And, thus, he loses the
ability to remain discreet.
As planned earlier, Roderigo takes this
opportunity to quarrel with Cassio. This action
occurs offstage while Iago is talking with Montano,
but quite soon Roderigo comes running across the
stage with an angry Cassio chasing him (line 130).
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Montano attempts to stop the drunken Cassio, but

then wild Cassio starts fighting with Montano.
Roderigo uses this moment to exit.
The noise of Cassio quarreling with Roderigo
and, later, Montano, is quite loud and disturbs the
private honeymoon time of Othello. Obviously not
pleased at having to leave Desdemona, Othello
comes with some guards to stop the fighting.
66
ACT II, 3: PASSION AND JUDGMENT
As Othello attempts to find out what started

all the quarreling, he hears a confused story.
Montano does not really know what made Cassio
angry, and Cassio is still drunk. The impatient
Othello himself starts to become angry that the
problem is not cleared up immediately:
Now, by heaven,
My blood begins my safer guides to rule,
And passion, having my best judgement collied,
Essays to lead the way. (187-90)
Here again Shakespeare is revealing the essential

internal conflict of many of his plays: judgment vs.
passion or, as usually stated, reason vs. emotion. In
this passage, the word blood also refers to emotions
and the expression “safer guides” also means reason.
Christian leaders of the Renaissance taught that
reason rules over the emotions. With reason, any
individual is capable of controlling his emotions. But
here Othello (and Shakespeare) is contradicting that
teaching. Othello is saying that his blood or
emotions (in this case, his anger) are beginning to
rule over his reason. He is saying that his passion is
in control.
This passage is important for two reasons:
first, the audience becomes aware that in Cyprus
Othello is becoming a different man. In Venice,
67
Othello was cool and calm and logical. He was a

man of reason. But in Cyprus his reason is starting to
weaken. Othello could become a man of passion.
Second, the passage is also important because it
foreshadows Othello’s central conflict in the play.
An emotion will lead the way and be in complete
control over his reason in a very short time. But that
emotion will not be anger. It will be jealousy.
Iago, in a lengthy passage (lines 203-229),
explains to Othello what happened between Cassio,
Roderigo, and Montano. Although Iago pretends that
he cares for Cassio, his phrasing is careful so that
Cassio appears to be extremely guilty. Othello
accepts Iago’s explanation without hearing any
further comments, and he immediately fires
(dismisses) Cassio. Cassio is no longer his lieutenant.
68
ACT II, 3: REPUTATION
Cassio is immediately upset and unhappy

about what he did and the results. He realizes that he
has done serious harm to his reputation and his
sense of honor (lines 246-48). He feels that he has
ruined “the immortal part” of himself. That
expression usually refers to his soul, and Cassio is
suggesting that reputation is connected to personal
honor and virtue. Iago, however, tells Cassio that a
loss of reputation is nothing. A serious physical
wound to the body would be something to moan
about and to complain about. But a wounded
reputation can be recovered and completely healed.
There’s a double way of interpreting this
dialogue, and Shakespeare probably intends both
meanings. First, the connection of reputation to
honor and virtue is an idea that would be meaningless
to Iago because Iago is completely lacking in honor
and virtue. Therefore, Iago would view a loss of
honor and virtue as unimportant. But, second, the
word reputation also suggests fame. And fame, as
many writers have expressed (see, for example,
Geoffrey Chaucer’s The House of Fame), is like a
shadow. Fame is unsubstantial, meaningless, and
often undeserved.
Thus, even though Iago is manipulating
Cassio to put his own evil scheme in motion, there is
truth in Iago’s words. That is why Iago is so
successful. He uses the truth to accomplish evil. A
69
lost reputation can be easily regained. Reputation

relies on what others think, and what others think can
be quickly changed and altered. The opinion of
others can alter with the wind (that is, their opinions
can change at any moment).
70
ACT II, 3: IAGO’S THIRD SOLILOQUY
Iago’s third soliloquy (lines 310-36) has two

main parts. In the first part (up to line 324), Iago
talks about his use of truth to declare himself
innocent of being a villain. He proclaims that he
merely states what is obvious and true. He is saying
that he is innocent of any wrongdoing. He adds that
his advice to Cassio (to ask Desdemona to speak to
Othello on his behalf) is both logical and sensible.
And it is. Desdemona does have control over Othello
and is able to convince Othello of just about anything
(including hiring Cassio back as his lieutenant).
The second part of the soliloquy, though,
moves in the completely opposite direction. Here,
Iago declares himself as a most deceitful villain. The
second part begins with the expression “Divinity of
hell” (line 324). The word divinity refers to theology
or religious philosophy. Iago is declaring that his
philosophy is the philosophy of the devil. His
philosophy is truly evil. Iago explains that the best
villain or devil is one who uses fraud, deception, and
hypocrisy:
When devils will the blackest sins put on,

They do suggest at first with heavenly shows.
(325-26)
One may perhaps think of a successful conman who

pretends to be honest and caring and helpful, but who
71
then turns out to be a crook who robs someone of all

of his money. One might also think of the modern
evangelist or minister (or even Chaucer’s Pardoner)
who preaches to people that they should give up their
greed and give all of their money to God. Of course,
the money actually goes into that minister’s pocket
for his own personal use. Iago is like the deceptive
conman or the fraudulent minister. He uses good and
honest words for an evil and dishonest purpose.
Cassio, of course, does not know that Iago
will be hinting to Othello that Cassio is having an
affair with Desdemona. So, the more Desdemona
asks Othello to help Cassio, the more suspicious and
angry Othello will become. And, all during this time,
Iago will pretend to be a friend and supporter to both
Cassio and Othello.
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ACT III
ACT III, 1: A BRIEF COMIC INTERLUDE
The third act begins with a very brief dialogue

with a clown (rustic) and musician. This dialogue is
provided for the purpose of comic relief. The play is
becoming quite serious and intense, and comic relief
is necessary to relax the audience. The humor of the
scene relies on puns. The clown asks the musician
about his “wind instruments”: (1) this literally refers
to musical instruments like the oboe or flute. But (2)
the expression also is jokingly used to refer to
flatulence (or farting). One’s own bottom or rear end
is then said to be a wind instrument. The words tale
and tail are also used to add to the pun: the word tail
here suggesting again the rear end or bottom of an
individual. The clown is thus suggesting that the
music being played is like the sound of farting.
In the second half of the scene, the main plot
continues to develop. Cassio asks Iago for his wife’s
assistance. Emilia is serving Desdemona, and Cassio
wants Emilia to ask Desdemona if he can speak to
her. Emilia, who does not know about her husband’s
evil plot, is happy to help Cassio.
73
ACT III, 2: A NECESSARY PLOT ELEMENT
The extremely brief second scene serves a

necessary plot function: to get Othello out of the
main city so that Cassio can have the opportunity to
go and talk to Desdemona. Othello, then, is going to
another part of Cyprus to see about making certain
that the island is secure.
74
ACT III, 3: THE SEED OF SUSPICION
The third scene begins with a dialogue

between Desdemona and Cassio. Desdemona
promises Cassio that she will help Cassio and will not
stop until Othello agrees to allow Cassio to return as
his lieutenant.
Just as Desdemona and Cassio are finishing
their discussion, Othello, along with Iago, returns to
the city (that is, they appear on stage, coming in from
the back). Cassio, still embarrassed about the way he
had become drunk and disorderly, decides that he
should wait until Desdemona talks with Othello
before he approaches Othello himself. So, Cassio
exits (on the opposite side of the stage) as Othello
and Iago converse.
As they watch Cassio depart, Iago exclaims,
“Ha! I like not that” (33). And then he adds that he
would not believe that Cassio “would steal away so
guilty-like” (38). If Iago had not made these
comments, Othello, who usually assumes that people
are generally good and honest, would not have
thought that anything suspicious was occurring.
Cassio’s departure was not motivated by guilt; rather,
it was motivated by embarrassment. But Iago’s
words suggest that Cassio is acting improperly. Iago
wants Othello to think that Cassio is guilty of
something. Iago then subtly pretends to act as if he
thinks Cassio is innocent. This is the first seed of
suspicion. Iago wants Othello to doubt the honesty
75
of Cassio. Then, little by little, Iago will make

additional comments so that Othello’s doubt grows
and grows. At this point, though, Iago’s scheme is
just beginning to develop.
And Iago’s seed works. When Desdemona
asks Othello to speak to Cassio right away, Othello
refuses (line 56). He is bothered by Iago’s comments
and wants time to consider the situation. Desdemona,
then, gives a very impassioned speech (lines 61-75)
about Cassio’s friendship with Othello and how
Othello owes Cassio this much. Othello, then, agrees
to do as Desdemona asks: “I will deny thee nothing”
(84). But, because of his doubt, Othello asks
Desdemona if he can speak with Cassio at some later
time. Desdemona accepts, and then exits.
76
ACT III, 3: THE SEED GROWS
Othello is then left alone on the stage with

Iago, and Iago continues to add to Othello’s doubts
about Cassio. Iago is quite crafty and sly. He
hesitates as though he is reluctant to say anything
negative about Cassio, and he argues that he should
keep his thoughts to himself. But this makes Othello
all the more curious. So, Othello practically forces
Iago to tell him why he suspects Cassio.
Iago’s craftiness works on Othello exactly as
Iago hopes. Othello falls for Iago’s con. But all
along, Othello never suspects Iago. In fact, Othello’s
dialogue is also full of irony when he attempts to
assess Iago’s character. In regards to Iago’s hesitant
or reluctant speech, Othello states the following:
For such things in a false disloyal knave

Are tricks of custom, but in a man that’s just,
They’re close dilations, working from the heart
That passion cannot rule. (126-29)
Iago is a false disloyal knave, but Othello never sees

it. Othello is basically stating that a dishonest man
will be hesitant in his speech to trick or fool others,
but an honest man is hesitant because he is sorely
troubled in his heart. Othello’s comment is correct,
but Othello is most incorrect in believing that Iago is
an honest man.
77
Some of the best and most often quoted lines

of the play also occur during this dialogue. For
example, Iago asserts the following:
Good name in man and woman, dear my lord,

Is the immediate jewel of their souls.
Who steals my purse steals trash; ‘tis something,
nothing;
‘Twas mine, ‘tis his, and has been slave to thousands.
But he that filches from me my good name
Robs me of that which not enriches him
And makes me poor indeed. (160-66)
In these lines Iago contradicts what he had said

earlier. A “good name” refers to reputation. Here
Iago is asserting that reputation is the most important
quality a man can have. Once again, the concept of
reputation is tied to honor and virtue. Iago has not
changed his mind, though. Rather, he is lying. He is
telling Othello this as part of his con. Essentially,
Iago is saying that he does not wish to dishonor or
ruin the good name of Cassio. But, of course, he
really does wish to make Cassio look like a villain to
Othello. And Iago knows that his hesitation or
reluctance to say anything bad about Cassio will
make Othello more curious and more anxious to find
out what Iago knows (or pretends to know) about
Cassio.
In these famous lines Iago compares
reputation to money, which is indicated by the word
purse. Iago is stating that money is really nothing.
78
This is the belief that Christians proposed in the

Middle Ages (see, for example, the morality play
Everyman). A person cannot take his money or
goods with him to heaven when he dies. He can only
take his soul and its virtue. Thus, Iago states that the
only true wealth is a good name (reputation, honor,
virtue). The passage is practically comical when one
considers that Iago believes the exact opposite. Iago
is greedy, as the audience already well knows.
Iago’s words have exactly the effect that he
wants. Othello swears that he will know what Iago is
thinking (166). And this leads to Iago’s famous
definition of jealousy:
O, beware, my lord, of jealousy.

It is the green-eyed monster which doth mock
The meat it feeds on. That cuckold lives in bliss
Who, certain of his fate, loves not his wronger.
But O, what damned minutes tells he o’er
Who dotes yet doubts, suspects but fondly loves!
(169-74)
This personification of jealousy as a monster has

become a common idea in western culture. The first
sentence suggests that the more jealous a person
becomes, the worse he becomes – and the more
ridiculous he becomes. Jealousy makes a person
absurd or crazy. Thus, jealousy makes fun of or
ridicules the person who is jealous. In the second
sentence, Iago suggests that a cuckold (a man whose
wife is having an affair) who knows that his wife is
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unfaithful can only be happy if he does not love his

wife. The word wronger here refers to the unfaithful
wife. In the last sentence, the word tells means
counts (to count) and the word fondly means
foolishly. Thus, Iago is declaring that a man who
loves his wife but who suspects her of being
unfaithful will suffer greatly: each minute will be one
of agony for him. Iago knows that Othello does
belong to this second category of men: he does love
his wife. Iago thus predicts what Othello will soon
be experiencing. This is foreshadowing. Iago warns
Othello, but Othello will not heed the warning.
Jealousy is such a powerful emotion that even if one
knows the dangers of it, he still cannot avoid those
dangers.
One might also pause here to take a moment
to think about the character of Iago. Where Othello
belongs to the second category of men, Iago belongs
to the first. He is not affected or infected by jealousy.
Iago, then, does not love his wife.
80
ACT III, 3: OTHELLO’S IRONIC RESPONSE
Othello responds to Iago’s comments on

jealousy. In a short speech, he declares that he is
above the effects of jealousy (lines 180-96). He is
basically asserting that he is superior to the emotion
of jealousy (another example of Othello’s pride). In
this speech Othello states that as long as there is no
proof regarding the infidelity of Desdemona, he
cannot be jealous. He trusts her completely. And if
there is definite proof, he still will not become
jealous. Rather, he believes, if there is proof, he
would push Desdemona out of his life and never
think about her again. Othello asserts here a rational
response to what one might do concerning an
unfaithful wife. But, as Shakespeare illustrates time
and again, when a strong and powerful emotion
asserts itself, reason disappears. Very soon Iago will
cast doubts and suspicions, and very soon Othello
will become crazy with jealousy.
Iago attacks Othello’s rational response in a
sly manner. Othello suggests that Desdemona is too
virtuous to be capable of deception. But Iago
reminds Othello that Desdemona “did deceive her
father, marrying you” (210). So, if Desdemona is
capable of deceiving her father, then she must also be
capable of deceiving Othello. Again, Iago takes the
truth and stretches it or exaggerates it to make it
appear different than it really is. And again Iago’s
81
words have the desired effect on Othello. Othello

immediately begins to doubt the fidelity of his wife.
82
ACT III, 3: OTHELLO’S SOLILOQUY –

THE CURSE OF MARRIAGE
The character of Othello does have a

soliloquy in this play. After Iago has firmly planted
suspicion and doubt in his mind, Othello dwells on
the possibility of Desdemona being unfaithful (lines
262-83). Othello even begins with a half-truth. He
still mistakenly believes that Iago is honest, but
Othello is correct in realizing that Iago is
exceptionally knowledgeable and insightful about
human psychology (“human dealings” in line 264).
The remainder of the speech has two distinct
parts: (1) in the first part (lines 264-72), Othello still
believes that he is superior to the effects of jealousy.
He thinks that the reason for this is perhaps because
he is an African (black in line 267). That is, he
comes from a harsh climate and the environment
forced him to be strong and tough in order to survive.
Or, perhaps, a second possible reason is that he is
older (“vale of years” in line 270). Othello is
thinking that older people are wiser and better able to
control their emotions. Of course, Shakespeare
himself knows differently (see, for example, the old
speaker Will of the Sonnets). In the first part of this
speech, Othello concludes that if Desdemona is guilty
of infidelity, he will not feel the pangs of jealousy.
Instead, he will hate (loathe in line 272) her and send
her away.
83
But as soon as Othello does think this, then

the emotion of jealousy begins to work its poison on
him. The second part of the soliloquy begins with “O
curse of marriage” (272). Othello feels cursed. He
feels the pain and torment that jealousy can bring.
Othello then uses the metaphor of the toad. He
states that he would rather be a toad in a dungeon (or
prison) than a cuckold. A toad is considered to be
one of the ugliest and most loathsome of creatures.
Moreover, prisons at that time left much to be desired:
they were filthy and unsanitary. Prisoners would
often be locked in small rooms for years without any
bathroom facilities. The prison cells would become
dirty and disgusting, and the stench would be
suffocating. Othello, then, is stating that he would
rather be the worst creature in the worst place in the
world than to be a cuckold.
Othello concludes in his soliloquy that to be a
cuckold is the fate of aristocrats (“great ones,” as
opposed to commoners or “base” ones: lines 277-78).
All noble men suffer from this “plague” (277). The
concluding remark is another example of anti-
feminist literature. Othello is taking a single
instance of infidelity and applying it as a general
statement about life and as a criticism against all
women. And, quite ironically, this one instance of
infidelity does not even exist. Desdemona is not
being unfaithful. Othello, now, is no longer thinking
rationally.
84
ACT III, 3: THE PLOT THICKENS
At this point in the play Othello is almost

completely convinced that Desdemona is unfaithful.
He does not want to believe it, but the emotion of
jealousy is so strong that he cannot think sensibly
about the situation. When Desdemona does approach
him (line 283), Othello is hot and feverish. He also
complains of a pain on his forehead: from invisible
cuckold horns (according to medieval superstition, a
cuckold would grow horns on his head). Desdemona
tries to wipe Othello’s sweaty forehead with a
handkerchief (or napkin), but he pushes the napkin
aside and it drops to the floor. This napkin is a
special one, embroidered in a fancy and delicate
manner. Othello gave this as a gift to Desdemona,
and it plays a significant role in the plot.
Emilia picks up the napkin and gives it to her
husband (line 320). Iago intends to take the napkin
and place it in Cassio’s room. The napkin will then
become the evidence, or the proof, that Iago will
present to Othello. And the irrational Othello will
believe that Cassio is having an affair with
Desdemona.
Othello appears a few moments later, and his
emotions are already starting to drive him crazy. He
cannot sleep (lines 334-37), and he becomes
irrationally angry at Iago. Othello realizes now that
knowledge of his wife’s infidelity can make him
irrational (lines 343-38). Moreover, Othello cannot
85
concentrate on or even think about his work. In an

impassioned speech (lines 350-62), Othello indicates
that he is a ruined man. His present condition makes
him unfit to be a general. All he can think about is
Desdemona.
Othello’s confused mind is reflected in his
words to Iago:
I think my wife is honest, and think she is not.

I think thou art just, and think thou art not.
(389-90)
But Othello still demands proof. So, Iago fashions

another lie. Iago, who shares the officers’ quarters
(their room in Cyprus) with Cassio, tells Othello that
Cassio talks in his sleep (lines 420-30). Iago then
claims that, in his sleep, Cassio talked about kissing
Desdemona and having intercourse with her. Then,
Iago mentions the napkin (handkerchief in line 439).
This is enough evidence to convince Othello. He
begins to talk about getting vengeance (line 451).
But Iago wants to make sure that Othello is
convinced, and he thinks that Othello “may change”
his mind (455). However, Othello is so enraged at
this point that that he cannot think about anything
else except taking some kind of action against
Desdemona and Cassio.
To prove that he will not change his mind,
Othello kneels down (that is, he gets down on his
knees as if he is praying) and makes a vow or oath to
86
enact a full and complete revenge (lines 456-65).

Iago then kneels down as well and vows to serve
Othello in this task. Othello then commands Iago to
kill Cassio at some time during the next three days
(line 475-76). Iago accepts. And Othello now makes
Iago his lieutenant (line 481). This kneeling scene
forms a dialogic relationship with the second scene
in the fourth act [this relationship will be discussed
later in a section on Act IV, Scene 2].
87
ACT III, 4: THE MAGICAL HANDKERCHIEF
In the fourth scene Desdemona tells Emilia

that she does not know what is troubling Othello, but
she firmly believes that he is incapable of jealousy
(lines 27-29; another example of verbal irony).
Othello appears, and Desdemona brings up the matter
of rehiring Cassio. Othello responds by saying that
his eyes are watering; and, so, he asks her for her
handkerchief. When she offers Othello a plain
handkerchief, he refuses it and asks instead for the
special embroidered napkin that he had given her.
Desdemona does not know where she had lost it, and
she responds that she does not have it.
Othello then launches into a speech about
how the napkin has magical properties (lines 53-73).
The napkin, according to Othello, was made by a
sibyl (spiritualist or witch) who was 200 years old.
An Egyptian sorceress gave the napkin to Othello’s
father. The sorceress told him that as long as his wife
kept possession of the napkin, he would love her
fully and completely. But if his wife lost the napkin
or gave it away, he would stop loving her and seek
other women. Othello tells Desdemona that the same
magic will work in regards to their relationship. If
she loses the napkin, he will stop loving her.
There are two possible ways to regard the
magic of the napkin. (1) Othello is making the story
up to test his wife. Or, more likely, (2) Othello really
believes what he says about the napkin. People
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during the Middle Ages and Renaissance were

extremely superstitious and believed in witchcraft
(even King James I believed in the magic of witches).
And magical tales of the Near East (or Arabian
countries) were well known. In such tales magical
objects appear frequently: flying carpets, invisibility
rings, Aladdin’s lamp with a genie inside. Most of
the people sitting in the theater when this play was
first performed most likely fully accepted and
believed in the idea of a magical napkin.
Desdemona, of course, becomes frantic when
she hears this news about the handkerchief. She does
not know where she lost it, and she attempts to get
Othello’s mind off of the napkin by talking about
Cassio. This, of course, is the wrong topic to bring
up. Othello becomes infuriated. He then swears and
exits (line 95).
Desdemona still has absolutely no idea why
Othello is so angry and acting so strangely. She
incorrectly guesses that Othello has some problem
with his work that “hath puddled his clear spirit”
(139). She believes that some affair of business is
troubling him. Emilia wonders whether jealousy has
infected Othello (line 152). But Desdemona does not
believe that such is possible.
The fourth scene ends with a conversation
between Cassio and Bianca. Bianca is Cassio’s
mistress. He has a relationship with her, but Cassio
does not intend to marry her. Cassio shows Bianca
the handkerchief that he found (which is the napkin
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that belongs to Desdemona). Cassio realizes that the

owner of such a beautiful item will want it back. So,
he asks Bianca to try and make a copy of it. And
Bianca agrees. Thus, the audience now knows that
Cassio has the napkin in his possession. And having
it in his possession can only cause him trouble.
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ACT IV
ACT IV, 1: THE TRANCE
The fourth act begins with a conversation

between Iago and Othello. The audience finds them
in the middle of a conversation in which they are
discussing the possible affair between Cassio and
Desdemona. Iago uses a metaphor of a couple in
bed together naked, but not having sex (lines 3-4).
The metaphor suggests that Desdemona and Cassio
may not yet have had sexual relations, but they
appear to be very close to doing so. In this metaphor
Iago states that lying together but not having sex is
harmless. Iago is, of course, being quite crafty: he is
planting an image of Cassio and Desdemona lying
together naked. And such an image is quite upsetting
to Othello.
Othello describes Iago’s image as “hypocrisy
against the devil” (6). Othello means that the devil
himself would view such a naked man and woman in
bed together as sinners whether they committed the
sexual act or not. In other words, Othello is stating
his own belief that Desdemona is guilty of having an
affair even if she has not yet had sex with Cassio.
Just the intention or desire to have sex makes her
guilty. Referring back to the metaphorical couple,
Othello adds that “they tempt heaven” (8). Othello
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suggests that possibly even God would find such an

act to be sinful.
Iago now subtly reminds Othello about the
handkerchief (line 10). This is the proof or evidence
that convinces Othello about Desdemona’s infidelity.
Being reminded of it, right after imagining
Desdemona lying naked with Cassio, disturbs and
upsets Othello even more. This is an intensely
emotional scene. The actor playing Othello must
show the anger and hurt growing inside him. Perhaps
his body would quiver, and his voice would waver
and rise in pitch and volume.
Iago (again in his subtle manner to anger and
madden Othello) tells Othello that a person who
receives a gift (like a handkerchief) has the right to
give it away. But Othello responds that such a person
does not have the right to give away her honor (line
14). Iago repeats his own belief that honor is
meaningless: “They have it very oft that have it not”
(16). Iago means that many people who are believed
to be honorable are actually quite dishonorable. Iago
then steers Othello’s thoughts back onto the
handkerchief. Iago can visibly see the effect of his
words on Othello. Iago knows how Othello will
think concerning the handkerchief. The
handkerchief symbolizes Desdemona’s honor. So,
in Othello’s mind, when Desdemona gives the
handkerchief away, she is also giving her honor away.
Othello no longer thinks that Desdemona is
honorable. Othello is on the edge. He is emotionally
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unstable. And now he is ready for Iago to push him

off the edge. And Iago does so. Iago tells Othello
that Cassio told him that he is having sex with
Desdemona (line 33). The image that forms in his
mind is too hard for Othello to bear. He is driven
over the edge. The thought drives him crazy. The
reader should note how Othello’s dialogue has
suddenly reverted to prose (lines 34-41). And
Othello’s own words become nearly
incomprehensible. He is picturing the affair in his
mind, and the thought is too hard for him to take. So,
Othello falls into a trance. He can no longer connect
with reality. He can no longer see or hear what is
happening around him. He is locked in his own wild
mind. Othello, at least for the moment, has gone
mad.
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ACT IV, 1: EAVESDROPPING
Iago’s plan is working just as he had hoped,

but he is not finished yet. Othello awakens quickly
from his trance, and this perhaps suggests that he has
not completely lost all of his mental abilities. Iago
realizes that Othello still needs to be pushed or
manipulated further so that he will not change his
mind about believing that Desdemona is unfaithful.
When Othello awakens from his trance, he
puts his hand on his head. Iago asks him, “Have you
not hurt your head?” (56). This line has a literal
meaning, but also a symbolic one. According to
medieval superstition, a cuckold (a man whose wife
is having an affair) grows horns upon his forehead.
Iago indirectly is calling Othello a cuckold. And, in
Shakespeare’s day, a cuckold is also a fool.
Othello still wants direct and substantial proof
that Desdemona is having an affair. Iago tells
Othello that he can get such proof directly from
Cassio’s own lips. Iago instructs Othello to hide
behind a wall or some other object and secretly listen
while he talks to Cassio. Othello does as Iago asks.
Othello eavesdrops on the conversation that follows
(lines 102-62).
Iago, of course, knows that Cassio is not
having an affair with Desdemona. But Iago also
knows that Cassio is having a relationship with a
commoner named Bianca. Cassio does not view this
relationship seriously. Bianca is someone he likes to
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have fun with, but he certainly has no intention to

marry her. Cassio has jokingly talked about Bianca
to Iago in the past (lines 96-97). Iago’s intention is to
get Cassio to speak jokingly of Bianca again, but to
make Othello (who is hiding at a little distance away)
think that Cassio is talking about Desdemona.
The conversation works because Iago, when
he mentions Bianca’s name, says it in a whisper so
that Othello does not hear it. Out loud, so Othello
can hear, Iago tells Cassio to “ply Desdemona well
and you are sure on’t” (104). The word ply here
means to petition or ask. Iago is telling Cassio to
keep asking Desdemona for assistance in order for
him to get back his job as lieutenant. Then, softly, in
a whisper, Iago adds, “Now, if this suit lay in
Bianca’s power, how quickly you should speed”
(105-06). The word speed means to be successful.
Iago is saying that Cassio’s suit or request to get his
job back would be easy and successful if he were
asking Bianca instead of Desdemona. Bianca would
do anything for Cassio because she is hopelessly and
foolishly in love with him. What is important here is
that Othello does not hear these two lines. So, when
Cassio starts laughing about Bianca, Othello believes
that he is laughing about Desdemona. And, as Cassio
continues to joke about Bianca, Othello comes to
believe the worst about Cassio. Othello believes that
Cassio is a coldhearted lover who is just having a
casual sexual relationship with Desdemona and then
intends to abandon her.
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The case against Cassio looks even worse

when Bianca appears and hands the handkerchief
back to Cassio (lines 140-50). Bianca is angry that
Cassio asked her to make a copy of the embroidered
handkerchief. She thinks that the handkerchief is a
love token that some other woman gave to Cassio.
Bianca is jealous, and her words convey the
impression that Cassio is a cold and heartless lover
who chases after many women.
Othello is now convinced. After Cassio exits,
Othello asks, “How shall I murder him, Iago?” (163).
Othello wants revenge.
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ACT IV, 1: DO IT NOT WITH POISON
After speaking with Iago for a short while,

Othello is also convinced that he must take out his
revenge on Desdemona. And, so, he immediately
decides to kill her with the use of poison. Iago,
however, tells him not to use poison. Instead, he
should “strangle her in her bed” (197). Because the
bed is where she supposedly committed her infidelity,
the bed should also be the place where she is
punished. Othello likes the idea and says “the justice
of it pleases” him (199). But Iago actually has a
much different reason for wanting Othello to strangle
or choke Desdemona to death. Poison might not
work; a doctor might be able to save her in time. Or
if she does die, Othello could always say she died of
natural causes. Or perhaps the poisoning might be
blamed on somebody else. In Iago’s mind, too many
things could go wrong if poison is used. But if
Othello strangles her, there is little chance that
anything could go wrong. And, more importantly,
Othello’s act will look like that of a madman. Iago’s
goal is to ruin Othello entirely. If people believe
Othello is mad, that will be his downfall.
Toward the end of the scene, a messenger
named Lodovico arrives. He has just come from
Venice and he is carrying an important letter for
Othello. The Duke is immediately ordering Othello
to return to Venice for important business, and
Lieutenant Cassio is to take command of Cyprus
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while Othello is away (lines 228-29). The Duke, of

course, does not know that Othello has fired Cassio.
And Othello, who is still quite angry, upset, and
irrational, is not pleased at all about the news. When
Lodovico tells Desdemona that Cassio is to take
control of Cyprus, Desdemona says she is happy
about this news (line 230). She is happy that the
problem between her husband and Cassio will finally
be over. Othello, though, interprets her line
differently. He is probably thinking that she will be
happy to be alone with Cassio while he is away.
Thus, he thinks that Desdemona is “mad” to
announce such happiness before him (line 233). So,
he hits her. Desdemona is stunned, and Lodovico can
barely believe what he has just seen. After Othello
exits, Iago speaks with Lodovico. Iago hints that
Othello is completely mad. And, later, after Othello
strangles Desdemona to death, Lodovico will not
need any further convincing. He will believe that
Othello is truly mad.
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ACT IV, 2: WHERE I HAVE GARNERED

UP MY HEART
In the second scene Othello is still overly

emotional and irrational. But he is also still fully
convinced that his wife is having an affair with
Cassio. And he still plans to strangle her. But, as
Christian tradition dictates, the condemned man (or,
in this case, woman) has the opportunity to confess
his sins before being executed. Usually, a priest is
called to hear the confession of the man who is about
to be executed. In this play, however, Othello wants
Desdemona to confess to him. He tells her she will
be “double-damned” if she does not admit to having
an affair (line 39). That is, she will be committing
two sins: (1) adultery, and (2) dishonesty, which is a
type of fraud. Othello is implying that by not
confessing, she will be twice as sure to end up in hell.
But Desdemona is innocent. She has no sin to
confess. And so she tells Othello this, but he does
not believe her. And believing her to be both a liar
and an adulterer is too much for him to bear. For
Othello, Desdemona is everything. She is his life.
As Othello states, Desdemona is “where I have
garnered up my heart” (59). By killing Desdemona,
Othello will also be destroying himself.
To add to the emotional intensity of this scene,
Shakespeare then inserts an instance of dramatic
irony at this point. Despite Desdemona’s tearful
pleas regarding her innocence, Othello will not
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believe her. He leaves, and Desdemona is worried

and upset. Not knowing what else to do, she asks
Emilia to bring her husband to her. Of course, Iago is
actually the last person she should talk to. The irony
of the scene intensifies when Emilia correctly guesses
that some terrible person, some scoundrel, must have
been telling lies to Othello (lines 134-37). And then
Emilia adds that such a scoundrel should be whipped
and punished most severely (lines 140-48). But, of
course, at this point Emilia does not realize that the
scoundrel she is talking about is her very own
husband.
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ACT IV, 2: KNEELING AND THE

DIALOGIC RELATIONSHIP
ACT III, 3 ACT IV, 2

Othello & Iago kneel – Desdemona kneels – 155
lines 463, 465
Vow for Vengeance – 462 Vow of Innocence – 156-
65
Ever-burning lights – 466 Light of heaven – 154
Ne’er ebb to humble love – Ever .. love him dearly –
461 162
Wit, hands, heart – 469 Mine eyes, mine ears, or
any sense -- 158
In the second scene of Act IV, Desdemona

kneels down before Iago and Emilia and declares her
innocence. The act of kneeling (getting down on the
knees to pray) reminds the audience of a similar
action in the third act. Shakespeare uses the action of
kneeling as a sign (semiotics) to remind the audience
of that scene. The two scenes form a dialogic
relationship. The prefix dia means across, and the
root logic here indicates meaning or sense. Thus, the
meaning or sense of one scene carries back or across
to the other scene. The audience members will (at
least subconsciously) compare and contrast the two
scenes.
The language of the two scenes can also serve
as signs to connect them. The word light, for
example, connects the two scenes. Thus, the word
light is also a sign. Othello swears to the “ever-
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burning lights” of the sky. He is swearing to the stars

and planets. In a sense, then, he is swearing to the
pagan gods (like Saturn and Jupiter). But
Desdemona is swearing to the light of heaven. She is
swearing to the Christian God. Othello makes a vow,
but it is an evil one, fed by lies and with a promise of
future violence. The words concerning love, (ever or
never) also mark the contrast. There is no love in
Othello’s vow, but there is nothing but love in
Desdemona’s vow.
The dialogic relationship of the two scenes
subtly underscores the dramatic tension in the play.
Shakespeare cleverly positions these two scenes
closely together for an ironic contrast. Everything is
wrong about what Othello thinks and intends to do.
Yet everything about Desdemona is good and
innocent. The vow to supernatural forces, though,
may get the audience thinking about the role of fate
and God. The audience may and, perhaps, should
wonder why fate seems to be on the side of Iago and
evil. Fate is decidedly against Othello and
Desdemona. Goodness will not triumph over evil in
this play.
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ACT IV, 2: FOPPED IN IT
The end of the second scene contains yet

another dialogue between Iago and Roderigo. Once
again, the reader should note the use of prose in this
scene. The scene is full of scheming and lying, so the
use of prose is appropriate. But having Iago sink to
prose may also indicate the lowliness of his position
because of his schemes and plots. Iago is a scoundrel.
Regarding the trick that Iago has been playing
upon him, Roderigo realizes that he has been
“fopped in it” (197). This means that Roderigo
realizes he has been a fool. Roderigo had given Iago
several valuable jewels that Iago claims he had then
passed on to Desdemona (line 190). But now
Roderigo believes that Iago has kept the jewels for
himself. Roderigo tells Iago that he will go directly
to Desdemona himself and ask her to return the
jewels. If she does not have the jewels, then
Roderigo will get “satisfaction” or revenge upon Iago
(line 202).
Once again Iago gets out of this difficulty by
twisting the truth to serve his own purposes. He tells
Roderigo that Roderigo will be able to have
Desdemona the very next night if he will accomplish
one brave act. Using the truth, Iago tells him how
Othello is commanded to leave Cyprus and how
Cassio is to rule in his place. He adds that
Desdemona will be going with Othello. Thus,
Roderigo’s hopes to be with Desdemona will be
103
crushed unless Othello is forced to stay in Cyprus.

And that will happen, Iago tells Roderigo, if Cassio is
removed from Cyprus. Furthermore, Iago adds that
Roderigo can remove Cassio by “knocking out his
brains” (230). The scene ends with Roderigo only
partially convinced, but he exits with Iago so that
Iago can explain why this will help him win
Desdemona. And, as later events reveal, Iago does
convince Roderigo to attempt killing Cassio.
Iago has lied to and manipulated Roderigo to
get out of a difficult situation. Of course, Iago now
realizes that he must take action; but he is hoping that
Cassio might accomplish that action for him. When
Roderigo attacks Cassio, the possibility exists that
Cassio could end up killing Roderigo. Then Iago’s
problem is over. But if Roderigo kills Cassio instead,
Iago will still be pleased. His revenge against Cassio
will be accomplished, and Othello will have to stay in
Cyprus (where Iago can continue to manipulate him).
Also, Iago worries that Othello might tell Cassio
about the lies that Iago has spoken against Cassio.
Cassio would then want vengeance against Iago.
More importantly, Iago has no intention of allowing
Roderigo to survive. Iago tells Roderigo that he
(Iago) “will be near, to second your attempt” (236-
37). He is telling Roderigo that he will help him.
But that is not true. If Roderigo kills Cassio, then
Iago will kill Roderigo. And Iago can tell Othello
that he killed Roderigo in his attempt to arrest the
murderer of Cassio. So, one way or another,
104
Roderigo must die. Iago cannot allow him to speak

with Desdemona.
105
ACT IV, 3: FOR ALL THE WORLD
There is a song in the third scene. But it is a

sad and ironic song. The song does not lighten the
mood or ease the tension of the play. Desdemona
sings this song about a woman whose lover was mad
and abandoned her (lines 26-27). The song, then,
parallels Desdemona’s very own situation.
Throughout the song is the repetition of the word
willow. The willow tree was a standard symbol of
disappointed love during the Renaissance.
After the song the innocent Desdemona, who
would never dream of being unfaithful to her
husband, asks Emilia if she believes that there really
are such cruel women who would be untrue to their
husbands. The more experienced Emilia tells her that
there are such women; she adds that she herself
would be untrue “for all the world” (62). In other
words, she would be unfaithful if the reward were
large enough. Emilia explains, “Who would not
make her husband a cuckold to make him a monarch?
I should venture purgatory for’t” (73-75). Emilia is
stating that if she could make herself and her husband
wealthy enough to live like a king and a queen, the
act of committing one sin, the sin of adultery, would
be worth it. Emilia does not think adultery is a
serious sin. She believes she might go to purgatory
for it, but not hell. According to early Christian
belief, purgatory is a middle ground between heaven
and hell in the afterlife. Sinners who are not really
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evil people are placed there to atone for their sins (or
to be punished for their sins) for a hundred years or
maybe a thousand years before they are finally able
to go to heaven. Emilia disagrees with the standard
Christian beliefs. According to Christianity, adultery
is a mortal sin. According to the Ten
Commandments (the laws of God that were given to
Moses and that form the foundation of Christianity),
adultery is forbidden. So, Christian leaders would
say that adulterers will end up in hell. But Emilia is
not even certain that adultery is such a serious sin
that she would even end up in purgatory. She thinks
she might still be able to get into heaven even if she
does commit this sin.
Emilia’s assertion here suggests an interesting
view of Renaissance society. Emilia was certainly
not the only one to reinterpret Christian thinking to
suit her own personal beliefs. Such thinking may
have been quite common. In a lengthy speech,
Emilia defends her position (lines 82-101). This
speech is a splendid example of pro-feminist
literature and thus provides a first-rate contrast to
her husband Iago’s anti-feminist commentary.
Emilia argues that if husbands can frequently commit
adultery without much criticism as to it being
immoral or sinful, then such action by wives should
not be considered to be so terrible either. Women,
Emilia declares, have the same emotions and desires
as do men. She adds, “The ills we do, their ills
instruct us so” (101). She is saying that the wives are
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committing this sin because their husbands do.

Emilia is arguing that women should be treated and
judged equally to men. But, moreover, Emilia may
be revealing information about herself and her own
relationship with Iago.
108
ACT V
ACT V, 1: SMOOTH SAILING FOR IAGO
As the fifth act begins, fate or destiny still

appears to favor Iago. Roderigo attacks Cassio as
Iago had urged him to do. Roderigo is sorely
wounded, and in the dark night Iago sneaks up
behind Cassio and stabs him in the leg. Cassio shouts
out in pain, and Othello arrives on the scene. But
Othello is so consumed, or maddened, by his
thoughts of Desdemona having an affair, that he
ignores Cassio entirely and exits.
Two other men (Graziano and Lodovico)
arrive, so Iago reveals himself and pretends that he
has just arrived in response to the yelling of Cassio.
While Graziano and Lodovico are on one side of the
stage, Iago comes upon the wounded Roderigo and
stabs him to death (line 63). Iago then pretends to be
innocent in the whole matter. In addition, when
Bianca arrives on the scene, Iago tries to place blame
on her. He, of course, does not want anybody to
suspect him. Even Emilia, who also arrives on the
scene, believes that Bianca is guilty in some way.
The reader should see this scene as an example of
social commentary as well. Bianca is in a lower
social class or position than Iago and Emilia. Thus,
she is an easy target for Iago. In any conflict or
dispute where one party is socially superior to the
109
other, the person with higher social standing always

had the advantage. The courts and law-keepers
always maintained a bias against the lower classes.
110
ACT V, 2: IT IS THE CAUSE
The bedroom scene, the final scene of the

play, presents one of the most intense and dramatic
moments in literature. Othello has come to murder
Desdemona, to smother her in her bed. Because the
audience knows that Desdemona is innocent and that
Othello has been fooled by Iago, the horror of the
scene is increased and fills the audience with anxiety.
The audience is shocked and dismayed even though
they know that Othello intends to kill his wife. The
members of the audience may even want to warn
Othello or stop him. The suspense is astonishing.
Very few scenes in drama reach the emotional
intensity of this one.
When Othello first enters the bedchamber,
Desdemona is asleep. Othello is somewhat hesitant
to carry out the murder, and he presents a speech in
which he convinces himself to do the dreaded deed.
The speech begins with the following lines:
It is the cause, it is the cause, my soul.

Let me not name it to you, you chaste stars.
(1-2)
Some critics suggest that the word cause is meant in

the sense of “cause of justice.” Othello does think
that he is acting justly. But a simpler interpretation
might work even better here. The word cause also
can mean reason, and the pronoun it refers to
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infidelity. Thus, the line indicates that Desdemona’s

infidelity is the reason why Othello intends to kill her.
That the word it refers to infidelity is made clear in
the second line. Infidelity is a serious sin that is in
direct contrast to chastity, and infidelity is a word
that Othello does not wish to say aloud. But Othello
is attempting to justify his actions, to explain his
reason for murdering Desdemona.
In his speech Othello also mentions two kinds
of light: “Put out the light, and then put out the light”
(7). The first light refers to a candle or lamp that is
burning next to Desdemona’s bed. But the second
light metaphorically refers to the light of
Desdemona’s life. It is referring to her life energy.
Othello stops to think about his actions. If he puts
out the light of a candle (referred to as “flaming
minister” in line 8), he can easily relight that candle.
But if he puts out the light of Desdemona’s life, he
can never relight that one. Only a god, such as the
Greek creation god Prometheus (alluded to in line 12),
has that kind of ability. Othello stares upon
Desdemona and views her as one of Nature’s most
excellent creations (line 11). And he realizes that he
is about to destroy that creation. This is not
something that he can do easily.
Othello also uses a second metaphor to
describe Desdemona and his intended action. Othello
compares Desdemona to a beautiful and delicate rose
(line 13). Killing Desdemona is like plucking the
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rose from the bush. The rose will wither and die. Its
beauty will be gone forever.
113
ACT V, 2: TWO KINDS OF MERCY
Desdemona awakens, and Othello asks her if

she has prayed that night (line 26). Although
Othello intends to kill Desdemona, he does not want
to kill her soul. That is, he does not want her soul to
go to hell. If she has prayed and confessed her sin to
God, then she can still enter heaven. But if she dies
without confessing her sin, her soul will end up in
hell. Othello, despite his anger and madness, does
not wish that upon Desdemona.
When Desdemona realizes that Othello plans
to kill her, she asks heaven to have mercy on her
(lines 35-36). Othello appears to agree with her
because he responds with “amen” (36). The word
amen is traditionally used in Christianity at the end of
a prayer. The word suggests approval or agreement.
But Desdemona and Othello are expressing two
entirely different views with the word mercy.
Desdemona is expressing her desire for God in
Heaven to restore Othello to rational thinking so that
he will not physically kill her. But Othello is
suggesting that he hopes God will have mercy on her
soul and allow it to enter Heaven.
When Desdemona continues to tell Othello
that she is innocent, Othello becomes angry and
completely irrational. He has become so completely
convinced by Iago, by Iago’s his false evidence, that
he believes that Desdemona is not only unfaithful,
but a liar as well. And, so, he no longer offers
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Desdemona the opportunity to pray and confess.

Rather, he smothers her with a pillow (line 92). This
is the climax of the play. Desdemona is not quite
dead at this point, but she is dying.
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ACT V, 2: WHO CAN CONTROL HIS FATE?
The rest of the scene, then, moves rather

quickly. Emilia arrives and tells Othello of
Roderigo’s attack on Cassio. Emilia then hears a
muffled cry and realizes that Desdemona is dying.
Emilia listens to Desdemona’s dying words and then
confronts Othello. Othello explains that her own
husband, Iago, was the one who brought proof of
Desdemona’s infidelity (line 148). Emilia is stunned
by this information, but a few moments later she
screams for help. Montano and Graziano, along with
Iago, enter the bedchamber.
Emilia then confronts Iago before everyone
about his actions. Despite Iago’s warnings and
threats to Emilia, she explains how Cassio received
the handkerchief directly from Iago himself (lines
237-38). This is the point of recognition (or
epiphany) for Othello. He now realizes that he has
been tricked and fooled by Iago (lines 241-42).
Othello rushes after Iago, but Montano takes
Othello’s sword before Othello can reach Iago.
However, Iago, who is desperate, angrily stabs his
wife. Emilia, before she dies, asks to be placed by
Desdemona’s side. Iago rushes out of the room, but
Montano and others chase after him.
Graziano attempts to keep Othello prisoner in
the bedchamber, but Othello pulls out a knife.
However, Othello has no desire to fight, or to live,
any longer. He asks, “Who can control his fate?”
116
(272). As Shakespeare reveals in this play, no one

can. Othello, Desdemona, and Emilia certainly could
not control their destinies. And, more ironically,
even Iago, who thought he was master of his fate,
discovers that even he cannot control his own
ultimate destiny. For once, Iago’s scheme fails him.
Fate is a powerful force that even the cleverest of
men cannot change or alter.
Montano and others bring the captured Iago
back into the bedchamber. Othello rushes at Iago;
and, before the guards can remove his weapon,
Othello stabs Iago. But the wound is not a mortal
one, and Iago will live only to be tortured and
imprisoned later.
There is a second instance of Iago’s scheming
not turning out as planned. Although Iago killed
Roderigo, Iago did not know that Roderigo had
written two letters: one of them explains how
Roderigo was asked to ambush and kill Cassio (lines
317-18) and the other was a letter that Roderigo was
going to send to Iago to express his anger and
discontentment (lines 322-24). Thus, even though he
is dead, Roderigo is able to bear witness of Iago’s
treachery. Iago could not control his wife, and he
could not control Roderigo. Only the force of fate
could.
117
ACT V, 2: OTHELLO’S FINAL WORDS
Before the play ends, Othello makes one final

speech. He asks the officers from Venice to relate his
story to the Duke and others when they return home.
Othello requests that when they explain what
happened, they should speak objectively and directly,
without bias (lines 351-52). Othello then asks them
to describe himself as someone who “loved not
wisely but too well” (353). Othello realizes that he
has acted foolishly but also that his foolish behavior
was partially the result of his excessive love for
Desdemona.
Othello then proceeds to relate three
metaphors to describe his situation. The first
metaphor concerns a poor and lowly Indian who
comes from an extremely poor village (line 356).
The Indian finds a pearl of extremely great value that
would bring enough money to make his entire village
comfortable. But the Indian thinks the pearl is just a
worthless stone and tosses it away. Othello is
comparing himself to the Indian, and Desdemona is
the pearl. Othello is thus suggesting that he threw
away something valuable because of his ignorance.
Othello was ignorant of Desdemona’s virtue and
honesty.
The second metaphor refers to trees found in
Arabia and India that drip a sap or resin called myrrh
(lines 359-60). Myrrh (which is used in perfume and
incense) oozes from these trees, sometimes in great
118
abundance. Othello, who is crying in this scene,

compares his excessive tears to myrrh. His sadness is
so intense that he cannot stop crying.
The third metaphor concerns a Turk (and the
reader should remember that the Turks are the
enemies of Venice) who beat up a citizen of Venice
and made fun (“traduced”) of that city-state (lines
362-63). Othello then adds that he took that Turk by
the throat and stabbed him. Then Othello stabs and
kills himself with his knife. In this metaphor, Othello
is both the Turk and himself. He realizes that his
behavior reflects badly upon Venice. His murder of
Desdemona is a crime, and that has made him a
criminal (or enemy) of Venice. And, so, Othello
becomes his own judge and jury and proceeds to
execute himself for his crime.
Othello’s tragic fall in this play is the fall
from greatness and honor. He was the hero of Venice
and distinguished for his outstanding service to this
land. People honored him, and they were proud to
have him as the commander of their army. But at the
end of the play, Othello is a murderer and a criminal.
He has sunk to the lowest level of Venetian society.
119
FINAL COMMENTS
PLOT
For many theater-goers and admirers of

Shakespeare, Othello remains as one of the greatest
tragedies ever written. The intensity of emotion and
drama of the play is not surpassed by any other
drama. But, like many Elizabethan tragedies, Othello
does contain some common elements of the genre.
The student should particularly pay attention to two
elements found elsewhere in Shakespeare plays: (1)
First, there is the Role of Fate. Shakespeare often
shows that fate is an overwhelming supernatural
force that no man is capable of fooling or cheating.
On occasion, Shakespeare presents a character who
believes he is superior to fate. In this particular play,
that character is Iago (another such character is
Edmund in King Lear). But these characters often
become victims of fate when their own schemes
backfire on them. (2) The second common element is
the inclusion of the Reason vs. Emotion Conflict.
The ministers of Christianity taught that reason is a
special gift from God that everyone has, and with this
gift everyone is capable of controlling their passions,
emotions, and desires. Yet, time and again,
Shakespeare reveals that on occasions when the
emotions reach an extreme level, man’s reason
disappears. Man then becomes an irrational creature
121
who acts wildly and thoughtlessly. And this is what

happens to Othello.
Most critics note that Othello differs from
other Shakespeare tragedies because it does not
contain any subplots or any lengthy comic scenes. A
few critics even find this to be a fault of the play.
However, Othello is a play about character. And the
plot may be more complex than what it at first
appears to be. The reader could view the play as
having two plots. There is the story of Othello, who
is involved in an internal conflict in regards to his
jealousy. But there is also the story of Iago. Iago
also struggles with an internal conflict. He seeks
entertainment, and he maliciously finds that
entertainment by manipulating others. Iago is a
clever and intelligent individual who believes he is
superior to all men and to the forces of fate or God.
But, like Othello, Iago also falls.
Students of Shakespeare should be aware,
however, that not all critics appreciate what
Shakespeare has accomplished in Othello. Such
critics complain that the focus is too simple or limited.
One critic refers to the play merely as “a villain’s
wanton destruction of a marriage.” The same critic
contends that this is not a play of imagination bur
rather just a play about the triumph of evil. But, as
already suggested earlier, there is far more to the play
than that.
In terms of charting the plot and rising action
of the play, most readers tend to focus on the
122
internal conflict taking place within Othello – the

man vs. himself conflict. This conflict reaches its
climactic moment (climax) in the bedchamber scene
as Othello is strangling Desdemona. However, the
conflict is not resolved with the death of Desdemona.
Othello continues to struggle with himself after his
death, and the internal conflict is extended when he
finds out that Desdemona was innocent. Thus, the
resolution of this conflict does not occur until
Othello kills himself.
But, as noted earlier, a reader could interpret
this play by positing Iago as the protagonist or anti-
hero (a protagonist with negative qualities). Iago is
in conflict with Othello and other characters of the
play, but Iago’s primary conflict is one of man vs.
fate. Iago is successful in his conflict with Othello,
but he is not successful in his struggle against fate.
Iago’s conflict thus ends with Emilia’s confession
and with Roderigo’s letter revealing Iago’s treachery.
123
SOURCES FOR OTHELLO
The primary source for the play is a collection

of short stories called the Hecatomithi by the Italian
writer Giovanni Battista Giraldi in the 16th century.
Giraldi uses the device of stories within a larger story
or framework similar to Boccaccio’s Decameron
Tales or Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales. In
the Hecatomithi, a group of ten gentlemen and ladies
on a sea voyage are the story-tellers.
The basic characters of the story are similar to
those in the play, but they have different names (with
the exception of Disdemona). The villain’s motives
are more conventional: the Iago-character lusts after
Disdemona, but she rejects his advances. The plot
elements are also similar. For example, “Iago” steals
a handkerchief and plants it in “Cassio’s” bedroom.
But the murder is even more horrible: “Iago” and
“Othello” beat Disdemona to death with a stocking
that is filled with sand. They then pull the ceiling
down on top of her to make the death look accidental.
Disdemona’s relatives avenge her murder (in a long
anticlimactic section). Finally, “Iago” dies when he
is being tortured to force him to confess. His body
ruptures or explodes as a result of the cruel
implements of torture.
Shakespeare also used two other sources. He
used Natural History by Pliny (a Roman author of
Classical Age) for Othello’s speech about not using
witchcraft on Desdemona. And he used The
124
Commonwealth and Government of Venice (1543)

for historical facts.
125
CHARACTER: OTHELLO
Tragic heroes in literature fall because of

hamartia. This is a Greek word indicating a fatal
flaw in action (but not in a character’s personality as
some scholars have mistakenly maintained). Here is
another formal definition: “Hamartia is a concept
used by Aristotle to describe tragedy. Hamartia is the
fall of a noble man caused by some excess or mistake
in behavior, not because of a willful violation of the
gods' laws.
Othello certainly does have character or
personality flaws: he is too trusting or gullible, he is
jealous, and he is proud. But Othello’s fatal
judgment or mistake in action is that he trusts or
believes Iago and he acts upon the false information
that Iago gives him.
Othello is not a story primarily about
miscegenation (the mixing of different races).
Othello is an aristocrat, not someone who has
struggled up from slavery. Unfortunately, this was
and sometimes still is an interpretation that has
occurred in American theater productions of the play,
especially at a time when civil rights movements
were intense (during the early 1960s).
Othello is not an uncivilized savage. Rather,
he is a figure of mystery and attraction to Desdemona.
But Elizabethans expected Moors to be aggressive
and full of rage beneath their cool exteriors. Works
of fiction from the 16th century – the Spanish
126
Palmerin Romances – describe the Moors who

invaded Spain as “barbarians” and “hellhounds.”
Moreover, people of the Renaissance held a
superstition that a mixture of calm and violent
behavior existed in all inhabitants of semi-tropical
lands.
Critics view Othello in two different ways: (1)
Positively, Othello is idealistic, noble, strong, and
trustful. And this makes him an easy victim. Or (2)
negatively, Othello is too excessively proud (hubris)
and has an inflated opinion of his own worth
Noted critic G. Wilson Knight suggests that
the storm in the beginning of Act II is not only for
plot but is also symbolic of the change in Othello’s
emotional temper.
127
CHARACTER: IAGO
For some critics, the character of Iago is just

too evil to be believable. Such critics then suggest
that Iago is a symbol of evil rather than a real
character. But other critics have no problem in
believing that there are men of such extreme
wickedness living in the real world.
A question concerning Iago’s motivation
contributes significantly to the believability of the
character. Iago does mention that he suspects Othello
may have been Emilia’s lover (in Act II, 1). But this
possibility does not really seem to bother him too
much. Rather, he may just be rationalizing the
reasons for his evil actions. The true motives are
pleasure and action (Act II, 3). Iago is bored with
life and seeks sport (which means entertainment).
Iago has a frustrated desire for action. But his
successful manipulation of others thrills him. He
enjoys being evil.
Many critics compare Iago to the character of
Vice Dissimulation in the medieval morality plays
(the same comparison is also made of Richard III).
Shakespeare would surely have seen and been
influenced by the morality plays, which were still
being performed regularly in England when
Shakespeare was a boy. But to dismiss Iago simply
as an allegorical character would be a mistake. There
is far more to the character than that.
128
Finally, the reader should view Iago as a

character swept up by forces of fate. He does not
foresee the conclusion of his schemes and becomes a
victim of his own wickedness.
129
THEMES
As with any Shakespeare play, a number of

themes and motifs are possible. If a student focuses
on the character of Othello, then a theme concerning
jealousy might be predominant. Jealousy is an
overwhelming emotion that can override and
eliminate all traces of reason in even the best of men.
But if a student focuses on the character of Iago, then
the theme concerning fate predominates. Fate is a
powerful and mysterious supernatural force that even
the cleverest of men cannot alter.
Some of the key idea words that may suggest
themes and motifs of the play are indicated below:
evil fate nobility

greed revenge trust
envy rage guilt
jealousy freedom miscegenation
anger fidelity prejudice
lust desire for ambition
pride power father-daughter
hubris political relationships
reputation ambition husband-wife
reason vs. idealism relationships
emotion witchcraft
One other theme worth mentioning here is the

Two Worlds Theme. Venice and Cyprus are not
only separated by a body of water. They are also
separated by differences in atmosphere or mood. The
130
movement of Othello from one world to the other

thus has a significant effect on him. The following
table highlights the major differences.
VENICE CYPRUS
Calm & Peaceful Stormy & Beset by War
Civilized Uncivilized
Centrally located Border, frontier locale
Ruled by Rational Ruled by Emotions
Thought
Othello is calm and Othello is troubled and
rational emotional
131
DIALOGIC STYLE
The reader should also make note of the

dialogic and semiotic relationship in the play. This
relationship occurs, as noted above, during the two
kneeling scenes (when Othello & Iago kneel in Act
III, 3, and when Desdemona kneels in Act IV, 2).
Shakespeare creates similar relationships in several
other plays (such as Macbeth).
132
COMMENTS FROM THE CRITICS
Walter Cohen
(in The Norton Shakespeare, p. 2095):
“The play offers various explanations for Othello’s
suggestibility. Most obviously, Iago expresses
Othello’s own unconscious racial and sexual
anxieties. But Othello is also out of his element. A
soldier since childhood, he knows little of peacetime
urban existence.”
Edward E. Foster
(in Joseph Rosenblum’s A Reader’s Guide to
Shakespeare, p. 231):
“Although Othello has frequently been praised as
William Shakespeare’s most unified tragedy, many
critics have found the central character to be the most
unheroic of William Shakespeare’s heroes. Some
have found him stupid beyond redemption; others
have described him as a passionate being
overwhelmed by powerful emotion; still others have
found him self-pitying and insensitive to the enormity
of his actions. Yet all of these denigrations pale
before the excitement and sympathy generated for the
noble soldier in the course of the play.”
133
Harold Bloom
(in Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human, p. 438):
“We cannot arrive at a just estimate of Othello if we
undervalue Iago, who would be formidable enough to
undo most of us if he emerged out of his play into our
lives. Othello is a great soul hopelessly outclassed in
intellect and drive by Iago. Hamlet, as A. C. Bradley
once observed, would have disposed of Iago very
readily. In a speech or two, Hamlet would discern
Iago for what he was, and then would drive Iago to
suicide by lightning parody and mockery.”
Frank Kermode
(in The Riverside Shakespeare, p1202):
“There is, finally, the figural aspect of the work.
Obscurely, it is, no doubt, an enactment of the Fall.
There are psychological analogues, so that we can
momentarily see the play as a psychomachia, with
Iago as the bestial parts of man, and Othello as the
higher – as, in a high sense, Reputation.”
Definition of psychomachia: “internalized

battle between spirit and flesh: conflict of the
soul between the spirit and the flesh
(literary).” From MSN Encarta
134
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Understanding Shakespeare Othello

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3 AUDIOBOOK COLLECTIONS

First Printing: August 2010

All Rights Reserved © 2010 by Robert A. Albano

The text presented in this volume appeared earlier

No part of this book may be reproduced or

Middle English Historiography

Lectures on Early English Literature

Lectures on British Neoclassic Literature

Understanding Shakespeare's Tragedies

Understanding the Poetry of William Wordsworth

Robert Albano is an Associate Professor of English

Just as Macbeth may be viewed as a play

To describe a Shakespeare play with just one

experiment and move in new directions. And he was

The character of Iago is actually quite a

is a nobleman from northern Africa. And, as such, he

ACT I, 1: IAGO, THE CON MAN

The first scene begins in the middle of a

has decided to take advantage of him. The clever

The first scene then begins to develop the

“foreigner” to Venice. Of course, Othello, who

by old gradation” (35-36). Here, preferment refers

within the layers of one’s clothing). Thus, the second

But I will not wear my heart upon my sleeve

The heart metaphor here means to display openly

ACT I, 1: IAGO’S FIRST ATTEMPT TO RUIN

Iago then advises Roderigo that the best way

tupping your white ewe” (88-89). A ram is

ACT I, 2: TWO-FACED IAGO

Being two-faced means being hypocritical or

quite clearly in the first scene, Iago only serves

ACT I, 2: THE PROUD AND NAÏVE OTHELLO

Some critics suggest that Othello is too proud

I fetch my life and being

The word siege refers to rank or social position.

and joyful voice. The audience is meant to get a

never suspects that Iago might be dishonest. And this

ACT I, 2: CYPRUS, SARCASM, AND MAGIC

Before Brabanzio comes to accuse Othello of

woman. When Iago adds the comment about “lawful

under ordinary (non-magical) circumstances. Not

ACT I, 3: A ROUND UNVARNISHED TALE

The third scene begins with the Duke and the

follows is an extremely smooth and polished speech.

It is a judgement maimed and most imperfect

Brabanzio means that only a person who cannot think

unnatural way without being drugged or charmed by

And of the cannibals that each other eat,

The word anthropophagi is another way of saying

and the difficulties that he encountered (160).

This is the only witchcraft I have used. (168)

Othello declares that he did use magic to win

ACT I, 3: A DIVIDED DUTY

The Duke and other members of his counsel

ACT I, 3: IMPARTIAL ADVICE

The Duke, well aware of Brabanzio’s anger

To mourn a mischief that is past and gone

The Duke is advising Brabanzio that there is nothing

the only way to overcome the problems brought on

So let the Turk of Cyprus us beguile,

The word beguile here means to cheat or steal. Thus,

perhaps even impossible to follow. Brabanzio knows

But words are words. I never yet did hear