Earth and Life Science

Systems Plus College Foundation
Module in Earth and Life
Earth and Life Science
By: Carmelita D. Ramos
This model is based on the MELC provided by

DEPED
NOTICE
This module was produced for the online and

modular teaching and learning experiences of both
teachers and students. The module was written by
Carmelita D. Ramos, Grade 11 Earth and Life Teacher.
This module is intended for online learning and
blended learning and whichever use may it serve. The
author of this module pattered the competencies based on
Most Essential Learning Competencies (MELC) provided
by the Department of Education.
This module will also promote self-supporting
learning between learners and amplifies their 21st-century
skills. It is drafted in such a style that every educator is
interacting straight to the learner.
The author followed the PEAC format in making a
module; Explore, Firm Up, Deepen, and Transfer. There
will be links and other resources to be used as references
during the duration of the learning experience.
Unauthorized reproduction of this module outside
the umbrella of Systems Plus College Foundation is not
allowed and punishable by law.
OVERVIEW
This learning area is designed to provide a general

background for the understanding of Earth Science
and Biology. It presents the history of the Earth
through geologic time. It discusses the Earth’s
structure, composition, and process. Issues, concerns,
and problems pertaining to natural hazards are
included. It also deals with the basic principles and
processes in the study of biology. It covers life
processes and interactions at the cellular, organism,
population, and ecosystem levels
Table of Content
Module 1:
THE ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH.
1.1 Universe and Solar System
1.2 Earth and Earth System
Module 2: EARTH MATERIALS AND PROCESSES

2.1 Rocks and Minerals
2.2 Exogenic Processes
2.3 Endogenic Processes
2.4 Crustal Deformation Processes
2.5 History of Earth
Module 3: NATURAL HAZARDS, MITIGATION, AND

ADAPTATION
3.1 Geological Processes and Hazard
3.2 Hydrometeorological Phenomena and Hazard
3.3 Coastal Processes and Their Effects
Module 4: LIFE SCIENCE
4: INTRODUCTION TO LIFE SCIENCE

4.1 Concept of Life
4.2 Origin of the First Life Form
4.3 Evolution: Unifying Themes in the Study of Life
Module 5: BIOENERGETICS
5.1 Cell
5.2 Photosynthesis
5.3 Cellular Respiration
Module 6: PERPETUATION OF LIFE
6.1 Plant and Animal Reproduction
MODULE 1:
ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE
EARTH
OBJECTIVES:
The learners demonstrate understanding of:
 The formation of the universe and the solar system

 The subsystems (geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and
biosphere) that make up the earth.
 The Earths internal structure
Content Standard:
1. The formation of the Universe and the Solar System

2. The subsystems (geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and
biosphere) that make up the Earth
3. The Earth’s essential structure.
Specific Learning Outcomes:
• Recognize the uniqueness of Earth, being the only planet in

the solar system with properties necessary to support life.
• Explain that the Earth consists of four subsystems, across
whose boundaries matter and energy flow.
1.1 WHAT IS THE UNIVERSE

The Universe or cosmos contains all galaxies, stars, and planets.
Our solar system is located in the Milky Way galaxy, which is one
of the many galaxies in the Universe.
So Far, there are 51 galaxies that has been discovered but there are
an estimated number of about 100 to 200 billion in all. According
to astronomers, there are atleast one hundred billion galaxies in the
observable universe. They’ve counted the galaxies in a particular
region, and multiplied this up to estimate the number for the whole
universe. Optical telescopes have been used for astronomical
observation since the time of Galileo, but the technology has
moved on significantly since then.
Cosmology is the branch of science that studies the
origin,evolution and fate of the universe.
What are the theories behind the origin of the universe?
Non-scientific Thought
Ancient Egyptians believed in many gods and myths which

narrate that the world arose from an infinite sea at the first rising of
the sun.
The Kuba people of Central Africa tell the story of a
creator god Mbombo (or Bumba) who, alone in a dark and water-
covered Earth, felt an intense stomach pain and then vomited the
stars, sun, and moon.
In India, there is the narrative that gods sacrificed Purusha,

the primal man whose head, feet, eyes, and mind became the sky,
earth, sun, and moon respectively.
The monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and
Islam claim that a supreme being created the universe, including
man and other living organisms.
1. Big Bang – is the leading explanation on how the universe

begun.
The universe was born with the Big Bang as an unimaginably hot,
dense point. When the universe was just 10-34 of a second or so
old — that is, a hundredth of a billionth of a trillionth of a trillionth
of a second in age — it experienced an incredible burst of
expansion known as inflation, in which space itself expanded faster
than the speed of light. During this period, the universe doubled in
size at
least 90 times, going from subatomic-sized to golf-ball-sized

almost instantaneously.
The work that goes into understanding the expanding universe

comes from a combination of theoretical physics and direct
observations by astronomers. However, in some cases astronomers
have not been able to see direct evidence — such as the case of
gravitational waves associated with the cosmic microwave
background, the leftover radiation from the Big Bang. A
preliminary announcement about finding these waves in 2014 was
quickly retracted, after astronomers found the signal detected could
be explained by dust in the Milky Way.
According to NASA, after inflation the growth of the universe

continued, but at a slower rate. As space expanded, the universe
cooled and matter formed. One second after the Big Bang, the
universe was filled with neutrons, protons,
2. Steady State- it states that the universe have been present

ever sinee and therefore has no beginning and no end.
According to this theory the density of matter in the expanding
universe remain unchanged due to a continuous creation of matter.
3. Pulsating Universe- it combines both the Big bang and the

Big Crunch and the Big Crunch of a cyclic event.
This theory, which is more commonly known as oscillating or

cyclic universe theory, postulates that the universe goes through
regular cycles of the expansion and destruction.
The Big Crunch- states that a certain point in time, it will stop
expanding and collapse into itself, pulling everything with
it until it eventually turns into a biggest black hole ever, is
one of the scenarios predicted by scientist in which the
universe may end.
That is, if the Big Bang described how the Universe most possibly
began. The Big Crunch describes how it will end as a consequence
of that beginning.
1.2. EARTH AND EARTH SYSTEM

PRE-CLASS ACTIVITY (WORD BANK)
Label the different processes and phases of water involved in

the water cycle.
Use the following terms to complete the cycle:
Condensation Infiltration
Precipitation Space Run off
Evaporation Transpiration
What is Earth?
Earth, otherwise known as the world, is the third planet from the
Sun and the only object in the universe known to harbor life. It is
the densest planet in the solar system and the largest of the four
terrestrial planets.
What is unique about the Earth?
Earth has the following:
 The existence of water at the Earth’s surface-neither too

much nor too little that is in the liquid form.
 Proximity to the sun-neither too much heat nor too little.
 System of the plate tectonics that enables the carbon-
silicate cycle regulating temperature.
 The right size-large enough to hang on to its athmsphere
but not so large to hold on to too much atmosphere and
consequently too much heat.
 Its protection by “big brother Jupiter,” whose gravity helps
divert and vacuum up incoming debris and keep Earth safe.
 The only moon and its stabilizing effect on our planetary
rotation, which prevents the poles from shifting
unexpectedly.
What makes the Earth capable of supporting life?

1. Water- is an excellent solvent, capable of dissolving many
substances, 70% of Earth’s surface is covered by water.
Firstly, it is the only substance on Earth that is in liquid form at the

temperatures commonly found on the surface of our planet.
Secondly, it is a superb solvent, meaning that other substance

regularly and easily dissolve into it. This allows water to carry
nutrients to cells, and carry waste away from them.
2. Plate Tectonics-
Earth's surface is constantly changing. Earth looks different today

from the way it did millions of years ago. People wonder, "What's
inside Earth?" The extreme conditions in Earth's interior prevent
exploration far below the surface. Geologists have used two main
types of evidence to learn about Earth's interior: direct evidence
from rock samples and indirect evidence from seismic waves.
Rocks from inside Earth give geologists clues about Earth's

structure. Geologists can make inferences about conditions deep
inside Earth where these rocks formed. Using data from seismic
waves produced
by earthquakes, geologists have learned that Earth's interior is
made up of several layers.
The three main layers of Earth are the crust, the mantle, and the
core. These layers vary greatly in size, composition, temperature,
and pressure. Beneath the surface, the temperature remains the
same
for about 20 meters, then increases until the center of Earth is
reached. Pressure results from a force pressing on an area. Pressure
inside Earth increases as you go deeper.
The crust is the layer of rock that forms Earth's outer skin. The
crust is a layer of solid rock that includes both dry land and the
ocean floor. Oceanic crust consists mostly of rocks such as basalt,
dark
rock with a fine texture. Continental crust, the crust that forms the
continents, consists mainly of rocks such as granite. Granite is a
rock that usually is a light color and has a coarse texture.
Below a boundary about 40 kilometers beneath the surface is the

solid material of the mantle, a layer of hot rock. Earth's mantle is
made up of rock that is very hot, but solid. Different layers of the
mantle have different physical characteristics. The uppermost part
of the mantle and the crust together form a rigid layer called the
lithosphere. Below the lithosphere is a soft layer called the
asthenosphere. Beneath the asthenosphere, the mantle is solid. This
solid material, called the lower mantle, extends all the way to
Earth's core.
Source: ( https://www.britannica.com/topic/Core-Within-Earths-Inner-Core-
The-2046720)
The core is made mostly of the metals iron and nickel. It consists
of two parts—a liquid outer core and a solid inner core. The outer
core is a layer of molten metal that surrounds the inner core. The
inner core is a dense ball of solid metal. Scientists think that
movements in the liquid outer core create Earth's magnetic field.
Because Earth
has a magnetic field, the planet acts like a giant bar magnet.
EARTH SUBSYSTEM
Definition of a System
A set of interconnected components that are interacting to form a
unified whole.
Components or subsystems of the Earth System.
Figure 3: The Earth system. (Source:

https://www.earthonlinemedia.com)
Earth system is essentially a closed system. It receives energy from

the sun and returns some of this energy to space.
ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere is the thin gaseous layer that envelopes the

lithosphere.
The present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen (N), 21%

oxygen (O2), 0.9% argon, and trace amount of other gases.One of
the most important processes by which the heat on the Earth's
surface is redistributed is through atmospheric circulation.There is
also a constant exchange of heat and moisture between the
atmosphere and the hydrosphere through the hydrologic cycle.
LITHOSPHERE
The lithosphere includes the rocks of the crust and mantle, the
metallic liquid outer core, and the solid metallic inner core.
Plate Tectonics is an important process shaping the surface of the

Earth. The primary driving mechanism is the Earth's internal heat,
such as that in mantle convection.
BIOSPHERE
The biosphere is the set of all life forms on Earth.
It covers all ecosystems—from the soil to the rainforest, from

mangroves to coral reefs, and from the plankton-rich ocean surface
to the deep sea.
For the majority of life on Earth, the base of the food chain
comprises photosynthetic organisms. During photosynthesis, CO2
is sequestered from the atmosphere, while oxygen is released as a
byproduct. The biosphere is a CO2 sink, and therefore, an
important part of the carbon cycle.
Sunlight is not necessary for life.
HYDROSPHERE
About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water (hydrosphere)

and much of it is in the form of ocean water (Figure 3).
Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: two-thirds are in the
form of ice, and the remaining one-third is present in streams,
lakes, and groundwater
The oceans are important sinks for CO2 through direct exchange
with the atmosphere and indirectly through the weathering of
rocks.
Heat is absorbed and redistributed on the surface of the Earth

through ocean circulation.
The origin of the systems approach to the study of the Earth
One of the first scientist to push for a more integrated or holistic

approach in the understanding of the universe (and by extension
the Earth) was Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander von
Humboldt. He considered the universe as one interacting entity.
The term "biosphere" was popularized by Vladimir Vernadsky

(1863-1945), a Russian - Ukranian scientist who hypothesized that
life is a geological force that shapes the Earth.
In the 1970s, the Gaia Hypothesis was jointly developed by James

Lovelock, an English scientist/naturalist, and Lynn Margulis, an
American microbiologist. According to the Gaia Hypothesis. the
biosphere is a self-regulating system that is capable of controlling
its physical and chemical environment.
In 1983, NASA advisory council established the Earth Systems

Science Committee. The committee, chaired by Moustafa Chahine,
published a ground breaking report Earth System Science: A
Program For Global Change in 1988. For the first time, scientist
were able to demonstrate how the many systems interact.
MODULE 2:
EARTH MATERIALS AND PROCESSES
OBJECTIVES:

 The three main categories of rocks
 the origin and environment of formation of common
minerals and rocks
Content Standard:
Specific Learning Outcomes:
1. Identify common rock-forming minerals using their

physical and
chemical properties
2. Classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic

3. describe how rocks undergo weathering
4. Explain how the products of weathering are carried away
by
erosion and deposited elsewhere
5. Make a report on how rocks and soil move downslope due
to the direct action of gravity
6. Describe where the Earth’s internal heat comes from.
7. Describe how magma is formed(magmatism)
8. Describe what happens after the magma is formed
(plutonism and volcanism)
9. Describe the changes in mineral components and texture of
rocks due to changes in pressure and temperature
(metamorphism)
Key Concepts
■ What is a mineral?
■ What are the three major groups of rock, and how do they
form through the rock cycle?
■ How are minerals and rocks used and processed?
2.1 ROCKS AND MINERALS
A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid that forms on or

beneath Earth's surface. Almost all minerals have a crystal shape.
Each mineral has a definite chemical composition. More than
3,000 minerals have been identified.
Rocks are made up of a combination of minerals. Geologists

classify rocks into three major groups: igneous rock, sedimentary
rock, and metamorphic rock. The rocks in each group form through
different steps in the rock cycle.
Igneous rocks form from molten material deep inside Earth. The
material slowly cools and hardens to form a rock. If the material
cools slowly, large crystals form. If the material cools quickly,
small crystals form.
Source: Google (https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fbrainly.in%2Fquestion
%2F8900161&psig=AOvVaw1bjhuFXMhwDKQNtDl5_ys5&ust=1595558505
864000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=2ahUKEwjIgfrgrOLqAhVE0pQKHdlIB
vAQr4kDegUIARDcAQ)
Sedimentary rocks are made from pieces of rocks that have been
broken down by processes involving water and weather. The
pieces are called sediment. Sediment can also contain remains of
plants and animals. The sediment gets moved by water and wind
and gets deposited in layers. Over millions of years, the sediments
are squeezed together and become sedimentary rock.
Metamorphic rocks form when rocks are exposed to a great

increase in temperature and pressure. This occurs deep within
Earth's interior where it is hotter and the overlying rock cause great
pressure. Minerals may get changed to other minerals forming a
new rock. Mineral grains also become aligned in response to the
increased pressure. If the heat and pressure become too great, the
rock melts and the rock cycle begins again.
Metamorphic rocks - rocks that form from the transformation of

pre-existing rocks(igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks)
through the process of metamorphism.
Metamorphism can involve changes in the physical and chemical

properties of rocks in response to heat, pressure, and chemically
active fluids. They are commonly formed underneath the earth
through metamorphism
Contact metamorphism • Heat as the main factor: occurs when a

pre-existing rocks get in contact with a heat source (magma)
• Occurs on a relatively small scale: around
the vicinity of intruding magma
• Creates non-foliated metamorphic rocks
(e.g. hornfels)
Regional metamorphism • Pressure as main factor: occurs in areas
that have undergone deformation during orogenic event resulting
in mountain belts
• Occurs in a regional/large scale
• Creates foliated metamorphic rocks such as schist and gneiss
• Non-foliated rocks like marble also form thru regional
metamorphism, where pressure is not intense, far from the main
geologic event.
Minerals are the source of gemstones, metals, and other materials

used to make many products. Gemstones are hard, colorful
minerals that are used not only for jewelry but also for cutting,
grinding and polishing. Minerals are used in foods, medicine,
fertilizer, and building materials. Minerals are also the source of
metals such as copper, iron, and silver.
Today, people use rocks for building materials and in industrial

processes. A rock that contains a metal or mineral that can be
mined and sold for a profit is called an ore. To produce metal from
ore, the ore must be mined, or removed from the ground. Then the
ore must be processed to extract the metal.
Mining is done in one of three ways. Strip mining removes the

overlying layers of soil and rock to reveal the ore beneath. Open
pit mining involves digging a huge pit to get to the ore. Shaft
mining is used when the ore occurs in veins far beneath the
surface.
The mined ore must be processed before it can be used. During
smelting, the ore is mixed with other substances and then melted.
The useful ore separates from the rest of the rock. The pure ore is
removed.
The Rock Cycle

A quick video about the rock cycle (https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=9lyCYXXIHT0)
The rock cycle illustrates how geologic processes occurring both at

the surface and underneath the Earth’s surface can change a rock
from one type to another.
Source: https://www.thinglink.com/scene/359446759849590786
2.2. EXOGENIC PROCESS
Content Standard
The learners will be able to develop and demonstrate an

understanding of geologic processes that occur on the surface of
the Earth such as weathering, erosion, mass wasting, and
sedimentation.
Learning Competency
The learners shall be able to describe how rocks undergo

weathering
(S11/12ES-Ib-11)
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to
 Define weathering and distinguish between the two main

types of weathering
 Identify the factors that affect the rate of weathering
Key Concepts
■ How do weathering and erosion affect Earth's surface?
■ What are the causes of mechanical weathering and
chemical
weathering?
■ What determines how fast weathering occurs?
MOTIVATION
"Can you name any natural cause or process that could possibly
break the rock into smaller pieces?" An alternative question that
could also invoke their prior knowledge of the early Earth would
be: “If the early Earth’s crust was mainly composed of rocks, why
do we have layers of soil on the surface now? Where did these
soils came from?” Write their responses on the board and briefly
discuss with the class.
LECTURE
Weathering is the process that breaks down rock and other

substances of Earth's surface. Erosion is the removal of rock
particles by wind, water, ice, or gravity.
Topography is reshaped by weathering and erosion. These

processes work together continuously to wear down and carry
away the rocks at Earth's surface. The weathering and erosion that
geologists observe today also shaped Earth's surface millions of
years ago. How do geologists know this? Geologists make
inferences based on the principle of uniformitarianism. This
principle states that the same processes that operate today operated
in the past.
There are two kinds of weathering: mechanical weathering and

chemical weathering. Both types of weathering act slowly, but
over time they break down even the biggest, hardest rocks.
The type of weathering in which rock is physically broken into

smaller pieces is called mechanical weathering. The causes of
mechanical weathering include freezing and thawing, release of
pressure, plant growth, actions of animals, and abrasion. The term
abrasion refers to the grinding away of rock by rock particles
carried by water, ice, wind, or gravity.
In cool climates, water expands when it freezes and acts as a
wedge. This process is called ice wedging.
With repeated freezing and thawing, cracks slowly expand until
pieces of rock break off.
Another type of weathering that attacks rocks is chemical

weathering, a process that breaks down rock through chemical
changes. The causes of chemical weathering include the action of
water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, living organisms, and acid rain.
Chemical weathering can produce new minerals as it breaks

down rock. Chemical and mechanical weathering often work
together.
As Mechanical weathering breaks rocks into pieces, more surface

area becomes exposed to chemical weathering.
Water is the most important cause of chemical weathering. Water

weathers rock by dissolving it. The oxygen in air is an important
cause of chemical weathering. Iron combines with oxygen in the
presence of water in a process called oxidation. The product of
oxidation is rust.
The most important factors that determine the rate at which

weathering occurs are the type of rock and the climate. Some types
of rock weather more rapidly than others. For example, some rock
weathers easily because it is permeable, which means that it is full
of air spaces that allow water to seep through it.
How Soil Forms
Key Concepts
■ What is soil made of, and how does it form?
■ How do scientists classify soils?
■ What is the role of plants and animals in soil formation?
Soil is the loose, weathered material on Earth's surface in which
plants can grow. Bedrock is the solid layer of rock beneath the soil.
Soil is a mixture of rock particles, minerals, decayed organic
material, air, and water. The decayed organic material in soil is
humus, a dark-colored substance that forms as plant and animal
remains decay. Humus helps create spaces in soil for air and water
that plants must have. The fertility of soil is a measure of how well
the soil supports plant growth.
Soil texture depends on the size of individual particles. The largest

soil particles are gravel. Next in size are sand particles, followed
by silt particles. Clay particles are the smallest. Texture is
important for plant growth. Plants can "drown" for lack of air in
clay soil, and they
may die from lack of water in sandy soil. The best soil for growing
most plants is loam, which is soil that is made up of about equal
parts of clay, sand, and silt.
Soil forms as rock is broken down by weathering and mixes with

other materials on the surface. It is constantly formed wherever
bedrock is exposed. Soil formation continues over a long period,
and gradually soil develops layers called horizons. A soil horizon
is a layer of soil that differs in color and texture from the layers
above or below it. The top layer, the A horizon, is made up of
topsoil, a crumbly, dark brown soil that is a mixture of humus,
clay, and other minerals. The next layer, the B horizon, often
called subsoil, usually consists of clay and other particles washed
down from the A horizon, but little humus. Below that layer is the
C horizon, which contains only partly weathered rock.
Scientists classify different types of soil into major groups based

on climate, plants, and soil composition. The most common plants
found in a region are also used to help classify the soil. Soils are
classified as either acidic or basic. The most fertile soils have a
pH between 6 and 7.5.
Soil teems with living things. Some soil organisms make humus,
the material that makes soil fertile. Other soil organisms mix the
soil and make spaces in it for air and water. Plants contribute most
of the organic remains that form humus. The leaves that plants
shed form a loose layer on the ground called litter. Humus forms in
a process called decomposition, in which organisms that live in the
soil turn dead organic material into humus. The organisms that
break the remains of dead organisms into smaller pieces and digest
them with chemicals are called decomposers. Fungi, bacteria,
worms, and other organisms are the main soil decomposers.
Earthworms do most of the work of mixing humus with other
materials in soil. Earthworms and burrowing animals also help
aerate, or mix air into, the soil.
Soil Conservation
Key Concepts
■ Why is fertile soil considered a nonrenewable resource?
■ How can soil lose its value?
■ What are some ways that soil can be conserved?
The prairie soils of the central United States took many thousands
of years to develop. Prairie soil was once rich with humus because
it was covered with tall grass. The sod—the thick mass of tough
roots at the surface of the soil—kept the soil in place and held onto
moisture. Today, farm crops have replaced the prairies. But prairie
soils are still among the richest in the world.
A natural resource is anything in the environment that humans use.

Soil is one of Earth's most valuable resources because everything
that lives on land, including humans, depends directly or indirectly
on soil.
Plants depend directly on soil to live and grow. Animals depend on
plants for food. Fertile soil is valuable because there is a limited
supply. It can take hundreds of years for just a few centimeters of
soil to develop. Because fertile soil is in limited supply and takes a
long time to form, it is considered a nonrenewable resource.
The value of soil is reduced when soil loses its fertility and when
topsoil is lost due to erosion. This occurred in large parts of the
South in the late 1800s in areas where only cotton had been grown.
In the early 1900s, a scientist named George Washington Carver
developed new crops and farming methods that helped restore soil
fertility in the South.
Soil can be lost to erosion by water or wind. Water or wind erosion

can occur wherever soil is not protected by plant cover. Plants
break the force of rain, and plant roots hold soil in place.
Wind erosion was the cause of soil loss on the Great Plains in the
1930s. By 1930, almost all of the Great Plains had been turned
into farms or ranches. Plowing removed the grass from the Great
Plains and exposed the soil. In times of drought, the topsoil quickly
dried out, turned to dust, and blew away. Wind blew the soil east in
great, black clouds. The problem was most serious in the southern
Plains
states. This area was called the Dust Bowl. The Dust Bowl helped
people appreciate the value of soil.
Soil conservation is the management of soil to prevent its

destruction. Soil can be conserved through contour plowing,
conservation plowing, and crop rotation. Contour plowing is the
practice of plowing fields along the curves of a slope. This
prevents rain from washing soil away. Conservation plowing
disturbs the soil and its plant cover as little as possible. Dead
weeds and stalks of the previous year's crop are left in the ground
to help return soil nutrients, retain moisture, and hold soil in place.
In crop rotation, every year different crops are planted in the field.
ENRICHMENT
Break Me Down
You will need the following set of materials:
Antacid tablets, 2 clear cups, and stopwatch.
 Put equal volume of equal temperature water into 2 cups.
 Drop one whole antacid tablet into one of the cups.
Record your observation and the time from when the tablet is
added until it is completely dissolved and no traces of the tablet is
visible.
Break one tablet into smaller pieces by putting pressure on it and
drop into the other cup. Record your observation and dissolution
time of the tablet.
Wash the cups making sure there are no pieces of antacid tablet
left.
Repeat steps 3 to 5 but this time use hot water.
Fill the table with dissolution times (in seconds) they have
recorded.
Room Temperature Water Hot Water

Whole tablet
Broken tablet
Discussion
In which setup did the reaction occur most rapidly? In which setup
did it occur most slowly?
What is the relationship between particle size and speed it

takes for the tablet to dissolve? How does this relationship apply to
weathering in nature?
In the activity you have just finished, how does mechanical
weathering contribute to chemical weathering? How can you
demonstrate the fact that chemical weathering can hasten
mechanical weathering?
Compare dissolution times in room temperature water and
hot water. What is the relationship between temperature and
weathering rate?
Resources
This lesson is adapted from activities and information at the

following sites:
Breaking it down. http://www-tc.pbs.org/wnet/nature/
files/2008/12/breaking-it-down.pdf. Accessed 9/22/2015
Alka-seltzer lab. http://newyorkscienceteacher.com/sci/ files/user-

submitted/alka-seltzer_lab.pdf. Accessed 9/22/2015
Erosion is the process by which natural forces move weathered

rock and soil from one place to another. Gravity, running water,
glaciers, waves, and wind all cause erosion. The material moved
by erosion is sediment. When the agents of erosion lay down
sediment, deposition occurs. Deposition changes the shape of the
land. Weathering, erosion, and deposition act together in a cycle
that wears down and builds up Earth's surface.
This cycle, called the geologic cycle, has continued for billions of
years. Erosion and deposition are at work everywhere on Earth.
Gravity pulls everything toward the center of Earth. Gravity is the
force that moves rock and other materials downhill. Gravity causes
mass movement, any one of several processes that move sediment
downhill. The different types of mass movement include
landslides, mudflows, slump, and creep.
Mass movement can be rapid or slow.

A landslide is a kind of mass movement that occurs when rock and
soil slide rapidly down a steep slope. Some landslides contain huge
masses of rock, while others may contain only a small amount of
rock and soil.
A mudflow is the rapid downhill movement of a mixture of water,

rock, and soil. The amount of water in a mudflow can be as high as
60 percent. Mudflows often occur after heavy rains in a normally
dry area. In clay soils with a high water content, mudflows may
occur even on very gentle slopes. An earthquake can trigger both
mudflows and landslides.
A slump is a type of mass movement in which a mass of rock and

soil rapidly slips down a slope. It looks as if someone pulled the
bottom out from under part of the slope. A slump often occurs
when water soaks the base of a mass of soil that is rich in clay.
Creep is the very slow downhill movement of rock and soil. It
occurs most often on gentle slopes. Creep often results from the
freezing and thawing of water in cracked layers of rock beneath the
soil. Creep
is so slow that you can barely notice it, but you can see its effects
in objects such as telephone poles, gravestones, and fenceposts.
Creep may tilt these objects at spooky angles.
Water Erosion
Water running downhill is the major agent of erosion that has
shaped Earth's land surface. The force of a falling raindrop can
loosen and
pick up soil particles. As water moves over land, it carries these
particles with it. This moving water is called runoff, which is water
that moves over Earth's surface. The amount of runoff in an area
depends on five main factors: amount of rain, amount of
vegetation, type of soil, shape of the land, and how people use the
land. As runoff travels, it forms tiny grooves in the soil called rills.
Rills flow into one another and form larger grooves, called gullies.
A gully is a large groove, or channel, in the soil that carries runoff

after a rainstorm. Gullies join together to form streams. A stream is
a channel along which water is continually flowing down a slope.
Through erosion, a river creates valleys, waterfalls, flood plains,
meanders, and oxbow lakes. A river's water has energy. Energy is
the ability to do work or cause change. All along a river, the
water's energy does work. Rivers often form on steep mountain
slopes. There, a river generally follows a straight, narrow course,
creating a deep, V-shaped valley. Lower down, a river usually
flows over more gently sloping land. The river spreads out,
forming a wide river valley. The flat, wide area of land along a
river is a flood plain. A meander is a looplike bend in the course of
a river. Sometimes a meandering river forms an oxbow lake, a
meander that has been cut off from the river.
As water moves, it carries sediment with it. Whenever moving
water slows down, it deposits sediment. Deposition creates
landforms such as alluvial fans and deltas. It can also add soil to a
river's flood plain. When a river flows out of a mountain valley,
the water slows down. Then sediments are deposited in an alluvial
fan, a wide, sloping deposit formed where a stream leaves a
mountain range.
A river ends when it flows into a still body of water, such as an
ocean or a lake. There the water slows down and deposits
sediment. This sediment builds up a landform called a delta.
Deposition also occurs during floods.
The ability of a river to cause erosion and carry sediment depends
on several factors. A river is a dynamic system. A river's slope,
volume of flow, and the shape of its streambed all affect how fast
the river flows and how much sediment it can erode. The amount
of sediment that a river carries is its load.
Waves and Wind
Ocean waves contain energy—sometimes a great deal of energy.

The energy in waves comes from wind that blows across the
water's surface.
Waves are a major force of erosion along coasts. Waves shape the
coast through erosion by breaking down rock and transporting sand
and other sediment. When large waves hit the shore, their energy
can break apart rocks.
Waves also erode by abrasion. When a sediment-carrying wave

hits land, the sediment wears away rock like sandpaper wearing
away wood.
The energy of incoming waves is concentrated on the headlands. A

headland is a part of the shore that sticks out into the ocean. Over
time, waves erode the headlands and even out the shoreline.
Waves shape a coast when they deposit sediment, forming coastal
features such as beaches, spits, sandbars, and barrier beaches. As
waves reach the shore, they drop the sediment they carry, forming
a beach. A beach is an area of wave-washed sediment along a
coast. As angled waves repeatedly hit the beach, some of the beach
sediment moves down the beach in a process called longshore
drift.
One result of long shore drift is the formation of a spit. A spit is a
beach that projects like a finger out into the water. Spits occur
where a headland or another obstacle interrupts long shore drift.
Incoming waves carrying sand may build up sandbars, which are
long ridges of sand parallel to shore. A barrier beach is similar to a
sand bar.
A sand dune is a deposit of wind-blown sand. Wind is the weakest

agent of erosion. Yet wind can be a powerful force in shaping the
land in areas where there are few plants to hold the soil in place.
Wind causes erosion by deflation and abrasion. Geologists define
deflation as the process by which wind removes surface materials.
Deflation does not usually have a great effect on the land. In
deserts, though, deflation can sometimes create an area of rock
fragments called desert pavement.
Abrasion by wind-carried sand can polish rock, but it causes little

erosion. All sediment picked up by wind eventually falls to the
ground. This happens when wind slows down or some obstacle,
such as a boulder or clump of grass, traps the windblown sand and
other sediment.
Wind erosion and deposition may form sand dunes and loess
deposits. Sand dunes can be seen on beaches and in deserts where
windblown sediment has built up. Sediment that is finer than sand
is sometimes deposited in layers far from its source. This fine,
wind-deposited sediment is loess.
Glaciers
A glacier is any large mass of ice that moves slowly over land.
There are two kinds of glaciers— continental glaciers and valley
glaciers. A continental glacier is a glacier that covers much of a
continent or large island. Today, continental glaciers cover about
10 percent of Earth's land, including Antarctica and most of
Greenland. Continental glaciers can flow in all directions.
HISTORY OF THE EARTH
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of how the planet

Earth evolved in the last 4.6 billion years (including the age of the
Earth, major geologic time subdivisions, and marker fossils).
Learning Competencies
The learners shall be able to explain how relative and absolute

dating were used to determine the subdivisions of geologic time
(S11/12ES- Ie-27); and describe how marker fossils (also known
as guide fossils) are used to define and identify subdivisions of the
geologic time scale (S11/12ES-Ie-28).
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
 Acquire familiarity with the Geologic Time Scale;
 Show the contributions of different personalities in the

establishment of the Geologic Time Scale;
 Describe how relative and absolute dating were used to

subdivide geologic time;and
 Explain how fossils have been used to define and identify
subdivision of the geologic time scale
Resources
Carlson, D.H., Carlson, Plummer, C.C., and Hammersley, L., 2011.

Physical Geology: Earth Revealed. McGraw-Hill. 645 p. Desonie, D.,
2015. CK-12 Earth Science High School . http://www.ck12.org/earth-
science/
Junine, J.I., 2013. Earth Evolution of a Habitable World. Second Edition.

Cambridge University Press. 304 p. Kirkland, K. 2010. Earth Science:
notable research and discoveries. Facts on File, Inc., 212 p.
Lutgens, F.K., Tarbuck, E.J. and Tassa, D., 2013. Essentials of Geology.
11th Edition. Pearson Prentice Hall, 554 p. Tarbuck, E.J. and Lutgens,
F.K., 2008. Earth – An Introduction to Physical Geology. 9th Edition
Pearson Prentice Hall, 703 p.
AGE OF THE EARTH
The Earth has a very long history — 4.6 billions of years of

history.
The age of the Earth is based from the radioactive isotopic dating
of meteorites.
The oldest dated rock from the Earth is only ~3.8 billion years old.
Why?
Rocks and Fossils
The history of the Earth is recorded in rocks but the rock record is
inherently incomplete. Some of the "events" do not leave a record
or are not preserved. Some of the rock record may have also been
lost through the recycling of rocks (Recall the rock cycle)
Preserved in rocks are the remains and traces of plants and animals
that have lived and died through-out Earth's History — fossils. The
fossil record provides scientists with one of the most compelling
evidence for Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution. (increasing
complexity of life through time).
Rocks, Fossils and the Geologic Time Scale
The Geologic Time Scale – the time line of the History of the
Earth, is based from the rock record.
Geologic time is subdivided into hierarchal intervals, the largest

being Eon, followed by Era, Period, and Epoch, respectively.
Subdivision of Geologic time is based from significant events in
the Earth’s History as interpreted from the rock record.
The mass extinction event which lead to the extinction of the

dinosaurs occurred around 66.4 million years ago marks the
boundary between the Mesozoic Era (Age of the Reptiles) and the
Cenozoic Era (Age of Mammals).
This mass extinction event may have been pivotal in the rise in
dominance of the mammals during the Cenozoic Era.
Pie Chart showing relative proportion of the major subdivisions of Geologic Time.
One of the first to recognize the correspondence of between

rocks and time is Nicholas Steno (1638-1686). Steno’s principles –
superposition, original horizontality, and lateral continuity became
the foundation of stratigraphy – the study of layered rocks.
Since the Geologic Time Scale is based on the rock record,
the first order of business is to establish the correct succession of
rocks. Initially, this was done using relative dating techniques.
One of the earliest attempts to subdivide the rock record

into units of time was made by Abraham Gottlob Werner, a
German geologist.
Werner divided the rock record into the following rock-time units
(from oldest to youngest): Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and
Quaternary. Werner used the Principle of Superposition
extensively to establish temporal relationship among the rock
units.
Fossils are also useful in determining relative ages of rocks.

William “Strata” Smith (1769 – 1839), while working in a coal
mine, observed that each layer or strata of sedimentary rock
contain a distinct assemblage of fossils which can be used to
establish equivalence (correlation) between rock units separated by
long distances. Moreover, he observed that these fossils succeed
each other vertically in a definite order.
Whereas William Smith used fossils primarily to identify

rock layers, Charles Lyell (1797 – 1875), British Lawyer and
Geologist, recognized the utility of fossils in subdividing Geologic
Time on the basis of fossils. He was able to subdivide the Tertiary
by examining the proportion of living vs. extinct fossils in the
rocks.
The underlying reason for this definite and orderly

succession of fossils in the rock record is organic evolution.
EVOLUTION OF EARTH’S HISTORY
Fossils are an essential part of subdividing the Geologic Time.

Biostratigraphy - a sub-discipline of stratigraphy which deals with
the use of fossils in correlation and establishing the relative ages
of rocks.
Index Fossils - are marker fossils used to define periods of

Geologic Time. Ideally, index fossils are distinctive (can be easily
identified and distinguished from other fossils, widespread
(distribution is not confined to a few locality) , and have limited
geologic time range.
Ultimately, the Geologic Time Scale was assigned numerical dates

(absolute dating) through the radiometric dating of rocks.
MODULE 3:
Natural Hazards, Mitigation and Adaptation:
Geologic Processes and Hazards
Content Standards
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the different

hazards caused by geological processes (earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions and landslides). The learners shall be able to conduct a
survey to assess the possible geologic hazards that your
community may experience.
The learners shall be able to describe the various hazards that

may happen in the event of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and
landslides (S11/12ES-If-30); use hazard maps to identify areas
prone to hazards brought about by earthquake, volcanic eruptions
and landslides (S11/12ES-If-31); and give practical ways of
coping with geological hazards caused by earthquake, volcanic
eruptions and landslides (S11/12ES-If-32).

 Describe and explain the hazards associated with
earthquakes;
 Identify areas from the Philippine map where earthquakes
are most likely to happen;
 Identify and give examples of possible geologic hazards
associated with earthquakes;
 Demonstrate their understanding of the scope of the effects
and damage of earthquakes by determining the possibility
of such effects occurring in their area and vicinity and
where it will most likely happen; and
 Manifest awareness by participating in earthquake-related

hazard prevention activities and drills.
MOTIVATION
 Locate possible places where earthquakes are most likely to

happen using the structural map of the Philippines.
 Name a recent earthquake that they remember.
 Locate that earthquake in the map.
 If the earthquake you identified is one that you have also

experienced, in a whole sheet of paper share what you have
experienced, what you saw, and what damages you
observed.
 If the earthquake you identified is one that you did not

experience, what have heard regarding damages etc.
 List their answers on a whole sheet of paper.

MOTIVATION
Identify the phenomena represented by the pictures.
Is there a link or connection among these phenomena?
Sources
Hydrometeorological phenomena
Picture 1 – cyclone picture taken from space (http://news.mit.edu/2015/small-
thunderstorms-massive-cyclones-saturn-0615)
Picture 2 – thunderstorm(http://aviationknowledge.wikidot.com/aviation:thunderstorms)
Picture 3- Tornado http:// www.kidzone.ws/science/tornado/ facts.htm
Picture 4- Ipo-ipo http://www.chaostrophic.com/cooked-aussie-ravers-get-a-whirlwind-
experience-as-lads-run-inside-a-doofnado/
Picture 5- Monsoon rains http://floodlist.com/asia/typhoon-rammasun-monsoon-rain-
philippines
Picture 6 – floods http://www.scmp.com/news/world/ article/1869466/typhoon-koppu-
deaths-shoot-nine-high-winds-and-floods-hit-northern
Picture 7 – wildfire http://www.geog.ucsb.edu/~phil/research.htm
Picture 8– drought http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/ drought-in-bihar-jharkhand-no-
silver-lining-in-sight-399850
Picture 9 – landslide http://pmm.nasa.gov/applications/ landslides
What is hazard adaptation?
Hazard adaptation is knowing how to adjust or cope with an

existing environmental condition in particular those pertaining to
areas with potential hazards brought about by hydrometeorological
phenomenon. To be able to do this, it is important to identify
potential hazards and their potential impacts and effects to the
community.
What is risk reduction?
Measures to reduce the frequency or severity of losses brought

about by the effects of hazards. It is also a measure of reducing the
exposure of people to the effects of hazards.
What is disaster mitigation?
These are measures or methods or strategies that eliminate or at

least reduce the impacts and risks of hazards. There must be
proactive measures done prior to a disaster to prevent loss of lives
and properties. One very common mitigation measures against
floods are river channel dikes.
I. Earthquakes
A. Definition:
i. A shaking and trembling that results from the sudden movement
of part of the
Earth’s crust.
ii. Throw a pebble into a pond - ripple effect
iii. More than 1 million per year on the planet
iv. Most common cause is faulting
v. Entire fault (i.e. San Andres Fault) doesn’t all move at the same
time. Energy is released at different places at anyone time.
B. Tsunamis:
i. Caused by undersea earthquake
ii. Travel at > 400 MPH (700-800KPH)
iii. Heights up to 20 meters
C. Seismic Waves
i. Focus: Point of origin under the surface of an earthquake
ii. Epicenter: Place on the surface directly above the focus
1. Most violent shaking occurs at the epicenter
iii. Primary Waves: P waves
1. Fastest moving of the waves

2. Travel through solid, liquids and gases
3. “Push-pull” type of wave
iv. Secondary Waves: S Waves

1. Second to arrive
2. Travel through solid but not liquid or gas
3. “S” shaped waves
4. Rock particles move at right angles to the direction of the wave
v. Surface Waves: L Waves

1. Slowest moving of the waves
2. Travel across the surface of the Earth
3. Originate on the earth’s surface
4. Cause the most damage of all the waves
vi. Seismograph
1. Detects and measures intensity of the earthquake
2. Records earthquakes on a seismogram
3. Richter Scale
a. Each number represents a magnitude 10x greater than previous
number.
Forces in Earth's Crust

The movement of Earth's plates creates enormous forces that
squeeze or pull the rock in the crust. A forcethat acts on rock to
change its shape volume is stress. Stress adds energy to the rock.
The energy is stored in the rock until it changes shape or breaks.
Three different kinds of stress can occur in the crust. Tension,

compression, and shearing work over millions of years to change
the shape and volume of rock. Tension pulls on the crust,
stretching
rock so that it becomes thinner in the middle. Compression
squeezes rock until it folds or breaks.
Shearing pushes a mass of rock in two opposite directions.

When enough stress builds up in rock, the rock breaks, creating a
fault. A fault is a break in the rock of the crust where rock surfaces
slip past each other. Most faults occur along plate boundaries,
where
the forces of plate motion push or pull the crust so much that the
crust breaks. There are three main types of faults: normal faults,
reverse faults, and strike-slip faults.
Tension causes a normal fault. In a normal fault, the fault is at an

angle, and one block of rock lies
above the fault while the other block lies below the fault. The
block of rock that lies above is called the
hanging wall. The rock that lies below is called the footwall.
Compression causes reverse faults. A reverse fault has the same

structure as a normal fault, but the blocks move in the opposite
direction.
Shearing creates strike-slip faults. In a strike-slip fault, the rocks
on either side of the fault slip past each other sideways, with little
up or down motion.
Over millions of years, the forces of plate movement can change a

flat plain into landforms produced by folding, stretching, and
uplifting Earth's crust. These landforms include anticlines and
synclines, folded mountains, fault-block mountains, and plateaus.
A fold in rock that bends upward into an arch is an anticline. A
fold in rock that bends downward to form a valley is a syncline.
Anticlines
and synclines are found on many parts of the Earth's surface where
compression forces have folded the crust. The collision of two
plates can cause compression and folding of the crust over a wide
area.
When two normal faults cut through a block of rock, fault

movements may push up a fault-block mountain. The
forces that raise mountains can also uplift, or raise plateaus. A
plateau is a large area of flat land elevated high above sea level.
Earthquakes and Seismic Waves
An earthquake is the shaking that results from the movement of

rock beneath Earth's surface. The area beneath Earth's surface
where rock under stress breaks to cause an earthquake is called the
focus. The
point on the surface directly above the focus is called the epicenter.
During an earthquake, vibrations called seismic waves move out
from the focus in all directions. Seismic waves carry energy from
an
earthquake away from the focus, through Earth's interior, and
across the surface.
There are three categories of seismic waves: P waves, S waves,

and surface waves. P waves compress and expand the ground like
an accordion. S waves vibrate from side to side and up and down.
When P waves and S waves reach the surface, some become
surface waves. Surface waves move more slowly than P waves
and S waves, but they can produce severe ground movements.
There are three commonly used methods of measuring

earthquakes: the Mercalli scale, the Richter scale, and the
moment magnitude scale.
The Mercalli scale was developed to rate earthquakes

according to the level of damage at a given place. An earthquake's
magnitude is a number that geologists assign to an earthquake
based on the earthquake's strength.
The Richter scale is a rating of an earthquake's magnitude based

on the size of the earthquake's seismic waves. The seismic waves
are
measured by a seismograph. A seismograph is an instrument that
records and measures seismic waves.
Geologists today often use the moment magnitude scale, a rating

system that estimates the total energy released by an earthquake.
An earthquake's magnitude tells geologists how much stored
energy was
released by the earthquake. The effects of an earthquake increase
with magnitude.
Geologists use seismic waves to locate an earthquake's epicenter.
When an earthquake strikes, P waves arrive at a seismograph first
and S waves next. The farther away the epicenter is, the greater the
difference between the two arrival times. This time difference tells
scientists how far from the seismograph the epicenter is. The
scientists then use the information from three different
seismograph
stations to plot circles on a map. Each circle shows the distance
from one seismograph station to all the points where the epicenter
could be located. The single point where the three circles intersect
is the
location of the earthquake's epicenter.
Monitoring Earthquakes
Many societies have used technology to try to determine when and

where earthquakes have occurred.
During the late 1800s, scientists developed seismographs that were

much more sensitive and accurate than any earlier devices.
A simple seismograph can consist of a heavy weight attached to a

frame by a spring or wire. A pen connected to the weight rests its
point on a drum that can rotate. As the drum rotates slowly, the pen
draws a straight line on paper that is wrapped tightly around the
drum. Seismic waves cause the seismograph's drum to vibrate. But
the suspended weight with the pen attached moves
very little.
Therefore, the pen stays in place and records the drum's vibrations.
The pattern of lines, called a seismogram, is the record of an
earthquake's seismic waves produced by a seismograph.
To monitor faults, geologists have developed instruments to
measure changes in elevation, tilting of the land surface, and
ground movements along faults.
A tiltmeter measures tilting or raising of the ground. A creep meter

uses a wire stretched across a fault to measure horizontal
movement of the ground.
A laser-ranging device uses a laser beam to detect horizontal fault

movements. A network of Earthorbiting satellites called GPS
(global positioning system) helps scientists monitor changes in
elevation
and tilt of the land as well as horizontal movement along faults.
Seismographs and fault-monitoring devices provide data used to

map faults and detect changes along faults. Geologists are also
trying to use these data to develop a method of predicting
earthquakes.
Geologists use the data from seismic waves to map faults, which
are often hidden by a thick layer of rock or soil. This practice helps
geologists determine the earthquake risk for an area. Geologists
use fault-monitoring devices to study the types of movement that
occur along faults.
Friction is the force that opposes the motion of one surface as it

moves across another surface. Where friction along a fault is low,
the rocks on both sides of the fault slide by each other without
much sticking. Stress does not build up, and large earthquakes are
unlikely. Where friction is high, the rocks lock together. Stress
builds up until an earthquake occurs. Even with data from many
sources, geologists can’t predict when and where a quake will
strike.
EARTHQUAKE SAFETY
Geologists can determine earthquake risk by locating where faults

are active, where past earthquakes have occurred, and where the
most damage was caused. In the United States, the risk is highest
along the Pacific Coast in the states of California, Washington, and
Alaska. The eastern United States generally has a low risk of
earthquakes.
Geologists use Mercalli scale data to produce intensity maps.

These maps show the areas most likely to suffer serious earthquake
damage. Geologists also study where earthquakes have occurred in
the past to help determine earthquake risk.
Causes of earthquake damage include shaking, liquefaction,

aftershocks, and tsunamis. The shaking produced by seismic
waves can trigger landslides or avalanches. The types of rock and
soil
determine where and how much the ground shakes.
Liquefaction occurs when an earthquake's violent shaking

suddenly turns loose, soft soil into liquid mud. As the ground gives
way, buildings sink and pull apart. Sometimes, buildings weakened
by an earthquake collapse during an aftershock.
An aftershock is an earthquake that occurs after a larger

earthquake in the same area. When an earthquake jolts the ocean
floor, plate movement causes the ocean floor to rise slightly and
push water out of its way. The water displaced by the earthquake
may form a large wave called a tsunami.
A tsunami spreads out from an earthquake's epicenter and speeds

across the ocean. The height of the wave is low in the open ocean,
but the wave grows into a mountain of water as the tsunami
approaches shallow water.
The main danger from earthquake strikes is from falling objects
and flying glass. The best way to protect yourself is to drop,
cover, and hold. To prepare for an earthquake, store in a
convenient
location an earthquake kit containing canned food, water, and first

aid supplies.
Most earthquake-related deaths and injuries result from damage to

buildings or other structures. To reduce earthquake damage, new
buildings must be made stronger and more flexible.
Older buildings may be modified to withstand stronger quakes.

The way in which a building is constructed determines whether it
can withstand an earthquake. A base-isolated building is designed
to reduce the amount of energy that reaches the building during an
earthquake.
During a quake, the building moves gently back and forth without
any violent shaking. Earthquakes can cause fire and flooding when
gas pipes and water mains break.
Flexible joints and automatic shut-off valves can be installed to

prevent breaking and to cut off gas and water flow.
Coastal Erosion
Coastal Erosion is the wearing away of the land by the sea and is
done by destructive waves.
Five common processes that cause coastal erosion:
Corrasion is when waves pick up beach materials and hurl them at

the base of a cliff.
Abrasion happens when breaking waves containing sediment
fragments erode the shoreline, particularly headland. It is also
referred to as the sand paper effect.
Hydraulic action. The effect of waves as they hit cliff faces, the
air is compressed into cracks and is released as waves rushes back
seaward. The compressing and releasing of air as waves presses
cliff faces and rushes back to sea will cause cliff material to break
away.
Attrition is the process when waves bump rocks and pebbles

against each other leading to the eventual breaking of the
materials.
Corrosion/solution involves dissolution by weak acids such as

when thecarbon dioxide in the atmosphere is dissolved into water
turning it into a weak carbonic acid. Several rocks (e.g.,
Limestone) are vulnerable to this acidic water and will dissolve
into it. The rate of dissolution is affected by the concentration of
carbonates & other minerals in the water. As it increases,
dissolution becomes slower.
Sediment movement along coasts
As wave crashes on the shore, the water pushes sediment up the

beach and then pulls it back down the beach as the water slides
back down. If the waves do not come in parallel to the beach
longshore transport (littoral drift) of sand occurs. When waves
approach the beach at an angle, the part of the wave that reaches
shallow water earliest slows down the most, allowing the part of
the wave that is farther offshore to catch up. In this way the wave
is refracted (bent) so that it crashes on the shore more nearly
parallel to the shore. You will never see a wave wash up on a
beach at a very high angle from the line of the beach except
perhaps at an inlet or where the shore makes a sudden right angle
bend.
Coastal deposition
When waves lose their capacity to carry or transport sediments

because of a reduction in energy, they can and will "drop" or
deposit its sediment load. Waves that do not have the capacity to
transport sediments and which results to sediment deposition and
accumulation are called constructive waves. Deposition happens
when the swash (or the waves that rushes inland) is stronger than
the backwash (waves rushing back to sea). Deposition can occur as
waves enter areas of shallow water, sheltered areas like coves or
bay, little or no wind, and there is a sufficient supply of sediments.
Emphasize that the waves lose kinetic energy to transport the
sediment load.
ENRICHMENT (ASSIGNMENT)
Submit a poster, showing the different hazards of the coastal areas.

Introduction to Life Science
Content Standards
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the historical
development of the concept of life; the origin of the first life forms;
and the unifying themes in the study of life. The learners shall be
able to appreciate and value life by taking good care of all beings,
humans, plants and animals.
The learners will be able to explain the evolving concept of life
based on emerging pieces of evidence (S11/12LT-IIa-1); describe
classic experiments that model conditions which may have enabled
the first life forms to evolve; (S11/12LT-IIa-2); and describe how
unifying themes (e.g. structure and function, evolution and
ecosystems) in the study of life show connections among living
things and how they interact with each other and with their
environment; (S11/12LT-IIa-3)

 Discuss the historical development of the concept of life
including theories, experiments and evidences;
 Describe the conditions on early Earth that made the

origin of life possible and the first life forms; and
 Discuss the unifying themes of life and how they are

interconnected
How Animals Survive (Nutrition)

Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of nutrition,

specifically as to how food get into cells.
Performance Standard
The learners shall be able to make a presentation of some diseases

that are associated with the various organ systems
The learners explain the different metabolic processes involved in

the various organ systems and describe the general and unique
characteristics of the different organ systems in representative
animals (S11/12LT-IIIaj-20 and S11/12LT-IIIaj-21)
 Know the structure function relationship in the various

organ systems
 Able to synthesize the various functions of the organ

systems in the day-to-day activity of an individual
 Used their knowledge of physiological processes to
understand the different diseases associated with the organ
systems
Animal nutrition is the process of taking in, taking apart and taking
up the nutrients from a food source.
Food processing has four main stages: Ingestion, Digestion,

Absorption and Elimination or Egestion.
In ingestion, or process of taking in food substances, the animal

takes in food in different ways. Microscopic animals, for instance,
can use special cavities which can allow entrance of food or they
can use phagocytosis or pinocytosis wherein food particles are
engulfed, thus, creating a food vacuole.
The new terms in the lesson proper should be addressed first, either
as an assignment for recitation or as another activity to lessen
banking of terms. Even if the lesson calls for a lot of
familiarization, dialogical discussion can occur if the students are
equipped beforehand of the topic to be studied.
In other animals, such as in cnidarians (jellyfish, anemone, coral)

where the entrance and exit of food and waste is the same, the
region where this occurs is called the gastrovascular cavity. Gastro
for digestion, vascular for circulation of movement of digested
food. Below, the illustration shows how food is processed in
animals with gastrovascular cavities.
In other animals, with complete digestive system, where entrance

and exit of food and wastes are different, there are different
mechanisms of ingestion depending on their evolutionary
adaptation to their food. The four main feeding mechanisms are
filter feeding, substrate feeding, fluid feeding and bulk feeding.
Filter feeding- uses adaptation in feeding food particles

from the environment, which is usually aquatic. Examples of these
are clams, mussels, whales, etc.
Substrate feeding- animals live in or on their food source.
Examples of this are the leaf miner, maggots and other parasites.
Fluid feeding- animals suck nutrient-rich fluid from a host
or a source. They have different adaptations in order to get food
such as the proboscis of mosquitoes, the long tongue of nectar-
feeding bats and long beaks of hummingbirds.
Bulk feeding- animals, such as us humans, take in large

particle sized food. Different animals have acquired different
adaptations such as tentacles, claws, venomous fangs, large
mandible and teeth which aids in killing prey or tearing off pieces
of meat or vegetation
224
Digestion of food involves either intracellular digestion or

extracellular digestion or both processes. Univellular organisms
and members of the Phylum Porifera use intracellular digestion in
breaking down food. It involves endocytosis
(phagocytosis/pinocytosis) of basic food molecules which can
easily be broken down through chemical hydrolysis. More
complex molecules are harder to ingest as it might be bigger than
the cells are able to ingest. In other animals, such as the cnidarians,
food is first digested extracellularly then endocytosed and
intracellularly digested. We can say that, cnidarians bridge the
evolution from intracellular digestion to complete extracellular
digestion by exhibiting both processes. For animals with complete
digested system, where specialization of organs is possible,
extracellular digestion of food is possible. Chemical hydrolysis
occurs within the lumen or the space of the digestive system with
the aid of various chemicals, enzymes and hormones. Enzymes are
molecules which speed up a reaction, in the case of digestion it
helps in the chemical hydrolysis of the different biomolecules.
Digestion can either be mechanical or chemical. Mechanical
digestion aids in physically breaking down food particles for easier
chemical digestion. Chemical digestion is the process of breaking
down complex molecules into simpler molecules through chemical
hydrolysis.
Absorption allows the animals to acquire the necessary energy,

organic molecules and essential nutrients from the digested food.
Chemical energy comes from the break down of ATP which comes
from sources such as sugars from carbohydrates. Organic
molecules can serve as the organic building block of the body
where muscles, connective tissues, nerve tissues are built. These
organic molecules are the biomolecules that we acquire from food:
carbohydrate, protein, fats and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates are
important for instant energy, but if not used will be stored and can
turn into fats. Proteins, which are made up of amino acids, are the
building blocks of different structures in the organism, e.g.
muscles, cells, antibodies, etc. Fats are great source of energy as
they can store a lot of energy. Nucleic acids are important for
building blocks of genetic information. Essential nutrients are
substances which the animal’s own body cannot synthesize, thus,
comes from the food source. Essential amino acids, essential fatty
acids, vitamins and minerals are examples of essential nutrients.
As food is only partially digested, not all particles are absorbed by

the body. The semi-digested food, which in turn becomes waste is
then eliminated or digested. In some animals, such as humans,
water is first reabsorbed before it is eliminated or egested out of
the body. Different symbiotic relationships are present in order to
fully utilized the substances present in waste (feces) before it is
finally released.
Bacteria which can synthesized Vitamin K is present in human gut,

some bacteria process the feces and creates by-product rich in
methane or hydrogen sulfide which results in flatus (fart) which
smell like rotten egg.
THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The human digestive system can serve as a model for other

organisms with complete digestive system. Variations is a result of
adaptation to particular food, such as the four-chambered stomach
of the cow, the long cecum (appendix) of herbivores, rough tongue
and sharp dentition of carnivores, etc.
The illustration below shows the digestive system in humans, to

the right is an idealized schematic diagram of the human digestive
system.
The mouth or oral cavity- is responsible for ingestion. In humans,

the mouth have specialized dentition for mechanical digestion of
food. Also, chemical digestion of food occurs in the mouth,
specifically, of carbohydrates. With the aid of the salivary gland,
food is softened and rolled by the tongue, which results in a round,
semi-digested food called the bolus. Some animals do not have
teeth, such as birds and earthworms, they use a structure called
gizzard, a muscular organ which grinds food with the aid of
ingested pebbles or stones.
The bolus enters the digestive tract, via a cross-road of food and air
called the pharynx. To prevent food from entering the respiratory
system, the epiglottis covers the opening (called the glottis) to the
respiratory when swallowing.
The esophagus, which has voluntary muscles at the pharyngeal

end, allows the movement of bolus to the stomach by lubricating
its walls with mucus produced by goblet cells. Movement of food,
not only through the esophagus, but throughout the digestive tract
is caused by peristalsis or the wavelike movement of the muscles
of the organs of digestion. Mucus not only allows easier movement
of food, but it also protects the lining of esophagus from acids of
the stomach.
The stomach is a bag which mainly functions in the storage of

food. Chemical digestion of food starts here through the action of
pepsin (an enzyme for protein digestion) and hydrochloric acid
(HCl) helps in breaking cells, activating pepsinogen to pepsin, and
denaturing proteins. Denaturation is the process of breaking the
bonds of protein, through acids, bases, heavy metals, high
temperature and others. This is observed in cooked white egg,
whitening of the lips when consuming acidic food, etc. The
product of digestion in stomach is called the chime. The stomach
has two valves at each end, which regulates the entrance and exit
of food. Cows do not have four stomachs, rather they have four-
chambered stomach which aids in chemical digestion of cellulose
in plants. As cows do not have the ability to completely digest
cellulose, they have mutualistic relationship with bacteria which
digests cellulose, needing the four-chambers of the stomach.
When the stomach is filled, the product of its digestion called

chyme or acidic chyme (due to its acidic nature) moves to the
small intestines. In the small intestines, chemical digestion of the
four biomolecules occur. Different enzymes and hormones are
activated/released to the small intestine by the small intestine itself,
the liver and the pancreas. These hormones, chemicals and
enzymes are responsible in turning complex biomolecules into
simpler molecules. Bile for example, is a substance produced by
the liver and stored by the gall bladder which aids in the digestion
of fats by emulsification of fat molecules. Villus (plural- villi) and
microvillus (plural- microvilli) are structures responsible for the
efficient absorption of the digested molecules. Thus, the small
intestine has the largest surface area among the organs in the
digestive system.
The large intestine, termed for its larger diameter compared to the
small intestine, is responsible for water reabsorption and temporary
storage of feces. Water from the process of digestion, which comes
from the surrounding tissues (mucus, saliva, chemicals), is
recycled by the large intestine by reabsorbing it. The rate of water
reabsorption has implication on the hardness/softness of the feces
to be eliminated. In humans, the cecum is a structure called
appendix, a vestigial organ. It does not have any known digestive
function, but some argue that it has immune functions. For
herbivores, the cecum is a very long structure as they house
organisms which can aid in the digestion of cellulose just like in
the four-chambered stomach of cows. The rectum is the structure
of the large intestine which temporary store feces, the movement
of the feces is regulated by a voluntary muscle called the anus.

Earth and Life Science

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Earth and Life Science

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Systems Plus College Foundation

Module in Earth and Life

Earth and Life Science

By: Carmelita D. Ramos

This model is based on the MELC provided by

This module was produced for the online and

This learning area is designed to provide a general

Module 2: EARTH MATERIALS AND PROCESSES

Module 3: NATURAL HAZARDS, MITIGATION, AND

Module 4: LIFE SCIENCE

4: INTRODUCTION TO LIFE SCIENCE

 The formation of the universe and the solar system

The learners demonstrate understanding of:

1. The formation of the Universe and the Solar System

Specific Learning Outcomes:

• Recognize the uniqueness of Earth, being the only planet in

1.1 WHAT IS THE UNIVERSE

What are the theories behind the origin of the universe?

Ancient Egyptians believed in many gods and myths which

In India, there is the narrative that gods sacrificed Purusha,

1. Big Bang – is the leading explanation on how the universe

least 90 times, going from subatomic-sized to golf-ball-sized

The work that goes into understanding the expanding universe

According to NASA, after inflation the growth of the universe

2. Steady State- it states that the universe have been present

3. Pulsating Universe- it combines both the Big bang and the

This theory, which is more commonly known as oscillating or

1.2. EARTH AND EARTH SYSTEM

Label the different processes and phases of water involved in

Precipitation Space Run off

What is unique about the Earth?

Earth has the following:

 The existence of water at the Earth’s surface-neither too

What makes the Earth capable of supporting life?

Firstly, it is the only substance on Earth that is in liquid form at the

Secondly, it is a superb solvent, meaning that other substance

Earth's surface is constantly changing. Earth looks different today

Rocks from inside Earth give geologists clues about Earth's

Below a boundary about 40 kilometers beneath the surface is the

Components or subsystems of the Earth System.

Figure 3: The Earth system. (Source:

Earth system is essentially a closed system. It receives energy from

The atmosphere is the thin gaseous layer that envelopes the

The present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen (N), 21%

Plate Tectonics is an important process shaping the surface of the

The biosphere is the set of all life forms on Earth.

It covers all ecosystems—from the soil to the rainforest, from

Sunlight is not necessary for life.

About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water (hydrosphere)

Heat is absorbed and redistributed on the surface of the Earth

The origin of the systems approach to the study of the Earth

One of the first scientist to push for a more integrated or holistic

The term "biosphere" was popularized by Vladimir Vernadsky

In the 1970s, the Gaia Hypothesis was jointly developed by James

In 1983, NASA advisory council established the Earth Systems

The learners demonstrate understanding of:

The learners demonstrate understanding of:

Specific Learning Outcomes:

1. Identify common rock-forming minerals using their

2. Classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic

A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid that forms on or

Rocks are made up of a combination of minerals. Geologists

Metamorphic rocks form when rocks are exposed to a great