Chapter II

Theoretical Framework

2.1 Nature of speaking

This chapter will provide some theoretical framework related to the topic,

involving: nature of speaking, teaching speaking, teacher strategies in speaking

teaching, CLT (Communicative Language Teaching), and Teaching using CLT

method. There are many various definitions of speaking from many English

language experts. Therefore, the writer only chooses several definitions that based

on some opinion are important to talk about. The first definition speaking is a skill

when genuinely communicate, speaking is desire and purpose-driven, in other

words we genuinely want to communicate something to achieve a particular end

(Donough and Shaw 2013, p.157).

This may involve expressing ideas and opinions; expressing a wish or a desire

to do something; negotiating and/or solving particular problem; or establishing

and maintaining social relationships and friendships. Another expert states that

speaking is an activity which is done by a person to communicate with others in

order to express ideas, feeling, as well as opinions to achieve a particular goal.

Speaking is human verbal communication which set out with the ability of

utilizing mechanism that will involve oral production language, it is the main

concern in speaking (Brudden 1995, p.85).

Richards and Renandya (2002, p. 204) state that effective oral communication

requires the ability to use the language appropriately in social

interactions that involves not only verbal communication but also paralinguistic

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elements of speech such as pitch, stress, and intonation. Moreover, nonlinguistic

elements such as gestures, body language, and expressions are needed in

conveying messages directly without any accompanying speech. Social contact in

interactive language functions is a key importance and in which it is not what you

say that counts but how you say it what you convey with body language, gestures,

eye contact, physical distance and other nonverbal messages (Brown 2007,

p. 237). On the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, speaking, from

the word of speak, is say words. Based on some various definitions above, the

conclusion of speaking as the essential skill of language is naturally the way

human communicate to express ideas, feelings, as well as opinions to achieve a

particular goal while to maintain social relation between people.

In linguistic descriptions of spoken language, speaking as interaction, and

speaking as a social and situation-based activity. All these perspectives see

speaking as an integral part of people’s daily lives (Luoma 2004, p.9).

2.1.2 Speaking Skill

According to Horn (1980:76) in Andriany (2004:7) implies speaking also

means to use a language in ordinary, not in singing, but on Webster Dictionary

(1984, p. 256) speaking is to utter words, to express thought by words, to utter

speech, discourse, or argue, to talk, to make mention, to tell by writing, to

communicate ideas in any matter. Above theories emphasize that speaking is an

effort to use language freely, being able to speak which puts more emphasis on

interaction, communication and understanding each other. If it related to particular

language, such as English, according to Ratih in Syakir (2002), speaking is the

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form of oral language that is inevitably used to communicate ideas and feelings,

no matter what the language is. Speaking includes some components which

should be mastered: structural accuracy, vocabulary, pronunciation, fluency and

comprehension for oral communication in the classroom context. The speaking

component in a language class should encourage acquisition of communication in

and out the classroom. Those components will be used as measurements

description in order to check the correctness in terms of non-using the score.

The writer conclude that speaking is the ability to use the language in ordinary

way by speech is not only matter of transferring some messages to other person

but is also communication, which needs more who one person to communicate

with. According to the Donough and Shaw (1993 p.151), as a language skill,

speaking is not much paid attention by teachers because in English language

teaching. They mostly use all of their times in the class by teaching grammar and

vocabulary. Meanwhile, Webster Dictionary (1986, p. 2) defines ‘ability’ as a

genetic word represents the term capacity, capability, intelligence, competence,

mind power and others. It also relates to skill, knowledge to do something,

proficiency, aptitude, faculty, expertise, talent, facility, qualification, and strength.

Based on the definition above the writer define English speaking ability as an

ability or skill that the learners have to communicate, to convey meaning, and to

have a meaningful conversation in English.

In learning speaking, the main goal is to able to speak well so they can use it

in communication. Speaking skill believed as important aspect to be success in

English speaking. The success of learning English can be seen and measured from
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their performance in speaking and how well they present their English in

communication.

English as the target language should be mastered well, either its language

skill or language area. In acquiring second language, learners should be involved

into a meaningful interaction of the target language that only found in natural

communication. Learners learn to speak and concerned to the message that they

are conveying and understanding. Ratih in Syakir 2002 explained that when

people speak, they construct ideas in words, express their perception, their

feelings and their intentions, so that interlocutors grasp meaning of what the

speakers mean. If the learner does not have speaking skill, does not understand the

English words that saying by the speaker, does not acknowledge the language,

they cannot grasp meaning of the speaker’s mean. In that condition, they cannot

be said success in learning English, because they did not have a meaningful

interaction of English conversation. So, for people who want to speak English

well, besides learning the knowledge of the language, they need to practice it.

Because it is impossible to be able speak English without practice it.

Speaking skill requires two aspects, namely linguistic and non-linguistic

aspect. Linguistic aspect is the main requirement that the English learner should

possess in order to speak it well. It involves comprehension, pronunciation,

grammar and word order, vocabulary, and general speed of speech, sentence

length and etc. Non-linguistic aspect is an aspect to support learners to achieve a

success in acquiring speaking skill. This aspect involves personality dimensions,

such as self esteem and extroversion. To be success in English speaking, learners

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should master the linguistic aspect and posse the non-linguistic aspect. They both

correlate each other. So, English speaking ability here not only focuses on the

knowledge of language that the learners have, but also focuses on the personality

dimension that will affect them in presenting their knowledge of English and they

know how and when to present it.

2.1.2.1 Pronunciation
Pronunciation is the way for students’ to produce clearer language when

they speak. It deals with the phonological process that refers to the component of

a grammar made up of the elements and principles that determine how sounds

vary and pattern in a language. There are two features of pronunciation; phonemes

and suprasegmental features. A speaker who constantly mispronounces a range of

phonemes can be extremely difficult for a speaker from another language

community to understand (Gerard, 2000, p. 11).

2.1.2.2 Vocabulary
In Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary (Hornby, 1984, p. 461)

“vocabulary is defined as the total number of words in a language, the words

known to a person and a list of words with their meanings, especially at the back

of a book used for teaching a foreign language”. Vocabulary in this study covers

the selection and the use of varied words that used by students. In short, the writer

concluded that vocabulary is a total number of words which has meaning in a

particular language which is necessary for students to use in speaking and writing.
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2.1.2.3 Structure
According to Pooley in Olfah (2004), grammar describes the way of

language work. English grammar tells how English works in communicating

ideas. Ideas are generally expressed in sentences. Sentences are made by grouping

and arranging words. Therefore, grammar is also the study of words in sentences.

Structure in this study covers the appropriateness of using words correctly in

sentences orally. The writer concluded that grammar is the way of language works

through words in speaking or writing so a language will be understood clearly.

2.1.2.4 Fluency
According to Bryne in Syakir (2004) the main goal in teaching the

productive skill of speaking will be oral fluency. Fluency as a part of speaking

indicates how well or how smooth a speaker expresses ideas in terms of sentences.

Fluency in speaking is the quality of being fluent and it needs the intensity or

practices, talent, habit and proper speech. Perfect fluency will be identified by

limited pause of utterance. Speaker with imperfect fluency will stop and start to

talk in uttering the sentences. Refers to the typical speaking, the more pauses

subject performs a speech the more indicates that he has poor fluency in uttering

sentences in terms of explaining the information within. In this regard, when

student performs speech, he might think for a while to find the other words to

continue the whole explanation to get the information clear.

2.1.2.5 Comprehension
Comprehension is the power of understanding an exercised aimed at

improving or testing ones understanding of a language in written or spoken

(Hornby, 1984). Moreover, it defines as the ability to understand completely and

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be aware of understanding whatever said by speaker or toward the topics that are

discussed during having conversation. Comprehension is one of many

components that should be paid attention to increase students’ speaking ability in

order to speak better. There are pronunciation, structure, vocabulary and fluency.

Yet, speaking means making up a language in ordinary way that involving those

components.

Basically, there is a number of different ways of getting students to speak,

ranging from asking students a set of questions to request them to give a detailed

presentation. This way aims to get the students to speak in order to improve his or

her comprehension. From the explanation above, the writer concluded that

comprehension is the students’ ability to understand a task given by a teacher.

Comprehension is how the students respond correctly and appropriately toward

the task given.

2.2 Teaching speaking

Teaching is not only transferring knowledge to the students, but also making

the process of teaching and learning more fun. To make the class fun, every

teacher has a different style in teaching. According to Brown (2000, p.7) that

teaching is showing or helping someone to learn how to do something, giving

instructions, guiding in the study of something, providing with knowledge,

causing to know or understand. In addition, speaking is what students usually

refer to second language ability, according Nashrudiin (2013, p.57) states.

Teaching also has specific goal that leads to modification and encourage the

learner to acquire maximum learning by using a technique.

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So, teaching speaking is helping or developing students to goal directed and

well organize behavior using speech that is acquired through communicating

meaning to other people. Therefore, teaching English speaking skill can be

concluded as the activity of disseminating information or knowledge about

English, to help students understand the material given.

2.2.1 Teacher strategies in teaching speaking

Strategies is procedures used in learning which serve as a way of reaching a goal

(Richard and Schmidt, 2002, p. 515). The teacher strategies in teacher speaking

based on Scoot’s book How to Teach Speaking (2005:93) are:

2.2.1.1 Presentation and Talks

The students must be give presentations and talks, because before they

applicated their skills in real life, the teachers must be give about speaking in real

life so that sustained their speaking skill preparation before practically in real life.

The following ideas belong to this category of speech event:

a. Show-and-tell

Asking the students about an object or image, give them instructions to

explain about that. Then, tell to them about significance topic like a hobby, sport,

holiday, and other topic for develop their awareness.

b. Presentations

Teach them to presented something, for example about academic or

business. This is important for their solo performance.

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2.2.1.2 Stories

The teacher can give example simple story to them, like an activity, or

another subject for develop students’ speaking skill. The teacher can also make

the stories become game, like a continuing the story.

2.2.1.3 Drama, Role Play, and Simulation

Speaking activities involving a drama element, this element can improve

students’ skill for real-life language use. Drama is the more general term,

encompassing both role-play and simulation. Give them simple theme for drama,

like a daily activity or other themes.

These are the strategies for teaching speaking, all of them can improve and

develop students’ speaking skill.

2.3 Communicative Language Teaching

Communicative language teaching began in Britain in the 1960s as a

replacement to the earlier structural method, called Situational Language

Teaching. This was partly in response to Chomsky's criticisms of structural

theories of language and partly based on the theories of British functional

linguistics, such as Firth and Halliday, as well as American sociolinguists, such as

Hymes, Gumperz and Labov and the writings of Austin and Searle on speech acts.

Communicative language teaching is a one of the English language approach that

is a developing from previous method like situational language teaching and

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audio-lingual method, in this there is a combine between English aspects as

structural and functional.

As structural CLT emphasize in grammar but as functional it is emphasized in

usage that language. In terms of language teaching methodology, the

communicative approach provides the learners with an opportunity to use

language for communication purposes without focusing on accuracy (Bygate,

2001). The aims of the communicative approach are (a) „to make communicative

competence the goal of language teaching and (b) develop procedures for the

teaching of the four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of

language and communication‟ (Richards and Rodgers, 1986, p. 66). There are

strong and weak versions of Communicative Language Teaching and Howatt

(1984) makes a distinction between these two. In the application of the

communicative language teaching (CLT) method in the classroom, there are still

several misconceptions about what it involves (Thompson, 1996).

Since the main goal of CLT is communicative competence and its emphasis is

on communication, several theorists and teachers state that CLT does not involve

teaching grammar at all. These ideas have been argued by Thompson (1996) who

claims that learners will learn better if they themselves are involved in what they

learn and see the relevancy in their learning. In other words, the method has

moved from „teacher covering grammar to the learners discovering grammar. The

other misconception is CLT only teaches speaking skills. As CLT emphasizes

communication skill, it seems that CLT ignores the other three important skills in

language learning which are listening, reading and writing. Again, Thompson
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(1996) points out that communication does not only take place through speech,

but it also involves both writing and reading.

Thompson’s view is a concrete statement because when we write, we are

actually communicating with our reader and when we read, we are having

communication with the text as well as the writer of that particular text. That is

why when we read, we can argue with what the author writes in the paper. The

third misconception about CLT is the narrow scope of using other techniques

besides pair work which means role play in most of the activities conducted in the

classroom. Thompson (1996) once again, opposes the view by stating that we

should look at pair work from another angle such as it can actually work as a

preliminary stage to any contribution from the learners. The last misconception

about CLT is the demand on the teacher is practically greater. It means that the

non-native teachers should have a high degree of proficiency in the target

language since the lesson in the classroom tends to be less predictable. In my

point of view, this is not a misconception about CLT, instead a challenge to the

non-native teachers to re-evaluate and re-develop their skills in the target

language. He concludes that these misconceptions could arise from teachers who

do not wish to change their old way of teaching (Thompson, 1996).

Communicative Language Teaching is usually characterized as a broad

approach to teaching, rather than as a teaching method with a clearly defined set

of classroom practices. This method is an English learning method whose goal is

that students have the ability to communicate actively using the English language

in social and functional dimensions.

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CLT is a new method used today that criticizes language methods that

explicitly reflect functional language in functional and social dimensions. CLT

teaching methods in learning English tend to enable students to be actively active

in their ability to communicate and convey their wishes, ideas, ideas, thoughts in

the real context of daily life, not only memorize English sentences that are

grammatically correct given by teachers with Functional aspect, Social and

cultural.

2.3.1 The Principles of CLT

According to Richard (2006, p. 2) CLT can be understood as a set of

principles about the goals of language teaching, how learners learn a language, the

kinds of classroom activities that best facilitate learning, and the roles of teachers

and learners in the classroom. Let us examine each of these issues in turn.

2.3.1.1 The Goals of Language Teaching

CLT sets as its goals the teaching of communicative competence. Perhaps

we can clarify this term by first comparing it with the concept of grammatical

competence. Grammatical competence refers to the knowledge we have of a

language that accounts for our ability to produce sentences in a language. It refers

to knowledge of the building blocks of sentences (e.g. parts of speech, tenses,

phrases, clauses, sentence patterns) and how sentences are formed. Grammatical

competence is the focus of many grammar practice books, which typically present

a rule of grammar on one page, and provide exercises to practice using the rule on

the other page. The unit of analysis and practice is typically the sentence. While

grammatical competence is an important dimension of language learning, it is

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clearly not all that is involved in learning a language since one can master the

rules of sentence formation in a language and still not be very successful at being

able to use the language for meaningful communication. It is the latter capacity

which is understood by the term communicative competence. Communicative

competence includes the following aspects of language knowledge:

 knowing how to use language for a range of different purposes and

functions

 knowing how to vary our use of language according to the setting and the

participants (e.g. knowing when to use formal and informal speech or

when to use language appropriately for written as opposed to spoken

communication)

 knowing how to produce and understand different types of texts (e.g.

narratives, reports, interviews, conversations)

 knowing how to maintain communication despite having limitations in

one’s language

 knowledge (e.g. through using different kinds of communication

strategies)

2.3.1.2 The Roles of Teachers and Learners in The Classroom

The type of classroom activities proposed in CLT also implied new roles

in the classroom for teachers and learners. Learners now had to participate in

classroom activities that were based on a cooperative rather than individualistic

approach to learning. Students had to become comfortable with listening to their

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peers in group work or pair work tasks, rather than relying on the teacher for a

model. They were expected to take on a greater degree of responsibility for their

own learning. And teachers now had to assume the role of facilitator and monitor.

Rather than being a model for correct speech and writing and one with the

primary responsibility of making students produce plenty of error free sentences,

the teacher had to develop a different view of learners’ errors and of her/his own

role in facilitating language learning.

2.3.2 Teaching speaking using CLT Method

Communicative Language Teaching is a good method for teaching

speaking, these are several reasons CLT good for teaching speaking:

First, emphasizing on the communicative use of a language. It means that

teaching through Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) requires the teacher

to teach their students communicatively in any material is going to taught which

stresses on understanding and expressing. Richard and Rodgers quoted Wilkin's

statement in his TEFL book that communicative means a language learners need

to understand and express. The important thing here is between the speakers and

the listener can understand each other, even there is an error in grammatical form.

For instance, when one asks someone's address "Where do you live?" Even

though the speaker makes an error in the grammatical form.

Second, ordering the students to keep practicing. Robert O'neil's, Roy

Kingsbury's, and Tony Yeadon's statements learning a language like learning how

to fly or play the piano. It is never enough simply to 'to know' something. It tells

us that practicing is an important thing to us. A speaker will not be an excellent

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speaker if he / she does not always practice, a driver will not be a good driver, if

he / she just knows how to drive it in the book, but is not practicing.

Third, increasing the students' vocabulary stocks will automatically happen by

keeping on practicing. The students will be allowed to open or use the teaching by

using CLT minimize the students to forget the vocabularies has been memorized

before, it causes this method Emphasize on practicing even make a mistake of

language form.

Forth, Fluency and acceptable language are the primary goal which is the

result of practicing. The pronunciation relates to language fluency, whereas

grammatical form relates to acceptable language, even though they make some

errors before. For example, the students will get some challenging in pronounce a

word, yet it will never happen after he / she use the word more often in

communication, and also the grammar error will minimalize or eradicate because

of the listener sometimes will correct our grammar Mistake or it can be we self by

yourself. CLT should be adopted in teaching English especially speaking.

2.3.3 Related Research Report

These are several related researches report the first, Communicative

Language Teaching and Its Impact on Students’ Performance by Hysen explain

that implementation of CLT syllabus with experimental groups again was

productive, as with CLT was gained much satisfied result and according to

statistics both experimental Urban as well as Rural group was highly, significantly

better in performance compared to controlled urban and rural groups. The

concluding this had to do with the teacher’s role and the implementation of ESA
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(Engage – Study –Activate) method. While, in rural area the teachers used

behavior theory with the direct method which did not contribute with so good

performance.

The other research in Communicative Language Teaching: Changing

Students’ Speaking Skill said speaking is a productive skill that involves using

speech to express meaning to other people. In his journal Bayu stated that

Speaking is also known as speech or utterances with the purpose of having

intention to be recognized by speaker and the receiver processes the statements in

order to recognize their intentions. Itis depending on the complexity of the

information to be communicated; however, the speaker sometimes finds it

difficult to clarify what they want to say. In addition, CLT could motivate the

students to be active and had a great participation in speaking activity during

teaching and learning process in classroom. Since the classroom is a community

where learners learn through collaboration and sharing. Furthermore, effective

classroom learning tasks and exercises provide opportunities for students to

negotiate meaning, expand their language resources, notice how language is used,

and take part in meaningful intrapersonal exchange.

Dedi in his journal Improving Students’ Speaking through Communicative

Language Teaching Method explain, Communicative Language Teaching method

could motivate the students to be active and had a great participation in speaking

activity during teaching and learning process in classroom and his conclude that

one of the method can be applied in teaching English speaking is communicative

language teaching because by applying the method teaching speaking can be more
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effective, and it is able to improve students’ speaking achievement, especially in

Islamic boarding school.