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GUIMARAS STATE COLLEGE

GRADUATE SCHOOL
Buenavista, Guimaras

Methods of Research

In Partial Fulfilment
of the Requirements for the Course

PA 201
Methods of Research in Public Administration
(Second Semester SY 2020-2021)

Submitted to

ARNIEL G. GARQUE, PhD

Professor

Submitted by:
De la Cruz, Raffel Joy
Duspar, Ria Salve D.
Galon, David G.
Gencianeo, Ronelyn G.
Second Semester SY 2020-2021
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GUIMARAS STATE COLLEGE
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Buenavista, Guimaras

Directions: In general and any type of research, it involves the following processes. Explain
exhaustively the diagram of research process. Discuss how each process is being undertaken and
also discuss the relationship of one step to another if there exists.

The Research Process

1. Identification and definition of a Research Problem

2. Statement of the Theoretical/Concept 3. Operational

Problem ual Framework Definition of
Formulation Variables

4. Hypothesis Formulation

5. Choosing Appropriate Research Design

6. Identification of Target Population and Sampling

7. Data Collection

Preparation of Reliability Question Quality Control

Research Testing and Administration
Instrument Validation /Interview

8. Data Processing

(Editing, Coding, Encoding,Creation of Data Files Tabulation)

9. Data Analysis and Interpretation

(Statistical Analysis, Interpretation, Generalization)

10. Report Preparation and Information Dissemination

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1. Identification and definition of a Research Problem

Research defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge
in a new and creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies and
understandings. This could include synthesis and analysis of previous research to the
extent that it leads to new and creative outcomes.

Before proposing a research study you must be guided with these following objectives:
1. Choose a topic.
2. Formulate a research problem.
3. Formulate research hypothesis in relation to the identified problems.
4. Explain the different subparts of the introductory parts of research.
5. Illustrate a framework of the proposed study.

Research problem is an issue or concern that researcher presents and justifies in a

research study. In selecting a topic on research, we must come up with some ideas about
the general area or field we are interested in. Considering the practicalities, the
requirement of the course and how difficult to access sources of data in the topic.
Research problem is important because it establishes the importance of topic, creates the
reader interest and focuses the reader’s attention on how the study will add to the
literature. Categorize your problem as to either practical research problem or theoretical
research problem.

Statement of the Problem

After identifying research problem for project, the next step is to write a problem
statement.

The role of the statement of the problem in research is, it sets the specific direction were
supposed to go. Statement of the Problem states what you want to accomplish in
research. Research title and Statement of the Problem must intertwined to each other.
Everything you write to your Statement of the Problem is direct relevant to achievement
of your title.

An effective problem statement is concise and concrete. It includes the following :

1. Put the problem in context (what do we already know?)
2. Describe the precise issue that the research will address (what do we need to know?)
3. Show the relevance of the problem (why do we need to know it?)
4. Set the objectives of the research (what will you do to find out?)

2. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework Formulation

This the foundation and most important part of research. The theory you testing in your
research Is it really effective? have the potential in helping the beneficiaries of your
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research. Any theory that you should choose directly relevant, discusses the process,
procedure or steps in the strategy used.
Theoretical Framework involves evaluating, comparing, and selecting the most relevant
ones. This part of your research lays the foundations that will support your analysis,
helping you interpret your results and make broader generalizations.

The goal of a theoretical framework is to present and explain this information. There may
be many different theories about your topic, so the theoretical framework also involves
evaluating, comparing, and selecting the most relevant ones. By “framing” your research
within a clearly defined field, you make the reader aware of the assumptions that inform
your approach, showing the rationale behind your choices.
This part of your research lays the foundations that will support your analysis, helping
you interpret your results and make broader generalizations.

How to create a theoretical framework

To build your theoretical framework, follow these three steps.

1. Identify your key concepts

The first step is to pick out the key terms from your problem statement and research
questions. Concepts often have multiple definitions, so the theoretical framework
involves clearly defining what you mean by each term.

2. Evaluate and explain relevant theories

By conducting a thorough literature review, you can determine how other researchers
have defined and drawn connections between these key concepts. As you write the
theoretical framework, aim to compare and critically evaluate the approaches that
different authors have proposed.
After discussing different models and theories, you establish the definitions that best fit
your research and justify why this is the case.

3. Show how your research fits in

Apart from discussing other people’s theories, the theoretical framework should show
how your own project will make use of these ideas.
You might aim to do one or more of the following:
 Test whether a theory holds in a specific context
 Use theory as a basis for interpreting your results
 Critique or challenge a theory
 Combine different theories in a new or unique way

There are no fixed rules for structuring a theoretical framework. The important thing is to
create a clear, logical structure. One option is to draw on your research questions,
structuring each section around a question or key concept.

In all other parts of your thesis, make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid
plagiarism.
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Conceptual framework explains the process that leads to the strategy and implement
according to the appropriateness of the idea to the respondents. It illustrates what you
expect to find through your research and define the relevant variables for your study and
maps out how they might relate to each other. A conceptual framework is a written or
visual representation of an expected relationship between variables. Variables are simply
the characteristics or properties that you want to study. This can be constructed before
you begin collecting data and generally developed based on a literature review of existing
studies and theories about the topic.

A conceptual framework can be designed in many different ways. The form yours takes
will depend on what kinds of relationships you expect to find.

Independent and dependent variables

If we want to test a cause-and-effect relationship, we need to identify at least two key

variables: the independent variable and the dependent variable.:
the expected cause is called the independent variable (aka the predictor or explanatory
variable).
the expected effect is called the dependent variable (aka the response or outcome
variable.

3. Operational Definition of Variables

(Definition of terms/ Operational Definition of Variables)

Definition of terms role is specifically indicates or presents the function or how the word
or term was used in research and it is not the same as getting the definition in the
dictionary. From the word Operational it refers to “ how the word or the term was used
in the research. Variables are elements critical to research. These are the focus of your
research and reflected in the research title.

Tips on How to write Definition of terms/ Operational Definition of Variables

1. write a short introductory statement. This briefly states the content of definition of
terms.
2. write the words or terms (technical) you would to include and make sure the variables
dependent and independent are included in definition of term.

4. Hypothesis
Formulation of Hypothesis in research is an essential task in the entire Research Process.
A hypothesis is a tentative statement of a proposition which the researcher seeks to prove.
Researchers make a hypothesis on the basis of some earlier theories and some rationale
that is generally accepted as true. It is a statement about the relationship between two or
more variables. The researcher set out the variables to prove or disprove. Hypothesis
essentially includes three elements: variables, population and, the relationship between
variables. A hypothesis is used as a guide in the inquiry of other facts or theories that a
researcher does not know. Before formulating your research hypothesis, read about the
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topic of interest to you. Be sure to read on the topic to familiarize yourself with it before
making a final decision. You need to make certain that the topic is researchable in an
interdisciplinary sense, meaning that there is sufficient published material on the topic.
From your reading, which may include articles, books and/or cases, you should gain
sufficient information about your topic that will enable you to narrow or limit it and
express it as a research question. The research question flows from the topic that you are
considering. The research question, when stated as one sentence, is your Research
Hypothesis. Through the disciplinary insights gained in the research process, you “prove”
your hypothesis. This is a process of discovery to create greater understandings or
conclusions. Avoid judgmental words in your hypothesis. Value judgments are subjective
and are not appropriate for a hypothesis. You should strive to be objective. Therefore the
use of personal opinion is to be avoided. Your hypothesis must involve an issue or
question that cannot be answered exclusively by the discipline of law. It is best to choose
a hypothesis where you already have some level of familiarity with the disciplines that
are most relevant to the topic. Be sure that each term in your hypothesis is clearly
understood and defined; do not deal in generalities or assume that the reader knows the
meaning of a technical term. Know that your hypothesis may change over time as your
research progresses. You must obtain the professor's approval of your hypothesis, as well
as any modifications to your hypothesis, before proceeding with any work on the topic.
Your will be expressing your hypothesis in 3 ways: as a one-sentence hypothesis, as a
research question and as a title for your paper
There are basic steps in the formulation of a hypothesis. First, we have to define the
variables. What do we want to test? Whatever our goals are, they need to be clearly
defined, quantifiable, and measurable. This will provide us with a clear idea of what to
follow to achieve results. Next, make an in-depth study of the variables. An in-depth
study, rigorous questions, and data gathering about the topic will enable to confirm your
hypothesis. A research hypothesis is a statement of expectation or prediction that will be
tested by research. Specify dependent and independent variables.Then, identify what
relationship exists between the variables. What variable influences the other? What is the
dependent variable and what is the independent variable? An independent variable is one
whose value is manipulated by the researcher while dependent variable is a variable
whose values are presumed to change as a result of changes in the independent
variable.After that, we have to identify the study population. This is the entire group of
individuals we are going to study. Also, we have to make sure that the variables are
testable, otherwise the hypothesis would be worthless. Testable variables can only be
accepted or rejected and the sole aim of a research hypothesis is to test variables.
The wording of the hypothesis should have to be simple and clear. Any complex ideas
and wordings should be avoided. A simple hypothesis will make it easier for you to carry
on throughout the research and will be easy to read and understand. 
The hypothesis should have to be relevant to the study that you are about to conduct. An
irrelevant hypothesis will lead to an invalid research. Hypothesis is the possible answer to
your research question if your presumption or your presumed answer is wrong and
irrelevant your method to find its accuracy too will not result in any relevant conclusions.
Check whether your hypothesis is related to the direction in which you have planned to
take your research or not.
Developing a hypothesis brings clarity to the research to be conducted. It will clear your
mind and helps you focus on which way you are going with your research. Methodology
of the research depends greatly on the research hypothesis. Meaning that hypothesis sets
the direction of the research.
This direction shows you what should be the objectives, methodology, mode of analysis
and research design.

Every research requires objectivity but without hypothesis you may collect data which is
not relevant to the research and hence decreases the objectivity of the research. When you
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know that your hypothesis only deals with a particular aspect of the phenomenon you will
not collect data that is not required and the objectivity and validity of the research
increases.

5. Choosing Appropriate Research Design

It is vital to pick appropriate research methodologies and methods for your research.
Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research
operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information
with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. Research design has a significant
impact on the reliability of the results obtained. It thus acts as a firm foundation for the
entire research.It determines an outline of research work that’s the researcher can
concentrate fully on the study. That is, the precise objectives of the study are the most
important in this regard.

As a researcher, you will have to decide which research design will be suitable for the
approach that you wish to present. The research design refers to the overall strategy that
you choose to integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical
way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address the research problem; it constitutes the
blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data.Try to think of the research
question and figure out what kind of data or evidence you would like to present. Also take
into consideration the resources that you have at your disposal. Choosing the right study
design is the most important decision to make in determining the methodology of
any research study. This is important for the way in which the study will be conducted,
especially the sampling and data analysis. Study designs are different for qualitative and
quantitative research.If you wish to collect quantitative data you are probably
measuring variables and verifying existing theories or hypotheses or questioning
them.Quantitative research design is aimed at discovering how many people think, act or
feel in a specific way. Quantitative projects involve large sample sizes, concentrating on
the quantity of responses, as opposed to gaining the more focused or emotional insight that
is the aim of qualitative research. The standard format in quantitative research design is
for each respondent to be asked the same questions, which ensures that the entire data
sample can be analyzed fairly. The data is supplied in a numerical format, and can be
analyzed in a quantifiable way using statistical methods.

Qualitative Research Design is implemented in cases where the relationship

between collected data and observation is established on the basis of mathematical
calculations. Theories related to a naturally existing phenomenon can be proved or
disproved using mathematical calculations. A qualitative research design is concerned
with establishing answers to the whys and hows  of the phenomenon in question.

There are several advantages of identifying a research design appropriate for your
research. The process will ensure project time schedule, helps researcher to prepare
himself to carry out research in a proper and a systematic way, better documentation of the
various activities while the project work is going on and helps in proper planning of the
resources and their procurement in the right time.A research project should be so designed
that it answers the questions being investigated, unnecessary factors are controlled, and the
degree of generalization that can be made is valid.
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6. Identification of Target Population and Sampling

Before research can begin the target population must be identified and agreed upon. The
target population is the entire population, or group, that a researcher is interested in
researching and analyzing. A sampling frame is then drawn from this target population.
The target population is the total group of individuals from which the sample might be
drawn. Thus, the target population defines those units for which the findings of the
survey are meant to generalize.A sample is the group of people who take part in the
investigation. The people who take part are referred to as “participants”.
Target populations must be specifically defined, as the definition determines whether
sampled cases are eligible or ineligible for the survey. The geographic and temporal
characteristics of the target population need to be delineated, as well as types of units
being included. In some instances, the target population is restricted to exclude
population members that are difficult or impossible to interview. They are composed of
two groups namely the target population and the accessible population. Target population
is the entire group of people or objects to which the researcher wishes to generalize the
study findings. Accessible population on the other hand, is the portion of the population
to which the researcher has reasonable access. It may be a subset of the target population
or may be limited to a region, state, city or institution.

In research terms, a sample is a group of people, objects, or items that are taken from a larger
population for measurement. The sample should be representative of the population to ensure
that we can generalize the findings from the research sample to the population as a
whole.Sampling can be defined as the process through which individuals or sampling units are
selected from the sample frame. The sampling strategy needs to be specified in advance, given
that the sampling method may affect the sample size estimation. Without a rigorous sampling
plan the estimates derived from the study may be biased (selection bias)
Researchers need to decide during the planning stage of the study if they will work with the
entire target population or a sample. Working with a sample involves different steps, including
sample size estimation, identification of the sample frame, and selection of the sampling method
to be adopted.
Sampling saves money by allowing researchers to gather the same answers from a sample that
they would receive from the population. Non-random sampling is significantly cheaper than
random sampling, because it lowers the cost associated with finding people and collecting data
from them.
A good sample should be oriented to the research objectives and fitted to the survey conditions.
They should be accurate representatives of the target population from which it was taken. They
should be selected carefully as improper sampling can be a source of error in the survey. The
sample should be proportional in a way that the sample size is large enough to represent the
target population properly. They should be randomly selected, meaning that any item in the
group has a full and equal chance of being included in the sample. The sample should be
economical and the objectives of the survey should be achieved with minimum cost and effort.
Also, a good sample should be designed so as to provide actual information required for the
study and also provide an adequate basis for the measurement of its own reliability.

7. Data Collection

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of

interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer
stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.
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Criteria

These criteria include, but not limited to date of publication, credential of the author,

reliability of the source, quality of discussions, depth of analyses, the extent of contribution of
the text to the development of the research area etc.

Secondary Data Collection Methods

Secondary data is a type of data that has already been published in books, newspapers,
magazines, journals, online portals etc.  There is an abundance of data available in these sources
about your research area in business studies, almost regardless of the nature of the research area.
Therefore, application of appropriate set of criteria to select secondary data to be used in the
study plays an important role in terms of increasing the levels of research validity and reliability.

Primary Data Collection Methods

Primary data collection methods can be divided into two groups: quantitative and
qualitative.

Quantitative data collection methods are based in mathematical calculations in various

formats. Methods of quantitative data collection and analysis include questionnaires with closed-
ended questions, methods of correlation and regression, mean, mode and median and others.

Quantitative methods are cheaper to apply and they can be applied within shorter
duration of time compared to qualitative methods. Moreover, due to a high level of
standardization of quantitative methods, it is easy to make comparisons of findings.

Qualitative research methods, on the contrary, do not involve numbers or mathematical

calculations. Qualitative research is closely associated with words, sounds, feeling, emotions,
colours and other elements that are non-quantifiable.

Qualitative studies aim to ensure greater level of depth of understanding and qualitative
data collection methods include interviews, questionnaires with open-ended questions, focus
groups, observation, game or role-playing, case studies etc.

Your choice between quantitative or qualitative methods of data collection depends on

the area of your research and the nature of research aims and objectives.

Strengths

What are the benefits of collecting data?

 You can tailor data collection to your specific research aims (e.g. understanding the
needs of your consumers or user testing your website)
 You can control and standardize the process for high reliability and validity (e.g.
choosing appropriate measurements and sampling methods)

When conducting research, collecting original data has significant advantages:

 You can tailor data collection to your specific research aims (e.g. understanding the needs
of your consumers or user testing your website)
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 You can control and standardize the process for high reliability and validity (e.g.
choosing appropriate measurements and sampling methods)

However, there are also some drawbacks: data collection can be time-consuming, labor-
intensive and expensive. In some cases, it’s more efficient to use secondary data that has already
been collected by someone else, but the data might be less reliable.

Ethics
Avoid or minimize anything that will cause physical or emotional harm to participants. Make
participants aware of any potential harms prior to their participation. Try to remain neutral and
unbiased. Don't let your personal preconceptions or opinions interfere with the data
collection process.

Ethical Considerations in Data Collection Data collection is central part of community

health improvement efforts. Sometimes, the aim is to learn more about a problem as it is
experienced by a specific group of people; other times it is to see if people are better off after
participating in an intervention. Most data is collected through surveys, interviews, or
observation. It’s important to keep in mind the following when you collect data: Please note, the
considerations listed below were adopted by the North Jersey Health Collaborative. They are not
meant to replace your organization’s guidelines pertaining to research or data collection. If your
organization has an institutional review board (IRB), ethical review board, or research ethics
committee, please consult your organization prior to beginning any data collection.
 It is good practice to let people know who you are (your name, organization and reason
for collecting data when you ask them if they would like to participate.  You should have
permission from participants (people providing the data) and they should be made aware that
their involvement is voluntary. Participants are free to withdraw from any active data collection
or intervention program at any point without pressure or fear of retaliation.
 Avoid or minimize anything that will cause physical or emotional harm to participants.
Make participants aware of any potential harms prior to their participation.
 Try to remain neutral and unbiased. Don’t let your personal preconceptions or opinions
interfere with the data collection process.
 Collecting data (i.e. through surveys) is often done under the assumption that
information provided is confidential and the findings will be anonymous. You should let
participants know when you will have to break confidentiality (e.g. in the case of harm to
themselves or someone else) and whether results will be anonymous or not.
 When collecting data, try to avoid taking advantage of easy to access groups simply
because they are there (this is called “convenience sampling”). Data should be collected from
those that most help us answer our questions.
 Be respectful of people’s time and when possible, compensate them for it.
 Be sure to protect the data you collect from people. Do not leave anything with personal
information in a place that can easily be accessed by people who do not need to see the data (e.g.
the back seat of your car). If possible, keep the information in a secure, or locked location.
 After data are analyzed it is always good to share the results back to the participants.
 If anything on these guidelines is new to you, please consult with the NJHC’s Data
Committee. They can help design data collection activities that comply with these guidelines,
and set you up to produce meaningful information for your workgroup.
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PREPARATION OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

A Research Instrument is a tool used to collect, measure, and analyze data related to
your research interests. These tools are most commonly used in health sciences, social sciences,
and education to assess patients, clients, students, teachers, staff, etc.

These steps included the following:

1. define test universe, target audience, and test purpose.
2. develop a test plan.
3. compose the test items.
4. write administration instructions.
5. conduct pilot tests.
6. conduct item analysis.
7. revise the test.
8. validate the test.

How do you make a research instrument?

1. Select a Topic.
2. Formulate a Thesis Statement...
3. Choose the Types of Analyses.
4. Research & Write a Literature Review. & Refine the Thesis.
5. Formulate the Research Objectives & Questions.
6. Conceptualize a topic.
7. Choose Research Method / the Research Instrument.
8. Operationalize concepts / construct the instrument.

RELIABILITY TESTING AND VALIDATION

Reliability and validity are concepts used to evaluate the quality of research. They

indicate how well a method, technique or test measures something. Reliability is about the
consistency of a measure, and validity is about the accuracy of a measure.

For a test to be reliable, it also needs to be valid. For example, if your scale is off by 5
lbs, it reads your weight every day with an excess of 5lbs. The scale is reliable because it
consistently reports the same weight every day, but it is not valid because it adds 5lbs to your
true weight.

Reliability and validity are important aspects of selecting a survey instrument. Reliability
refers to the extent that the instrument yields the same results over multiple trials. Validity refers
to the extent that the instrument measures what it was designed to measure. In research, there
are three ways to approach validity and they include content validity, construct validity, and
criterion-related validity.

Content validity measures the extent to which the items that comprise the scale accurately
represent or measure the information that is being assessed. Are the questions that are asked
representative of the possible questions that could be asked?

Construct validity measures what the calculated scores mean and if they can be
generalized. Construct validity uses statistical analyses, such as correlations, to verify the
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relevance of the questions. Questions from an existing, similar instrument, that has been found
reliable, can be correlated with questions from the instrument under examination to determine if
construct validity is present. If the scores are highly correlated it is called convergent validity. If
convergent validity exists, construct validity is supported.

Criterion-related validity has to do with how well the scores from the instrument predict a
known outcome they are expected to predict. Statistical analyses, such as correlations, are used
to determine if criterion-related validity exists. Scores from the instrument in question should be
correlated with an item they are known to predict. If a correlation of > .60 exists, criterion
related validity exists as well.

Reliability can be assessed with the test-retest method, alternative form method, internal
consistency method, the split-halves method, and inter-rater reliability.

Test-retest is a method that administers the same instrument to the same sample at two
different points in time, perhaps one year intervals. If the scores at both time periods are highly
correlated, > .60, they can be considered reliable. The alternative form method requires two
different instruments consisting of similar content. The same sample must take both instruments
and the scores from both instruments must be correlated. If the correlations are high, the
instrument is considered reliable. Internal consistency uses one instrument administered only
once. The coefficient alpha (or Cronbach’s alpha) is used to assess the internal consistency of
the item. If the alpha value is .70 or higher, the instrument is considered reliable. The split-
halves method also requires one test administered once. The number of items in the scale are
divided into halves and a correlation is taken to estimate the reliability of each half of the test.
To estimate the reliability of the entire survey, the Spearman-Brown correction must be applied.
Inter-rater reliability involves comparing the observations of two or more individuals and
assessing the agreement of the observations. Kappa values can be calculated in this instance.

QUESTION ADMINISTRATION/INTERVIEW

The process of asking questions and recording the answers. A self-administered

questionnaire is completed by the respondent and not administered by an interviewer.

Questionnaire design

A questionnaire is a written instrument used to obtain information from study

subjects.Developing a questionnaire is the last step in designing a study after all variables of
interesthave been identified. By first identifying the information that is needed to answer the
studyobjectives, questions will be limited to those needed to obtain the required information. As
ageneral rule questionnaires should be as simple as possible, collect only needed informationand
be valid.

A valid questionnaire is
• Relevant – Does the questionnaire obtain the information it was designed to seek?
• Complete – Was all desired relevant information obtained?
• Accurate – Can reliance be placed upon the responses to the questions?

Questionnaire methods

Questionnaires can be administered by an interviewer or answered by the

respondentsthemselves (self-administered).Self-administered questionnaires can be mailed or
given in person to the respondents. Theyare feasible in a literate population if the questions are
short and simple. If questions arecomplex or nested or if significant probing is required,
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interviewer-administeredquestionnaires may be preferable. Interviews conducted by interviewers

can be personal(face-to-face) or by telephone. Telephone interviews usually yield shorter
answers thanpersonal interviews, with respondents tending to favor the first in a list of possible
answers.

Self-administered questionnaires offer the following advantages:

– no interviewer bias;
– less time spent on administration;
– easier questioning of larger numbers of people;
– more leisurely, which may permit more careful responding;
– perceived as more anonymous and may therefore yield more accurate data on sensitive
issues;
– printed visual aids can be incorporated.
Interviewer-administered questionnaires offer the following advantages:
– respondent literacy not necessary;
– questions and responses can be clarified;
– allows probing for additional information;
– complex and open-ended questions are possible;
– answering of questionnaire by intended person is assured;
– fewer “blanks”;
– participation potentially increased by personal contact.

There should be an introduction to all questionnaires that explain the purpose of the study
tointerviewees and assure them of confidentiality.

Questions

Questions may be closed-end or open-ended. Closed-end questions allow a limited

number ofanswers, leaving no room for additional information to be volunteered; they require
onlyrecognition and a choice from among answer options. Advantages of closed-end questions
aregreater precision, uniformity, easier recall for the respondent, easier coding and easieranalysis
than open-ended questions. Because open-ended questions are not pre-categorized,they gather
more information but require respondents to have a good recall and to explaintheir answers. In
relation to food consumption, closed-end questions may be preferred toopen-ended as most
persons cannot spontaneously or accurately recall all foods eaten over aperiod of several days.

Closed-end question
• Have you eaten any of the following items in the past four days:
Poultry? Yes / No / Don’t know
Pork? Yes / No / Don’t know
Beef? Yes / No / Don’t know
Lamb? Yes / No / Don’t know
Open-ended question
• List the types of meat that you have eaten in the past 4 days.
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____________________________
____________________________

In the initial stage of an investigation, open-ended questions are likely to be preferred

toidentify relevant topics and determine the full range of possible answers. Once theexploratory
stage has been completed, questionnaires may use predominantly closed-endquestions to focus
on issues identified as relevant to the investigation.
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Checklist of points to consider when drafting questions1

• Keep wording informal, conversational and simple.

• Avoid jargon and sophisticated language.
• Keep questions appropriate to educational, social and cultural background of the
respondents.
• Avoid long questions (but vary question length).
• Avoid leading questions (“You surely agree with me, that …”)
• Avoid negative questions.
• Avoid questions beginning with "Why".
• Avoid hypothetical questions (“Imagine that …”).
• Limit each question to a single subject.
• Pay attention to sensitive issues.
• Check the adequacy of the list of responses to closed-end questions.
• Avoid a large proportion of responses being in the "other (specify) ……." category.
1
Source: Smith, 1991.

QUALITY CONTROL
The term quality control refers to the efforts and procedures that survey researchers put in
place to ensure the quality and accuracy of data being collected using the methodologies chosen
for a particular study. ... Assessment of the knowledge gained and retained by interviewers is
also a part of survey quality control.

Quality control involves testing units and determining if they are within the specifications
for the final product. The purpose of the testing is to determine any needs for corrective actions
in the manufacturing process. Good quality control helps companies meet consumer demands for
better products.

8. DATA PROCESSING

Data processing is a set of methods that are used to input, retrieve, verify, store, organize,
analyze or interpret a set of data. Data processing enables information to be automatically
extracted from data, and could be used in computational biology and bioinformatics to organize a
large set of 'omics data.

Data processing: A series of actions or steps performed on data to verify, organize,

transform, integrate, and extract data in an appropriate output form for subsequent use. Methods
of processing must be rigorously documented to ensure the utility and integrity of the data.

Data processing occurs when data is collected and translated into usable information.
Usually performed by a data scientist or team of data scientists, it is important for data
processing to be done correctly as not to negatively affect the end product, or data output.

The five main types of data processing.

 Commercial Data Processing. ...
 Scientific Data Processing. ...
 Batch Processing. ...
 Online Processing. ...
 Real-Time Processing.

EDITING OF DATA
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The editing of data is a process of examining the raw data to detect errors andomissions
and to correct them, if possible, so as to ensure legibility, completeness,consistency and
accuracy.

The recorded data must be legible so that it could he coded later. An illegible
responsemay be corrected by getting in touch with people who recorded it or alternatively itmay
be inferred from other parts of the question.

Completeness involves that all the items in the questionnaire must be fully completed.
Ifsome questions are not answered, the interviewers may be contacted to find out whether
hefailed to respond to the question or the respondent refused to answer the question. In caseof
former, it is quite likely that the interviewer will not remember the answer. In such acase the
respondent may be contacted again or alternatively this particular piece of datamay be treated as
missing data.

It is very important to check whether or not respondent is consistent in answering

thequestions. For example there could a respondent claiming that he makes purchases bycredit
card may not have one.

The inaccuracy of the survey data may be due to interviewer bias or cheating. Oneway of
spotting is to look for a common pattern of responses in the instrument of aparticular interviewer.

Apart from ensuring quality data this will also facilitate in coding and tabulation of
data. In fact, the editing involves a careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires.

The editing can be done at two stages:

1. Field Editing, and
2. Central Editing.

Field Editing: The field editing consists of review of the reporting forms by
theinvestigator for completing or translating what the latter has written in abbreviatedform atthe
time of interviewing the respondent. This form of editing is necessary inview of the writing of
individuals, which vary from individual to individual andsometimes difficult for the tabulator to
understand. This sort of editing should bedone as soon as possible after the interview, as it may
be necessary sometimes torecall the memory. While doing so, care should be taken so that the
investigator doesnot correct the errors of omission by simply guessing what the respondent
wouldhave answered if the question was put to him.

Central Editing: Central editing should be carried out when all the forms ofschedules
have been completed and returned to the headquarters. This type of editingrequires that all the
forms are thoroughly edited by a single person (editor) in a smallfieldstudy or a small group of
persons in case of a large field study, The editor maycorrectthe obvious errors, such as an entry
in a wrong place, entry recorded in dailytermswhereas it should have been recorded in
weeks/months, etc. Sometimes,inappropriateor missing replies can also be recorded by the editor
by reviewing theother information recorded in the schedule. If necessary, the respondent may
becontacted for clarification.

All the incorrect replies, which are quite obvious, must bedeleted from the schedules.The
editor should be familiar with the instructions and the codes given to theinterviewers while
editing. The new (corrected) entry made by the editor should be insome distinctive form and they
be initialed by the editor. The date of editing may alsobe recorded on the schedule for any future
references.
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CODING OF DATA

Coding is the process of assigning some symbols (either) alphabetical or numerals

or(both) to the answers so that the responses can be recorded into a limited number of classes or
categories. The classes should be appropriate to the research problem being studied. They must
be exhaustive and must be mutually exclusive so that the answer can be placed in one and only
one cell in a given category. Further, every class must be defined in terms of only one concept.

The coding is necessary for the efficient analysis of data. The coding decisions should
usually be taken at the designing stage of the questionnaire itself so that the likely responses to
questions are pre-coded. This simplifies computer tabulation of the data for further analysis. It
may be noted that any errors in coding should be eliminated altogether or at least be reduced to
the minimum possible level.

Coding for an open-ended question is more tedious than the closed ended question.

For a closed ended or structured question, the coding scheme is very simple and designed
prior to the field work. For example, consider the following question.

What is your sex?

Male Female

We may assign a code of `0' to male and `1' to female respondent. These codes maybe
specified prior to the field work and if the codes are written on all questions of a questionnaire, it
is said to be wholly pre-coded.

The same approach could also be used for coding numeric data that either are not be
coded into categories or have had their relevant categories specified. For example,

What is your monthly income?

Here the respondent would indicate his monthly income which may be entered in
therelevant column. The same question may also be asked like this:

What is your monthly income?

<P5000
P5000 - P8999
P13000 – P12999
P13000 or above.

We may code the

<P5000' as,1',
P5000 - P8999' as `2',
P9000 -P12999' as `3' and
P13000 or above' as `4'.

Coding of open-ended questions is a more complex task as the verb a tim response sof the
respondents are recorded by the interviewer. In what categories should these responses be put to?
The researcher may select at random 60-70 of the responses to aquestion and list them. After
examining the list, a decision is taken to what categoriesare appropriate to summarize the data
and the coding scheme for categorized data as discussed above is used-A word of caution-that
while classifying the data into various categories we should keep provision for "any other" to
include responses which may not fall into our designated categories.
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It may be kept in mind that the response categories must be mutually exclusive and
collectively exhaustive
TABLES AS DATA PRESENTATION DEVICES

Statistical data can be presented in the form of tables and graphs. In the tabular foam, the
classification of data is made with reference to time or some other variables.

The graphs are used as a visual form of presentation of data.

The tabulation is used for summarization and condensation of data. It aids in analysis of
relationships, trends and other summarization of the given data. The tabulation may be simple or
complex. Simple tabulation results in one-way tables, which can be used to answer questions
related to one characteristic of the data. The complex tabulation usually results in two-way
tables, which give information about two interrelated characteristics of the data; three way tables
which give information about three interrelated characteristics of data; and still higher order
tables, which supply information about several interrelated characteristics of data.

Following are the important characteristics of a table:

a. Every table should have a clear and concise title to make it understandable without
reference to the text. This title should always be just above the body of the table.
b. Every table should be given a distinct number to facilitate easy reference.
c. Every table should have captions (column headings) and stubs (row headings)and they
should be clear and brief
d. The units of measurements used must always be indicated.
e. Source or sources from where the data in the table have been obtained must be indicated
at the bottom of the table.
f. Explanatory footnotes, if any, concerning the table should be given beneath the table
along with reference symbol.
g. The columns in the tables may be numbered to facilitate reference.
h. Abbreviations should be used to the minimum possible extent.
i. The tables should be logical, clear, accurate and as simple as possible.
j. The arrangement of the data categories in a table may be a chronological, geographical,
alphabetical or according to magnitude to facilitate comparison.
k. Finally, the table must suit the needs and requirements of the research study.

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA

Several types of graphs -r charts are used to present statistical data. Of them; the
following are commonly used: bar chart, two dimensional diagrams, pictograms, pie charts and
arithmetic chart or line chart.

1. Two dimensional diagrams: The commonly used two dimensional diagrams are
rectangular diagrams and squares. In rectangular diagrams the rectangles are used to
present the data in the graphic form. These diagramsare used for comparing two sets of
data. The height of the rectangle is proportional to the ratio of the data which bear to each
other in a given series and the width of the rectangle varies in proportion to the aggregate.
Before constructing the rectangular diagram, the data is converted into percentages.

2. Pictograms:In this form of presentation, data are represented by a picture. For example,
population figures are presented by the picture of a human being, production figures of,
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say motorbikes, is presented by the picture of a motorbike, cattle population by a picture

of a cattle and so on.

3. Pie Chart: In a pie chart, different segments of a circle represent percentage contribution
of various components to the total. It brings out the relative importance of various
components of data. For drawing a pie chart, we construct a circle of any diameter and
then the circle is broken into a desired number of segments, angle 3600representing 100
percent.

4. Line or Arithmetic Chart: The line or arithmetic chart is used to identify the changes or
the trend that exist in a series of data.

9. Data Analysis and Interpretation

(Statistical Analysis, Interpretation, Generalization)

Data analysis and interpretation is the process of assigning meaning to the collected information
and determining the conclusions, significance, and implications of the findings. The steps
involved in data analysis are a function of the type of information collected, however, returning
to the purpose of the assessment and the assessment questions will provide a structure for the
organization of the data and a focus for the analysis.

Data interpretation methods are how analysts help people make sense of numerical data that has
been collected, analyzed, and presented. Data, when collected in raw form, may be difficult for
the layman to understand, which is why analysts need to break down the information gathered so
that others can make sense of it.

For example, when founders are pitching to potential investors, they must interpret data (e.g.
market size, growth rate, etc.) for better understanding. There are 2 main methods in which this
can be done, namely, quantitative methods and qualitative methods.

The qualitative data interpretation method is used to analyze qualitative data, which is also
known as categorical data. This method uses texts, rather than numbers or patterns to describe
data.

Qualitative data is usually gathered using a wide variety of person-to-person techniques, which
may be difficult to analyze compared to the quantitative research method.

Unlike the quantitative data which can be analyzed directly after it has been collected and sorted,
qualitative data needs to first be coded into numbers before it can be analyzed.  This is because
texts are usually cumbersome and will take more time and result in a lot of errors if analyzed in
its original state. Coding done by the analyst should also be documented so that it can be reused
by others and analyzed. 

There are two main types of qualitative data, namely, nominal and ordinal data. These 2 data
types are both interpreted using the same method, but ordinal data interpretation is quite easier
than that of nominal data.

In most cases, ordinal data is usually labelled with numbers during the process of data collection,
and coding may not be required. This is different from nominal data that still needs to be coded
for proper interpretation.
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The quantitative data interpretation method is used to analyze quantitative data, which is also
known as numerical data. This data type contains numbers and is therefore analyzed with the use
of numbers and not texts.

Quantitative data are of 2 main types, namely; discrete and continuous data. Continuous data is
further divided into interval data and ratio data, with all the data types being numeric.

Due to its natural existence as a number, analysts do not need to employ the coding technique on
quantitative data before it is analyzed. The process of analyzing quantitative data involves
statistical modelling techniques such as standard deviation, mean and median.

Data interpretation and analysis is an important aspect of working with data sets in any field or
research and statistics. They both go hand in hand, as the process of data interpretation involves
the analysis of data.

The process of data interpretation is usually cumbersome and should naturally become more
difficult with the best amount of data that is being churned out daily. However, with the
accessibility of data analysis tools and machine learning techniques, analysts are gradually
finding it easier to interpret data.

Data interpretation is very important, as it helps to acquire useful information from a pool of
irrelevant ones while making informed decisions. It is found useful for individuals, businesses,
and researchers.

10. Report Preparation and Information Dissemination

A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data, and findings of a
systematic investigation. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the
research process, and it is typically considered as an objective and accurate source of
information.

In many ways, a research report can be considered as a summary of the research process that
clearly highlights findings, recommendations, and other important details. Reading a well-
written research report should provide you with all the information you need about the core areas
of the research process.

Dissemination of research findings is an important part of the research process, passing on the
benefits to other researchers, professional practitioners and the wider community. Research
activities supported by public funding are rarely considered complete until the results have been
made widely available.

There are many ways of disseminating research findings. Formal publication of the results of
research most commonly takes place in refereed academic journals or books, but this is not
always the case. This section of the Framework applies to all forms of dissemination of research
findings, refereed and non-refereed, in any medium of communication, including conferences,
public performance and public exhibition.

Building awareness of the data and disseminating the survey results are the final steps in the
survey process. The results will be used in many ways – to assess progress on the rights of
children and women in your country, to provide a baseline for the future, and to plan and modify
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programs. It is very important, therefore, that the analysis be carried out with careful attention to
the details of calculation and interpretation. In this chapter, step-by-step guidance is provided on
analyzing the data in order to produce indicators and on preparing timely reports that adhere to
rigorous standards of technical quality and usefulness. The chapter also includes general
guidelines on how to disseminate the survey results and carry out analyses beyond the
descriptive reports.

Before assessing the various approaches used to disseminate information, it is worth revisiting
the reasons for disseminating information in a given community. In this way, the overall vision
and purpose can be validated and criteria established to measure success at various stages of
implementation, or improvement of, services and systems used to support dissemination.

General reasons for dissemination, there are usually good reasons why organizations decide to
disseminate information. These reasons are not necessarily independent of one another but can
nonetheless be categorized to emphasize the motivation of an organization when initiating
dissemination,the reasons are usually to increase the value of one or more of the following
attributes of the enterprise shareholders.

Judgement, information is often disseminated in the hope that individuals and entities in an
organization will improve their knowledge base and subsequently make better judgements in
future situations. For example, a researcher is faced with carrying out one of two types of
experiment but knows that many of the first type have already been shown (with a strong
significance factor) to be more expensive than the second. Provided all other things are equal
(success rate, ease of use, state of mind etc.) the researcher should be more inclined to choose the
second type of experiment and save his company or community additional expense and time.

Awareness, information is often disseminated in order to educate, explain or promote a concept,

process or principle. For example, technical specifications explaining system capabilities,
instructions about alternatives to avoid congested transport routes and guidelines for the
completion of work in order to ensure consistent appearance of project deliverables are all ways
in which information is disseminated to generally encourage recipients to comply with a
procedure in the belief of organizational (or enterprise) improvements.

Response, sometimes information is disseminated solely in the hope it will cause some feedback
that might require further information to be generated or be used to validate something.
Examples include advertising, questionnaires, market surveys, frequently asked question lists,
testimonials etc.

Collaboration, information is often disseminated in order for a group of individuals to share

knowledge and routes of communication. Examples include workflow systems to support the
flow of information between system entities in order to achieve a common purpose, mailing lists
where like-minded individuals can listen to and discuss common issues, libraries where people
can access information, and control systems where probes might detect and transmit warnings
about certain events.
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Researchers:

Raffel Joy G. De la Cruz – Process 1-3

Ria Salve D. Duspar – Process 4-6

David G. Galon – Process 7-8

Ronelyn G. Gencianeo – Process 9-10