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Medicalterminology
Medicalterminology
Medical Terminology
Anatomy: The study of the structures of the body (the tissues and organs) and their relationships.
Planes of Reference
Median Plane: A single plane that passes through the center of the long axis of the body (head to tail)
and divides it into equal left and right halves.
Transverse Plane: Any plane that is located at a right angle to the median plane and passes through the
long axis of the body. Divides the body into cranial and caudal segments.
Frontal Plane: Any plane that lies at right angles to both the medial and transverse planes. Divides the
body into dorsal (back) and ventral (belly) segments.
Descriptive Terminology
Anterior: In front of or towards the head. (Anterior and Cranial are often interchanged.)
Cranial: Pertaining to or toward the head. (Superior is often used in human anatomy.)
Posterior: Behind or towards the rear or tail. (Posterior and Caudal are often
interchanged.)
Lateral: Lying away from the midline, towards the outside (sides).
Intermediate: In between.
Flexion: A folding movement that decreases the angle between two bones.
Extension: A movement that increases the angle between two bones. It restores the
Hypo-: Prefix meaning below, underneath, or lower than normal. Ex. Hypodermic =
Hyper-: Prefix meaning above or higher than normal. Ex: Hypertrophy = too much
grow
Sub-: Prefix meaning below or under. Ex: Subcutaneous = below the skin
Endo-: Prefix meaning inner or inside. Ex: Endometrium = the inner lining of the
uterus
Ecto-: Prefix meaning outer or outside. Ex: Ectoderm = the outer layer of the skin
Meso-: Prefix meaning middle Ex: Mesometrium = the middle layer of the uterus
Poly-: Prefix meaning many or too many. Ex: Polyuria = too much (excess) urine
-ectomy: Suffix meaning to cut out. Ex: Tonsillectomy = removal of the tonsils
-otomy: Suffix meaning to cut into. Ex: Tracheotomy = cutting into the trachea
-osis: Suffix that means condition (usually a diseased condition). Ex: Endometriosis =
Notes
Cell: The smallest structural unit of organisms that can be considered living.
Tissue: A group of similar cells organized into a structural and functional unit.
functional unit.
cellular.
Cellular Structures
cytoplasm and all the cellular organelles. It separates the cell contents from the extra-cellular fluid and
external environment. It is composed of a phosolipid bilayer that contains integral and peripheral proteins that help
to transport nutrients and waste into and out of the cell.
organelles and is located within the cell membrane, but external to the nucleus.
nucleus composed of protein, DNA, and RNA that functions in the synthesis and storage of ribosomal RNA.
that are the hereditary information of the cell. The number of chromosomes varies between species. Ex:
Humans have 46 (diploid) in each non-gamete cell. Human gametes (sperm and oocytes) have 23 (haploid).
the cytoplasm of a cell that serves in intracellular transportation, support, storage, synthesis, and packaging
of molecules.
composed of an RNA called ribosomal RNA (rRNA). They serve as the site of protein
synthesis.
four to eight flattened membranous sacs, stacked upon one another, with expanded areas at their ends.
It functions in packaging secreted proteins, lipid secretion, and carbohydrate synthesis.
each consisting of microtubules. They are arranged at right angles to each other and function in cell division.
cells. They are sometimes used for movement of foreign particles over a surface.
used for locomotion. The only cell in higher animals bodies that have flagella are sperm.
Tissue Types
Epithelial Tissue: The tissue that forms glands or the outer part of the skin
and lines blood vessels, hollow organs, and passages that lead externally from the body.
(Bowman’s) capsule of kidneys, and inner surfaces of the membranous labyrinth and
tympanic membrane of the ear. It is called endothelium when it lines heart, blood and
lymph vessels and forms capillaries. It is called mesothelium when it lines the ventral body
cavity and covers the viscera as part of the serous membrane.
in serous membranes.
surface of capsule of the lens of eyes, forms pigmented epithelium of the retina of eye, and
lines kidney tubules and smaller ducts of many glands.
that contain goblet cells in some locations and have nuclei at the bases of cells. Can be
either ciliated or non-ciliated.
from the cardia of the stomach to the anus, excretory ducts of many gland and gallbladder.
Ciliated – Lines a few portions of the upper respiratory tract, uterine (Fallopian) tubes,
uterus, some paranasal sinuses, and central canal of spinal cord.
layers of cells.
columnar shaped in the deep layers and squamous in the superficial layers. The basal cells
replace the surface cells as they are lost.
such as the lining of the mouth tongue, esophagus, and parts of the epiglottis and vagina.
The keratinized variety forms the outer layer of the skin.
Function: Protection.
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conjunctiva of the eye, cavernous urethra of the male urogenital system, pharynx, and
epiglottis.
Function: Protection.
ducts of some glands, and small areas in the anal mucous membrane.
Transitional Epithelium
squamous tissue, except that the surface cells are larger and have a rounded free surface.
different levels and all cells are attached to the basement membrane, but not all reach the surface.
epididymis, male urethra, and auditory (Eustachian) tubes. The ciliated variety with goblet cells line most of
the upper respiratory tract and some ducts of the male reproductive system.
ciliary action.
Glandular Epithelium
Exocrine Gland
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skin; digestive glands such as the salivary glands that secrete into the mouth cavity and the
pancreas that secretes into the small intestine.
digestive enzymes.
Types:
glands.
uterine glands.
glands.
portion is flask-
like. Ex:
seminal vesicle
glands.
glands.
bulbourethral
(Cower’s)
glands, testes,
and liver.
Glands
(sublingual and
submandibular).
Endocrine Gland
activities.
Types
Connective Tissue
Mesenchyme
embryo; some mesenchymal cell are found in adult tissue, especially along blood vessels.
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Function: Support.
Adipose Tissue
-shaped cells with peripheral nuclei. They are specialized for fat
storage.
fasciae.
various structures.
reticular fibers with thin, flat cells wrapped around the fibers.
Cartilage
Hyaline Cartilage
and support.
Fibrocartilage
Elastic Cartilage
systems) that contain lamellae, lacunae, osteocytes, canaliculi, and central (Haversian)
canals.
forming tissue, and serves as levers that act in conjunction with muscle tissue to provide
movement.
dioxide, leucocytes carry on phagocytosis and are involved in allergic reactions and
immunity, and thrombocytes are essential to the clotting of blood.
Muscular Tissue
nuclei; voluntary.
Nervous Tissue
extending from the cell body called dendrites (usually conduct impulses toward cell body) or axons
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to nerve impulses, and conducts nerve impulses to other neurons, muscle fibers, or glands.
Organs and Organ Systems: The individual organ systems and their
respective organs will be covered in their own sections.
Notes
Nervous System
Nervous Tissue
Neuron: Nerve Cells. They are the largest and most numerous cells in the
Cell Body: Contains the typical cellular organelles with the exception
of the centrioles. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is concentrated into structures known ad Nissl Bodies.
Nucleus: After four years of age, the nucleus is unable to undergo mitosis
Dendrite: Multiple processes that are the receptor portion of the neuron
Axon: A long cylindrical process that carries nerve impulses away from
of axon that contain synaptic vesicles (stores chemical that will be releases into the synapse).
Classification of Neurons
the CNS. Their cell bodies are located outside the CNS.
muscles, glands, or other neurons. Their cell bodies are located within the CNS, but their axons are in the periphery
Neuroglia Cells: Cells that support, nourish, and insulate nerve cells. They
the neurons.
Microglia: The smallest of the neuroglial cells of the CNS. They can
tissue.
processes.
myelin sheath.
cerebrum.
brain function.
cortex.
the cerebrum
into right and
left
hemispheres.
cerebellum
from the
cerebral
hemispheres.
brain.
connected by the interthalamic adhesion that function as the central relay center for sensory impulses to
the cerebral cortex and some motor fibers from the cortex to other brain centers. All senses except smell
come through the thalamus. It also interprets an awareness of pain, touch, and temperature.
with the thalamus, cortex, pituitary, and other parts of the brain. Through the pituitary it is the main link
between the nervous and endocrine systems.
hypothalamus.
and reproduction. It is divided into the anterior and posterior pituitary. It is also nicknamed the "master gland"
Metencephalon: The portion of the brain that consists of the pons and
cerebellum.
Pons: The bulge between the midbrain and the medulla oblongata
that functions as the bridge between the brain and spinal cord and different parts of the brain. The nuclei
within the pons and medulla oblongata work together to regulate breathing.
functions as the motor reflex center in coordinating subconscious and conscious skeletal muscle
movements. Proprioceptors in muscles, tendons, and joints, vestibular receptors in the inner ear, and
visual receptors in the eyes relay sensory information to the cerebellum. The cerebellum then evaluates
the information and sends out motor impulses to adjust muscle actions to maintain posture and balance
and coordinate muscle movements.
the cerebellum.
cerebellum.
pons.
cerebellum.
stem that continues on to become the spinal cord. The cardiac reflex center controls the rate and strength of
heart contractions. The vasomotor center regulates blood pressure by controlling the diameter of blood
vessels. The respiratory center controls breathing rhythm. Other "non-vital" reflex centers control
coughing, sneezing, swallowing, and vomiting.
Spinal Cord: The long column of nervous tissue located within the vertebral
Divisions
Cervical
Thoracic
Lumbar
Sacral
Coccygeal
limb attaches.
Filum Termiale: The fibrous cord derived from the pia matter,
which extends from the conus to the caudal vertebrae. It helps to anchor the spinal cord in the spinal canal.
dorsal side of the spinal cord dividing it into symmetrical lateral halves.
Gray Matter: The nerve cell bodies and synapses that form the
White Matter: The axons that run up and down the spinal cord
tracts connect the brain and the various segments of the spinal cord. It is the myelin around the nerve fibers
that gives it the white color.
Notes
Special Senses
Eye: The organ of sight that consists of the eyeball and its accessory structures.
Eyeball
Sclera: The fibrous tissue that gives the eyeball shape and
Cornea: The transparent fibrous coat that lets light into the
eyeball.
eyeball and controls the shape of the lens and size of the pupil.
sclera. It supplies the retina and serves to absorb light that is not reflected out of the eyeball.
and its size varies between species in which it is present (Ex: dogs, cats, horses, ruminants).
It allows for greater vision with minimal light. Its reflection of light is seen as the
characteristic greenish glow of the eyes at night when a light is shined on them.
of the lens.
to the ciliary body, holds the lens in position, and allows the shape to be changed due to the
ciliary muscle.
decrease the size of the pupil to regulate the amount of light entering the eyeball.
at the upper and lower edges of the iris. Found only in horses and ruminants.
Pupil: The central opening of the iris that allows light to enter the
eyeball.
Nervous Tunic (Retina): The inner coat of the eyeball that functions in
image formation. It lines the caudal part of the eyeball and ends at
the edge of the ciliary body. This border is scalloped and is call the ora serrata. It consists of three layers
of neurons.
central fovea located in the macula lutea (the yellow area in the caudal part of the
retina).
receives impulses from the rods and cones and passes them
Ganglion Neurons: The third layer of the retina that passes the
Optic Disc: The area on the retina where the axons from
nerve. It has no cones or rods in this area and is called the blind spot.
Anterior Cavity: Lies anterior to the lens and is divided into two
chambers.
is secreted by the ciliary processes into the posterior chamber, flows through the pupil to the
anterior chamber and drains at the periphery of the anterior chamber into the blood. It
maintains intraocular pressure.
Posterior Cavity: The larger cavity that lies between the lens and
the retina.
posterior cavity, maintains the shape of the eyeball, and holds the retina in place.
eyeball.
Superior Rectus
Inferior Rectus
Lateral Rectus
Medial Rectus
Superior Oblique
Inferior Oblique
Eyelids: Also called palpebrae. Two moveable folds that protect the
Lacrimal Puncta: Openings into the lacrimal canals on the upper and
lubrication, and keep the eye clean and free of foreign material.. Located dorsal to the eyeball.
eyeball.
reinforced by cartilage, located between the eyelid’s median angle and the eyeball. Retraction of the eyeball
causes the third eyelid to move across and protect the eyeball.
Outer Ear: Consists of the pinna and the external auditory meatus.
Pinna (Auricle): The fleshy appendage attached to the side of the skull
External Auditory Meatus: The passage from the pinna to the ear drum.
Auditory Ossicles: The three bones extending from the ear drum to the
oval window of the cochlea. They transmit and amplify vibrations of the ear drum to he oval window.
Incus (Anvil): The bone between the malleus and the stapes.
Stapes (Stirrup): The smallest bone in the body. It fits into the
oval window.
middle ear and the nasopharynx. It equalizes pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane to protect it
from rupturing. Swallowing or yawning opens the auditory tube, allowing air into the middle ear.
are lines with periosteum. Divided into the vestibule, cochlea, and semicircular canals.
membranous labyrinth.
labyrinth.
Cochlea: The snail shell-like part of the inner ear associated with hearing.
the vestibule, the oval window of the middle ear, and the scala tympani at the apex of the
cochlea.
channels – the scala vestibuli and the scala tympani and forms the cochlear duct.
from the base to the apex of the cochlea. It is filled with endolymph and contains the spiral
organ.
Semicircular Canals: Three bony canals arising from the vestibule and
canal.
Notes
Skeletal System
Compact (Dense) Bone: Bone tissue with no apparent spaces in which the layers of
Diaphysis: The shaft or long main portion of the bone. Located between the
epiphyses.
Metaphysis: The region in mature bone where the epiphyses join the diahysis.
Epiphyseal Plate: The region in growing bone between the diaphysis and the
epiphysis made of hyaline cartilage. It is eventually replaced with bone and becomes the metaphysis.
Articular cartilage: A thin layer of hyaline cartilage that covers the epiphysis where
Periosteum: A dense, white, fibrous covering around the surface of the bone. It does
Medullary (Marrow) Cavity: The space within the diaphysis that contains the
Endosteum: A layer of osteoprogenitor cells and osteoblasts that lines the medullary
Markings on Bone
Bone Cells
osteoblasts.
Osteocytes: A mature bone cell that maintains the daily activity of the bone tissue.
Osteoclast: A large multi-nuclear cell that develops from a monocyte and destroys or
Classification of Bones
Long Bones: Bones with a greater length than width. Consist of a diaphysis and a
Short Bones: Bones that are somewhat cube-shaped and nearly equal in length and
width.
Flat Bones: Bones that are generally thin and composed of two more or less parallel
Irregular Bones: Unpaired bones with complex shapes that do not fit into any of the
Sesamoid Bones: Small bones embedded within tendons where a great deal of
Pneumatic Bones: Bones that contain air spaces or sinuses. Ex: frontal and
maxillary bones.
Axial Skeleton
Skull: Comprised of the cranial and facial bones. (22 bones in humans)
Frontal
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Parietal
Temporal
Zygomatic Process
Occipital
Occipital Condyles
Jugular Process
Sphenoid
Ethmoid
Facial Bones
Nasal
facial bones that are lined by mucous membranes that are continuous with the lining of the
nasal cavity. Included are the frontal, maxillary, sphenoid, palatine, lacrimal, and conchal
sinuses.
Maxilla
Zygomatic
Temporal Process
Mandible
Lacrimal
Palatine
Vomer
Hyoid Bone
Vertebral Column
Cervical
Atlas
Axis
Thoracic
Lumbar
Sacral
Lumbosacral: In birds the lumbar and sacral vertebra are fused together.
Coccygeal
Horse 7 18 6 5 15-20
Cattle 7 13 6 5 18-20
Human 7 12 5 5 4
Cat/Dog 7 13 7 3 21-25
Intervertebral Foramen
Intervertebral Discs
Vertebral Foramen
Body
Spinous Process
Transverse Process
Wings
Articular Process
Thorax
Sternum
Xiphoid Process
Ribs
Head
Tubercle
Intercostal Space
Costal Cartilage
Appendicular Skeleton: The bones of the limbs and their supporting girdles.
Scapula
Spine
Acromion
Supraspinous Fossa
Infraspinous Fossa
Subscapular Fossa
Glenoid Cavity
Thoracic Limb
Humerus
Head
Intertubercle Groove
Greater Tubercle
Lesser Tubercle
Body
Deltoid Tuberosity
Humeral Condyle
Lateral Epicondyle
Medial Epicondyle
Olecranon Fossa
Radial Fossa
Radius
Head
Ulna
Olcranon
Tochlear Notch
Styloid Process
Interosseous space
Carpals
Radial
Intermediate
Ulnar
Accessory
C1
C2
C3
C4
Metacarpals
I: The most medial metacarpal. Absent in the horse, cow, and pig.
II: Missing in the cow. Known as the medial Splint bone in the
horse.
the cow.
IV: Known as the lateral Splint bone in the horse. Fused with III
in the cow.
that are numbered from medial to lateral, each generally consisting of a proximal, middle, and distal
phalanx and a varying number of sesamoid bones.
proximal and distal phalanx. Missing in the cow and horse. Thumb in humans.
Digit II: Medial dew claw in the cow. Absent in the horse.
Digit III: Medial "toe" in the cow. The only digit present in the
horse.
horse.
horse.
Digit IV: Lateral "toe" in the cow. Absent in the horse. Ring
finger in humans.
Pelvic Girdle
Ilium
Pubis
Ischium
Acetabulum
Obturator Foramen
Pelvic Symphysis
Pelvic Limb
Femur
Greater Trochanter
Lesser Trochanter
Femoral Trochlea
Patella
Trochlear Tubercle
Tibia
Tibial Tuberosity
Fibula
Lateral Malleolus
Joints
Gomphosis: The implantation of the teeth into the jaw bones. Not a
true joint because the teeth are not considered part of the skeleton.
Epiphysisal plates.
Symphysis: A joint that occurs along the midline of the body. They
Joint Capsule
Fibrous Layer
Synovial Membrane
lubricate a joint, supply nutrients, and remove waste from the hyaline cartilage.
Bursa: A sac-like structure between skin and bone, tendon and bone,
muscle and bone, or ligament and bone that reduces friction between the tissues.
completely around a tendon to reduce the friction between the tendon and the underlying bone.
motion.
types of movement).
extension).
bone.
condyle of one bone fitting into an elliptical cavity of another. This allows for flexion, extension, abduction,
and adduction.
Notes
Muscular System
Terminology
Muscle: The contractile organs that are responsible for movements, both
bone.
Endomysium: The fibrous connective tissue that separates each muscle fiber.
Muscle Attachments
Fleshy: The attachment of the muscle to the periosteum of the bone by very
tendons.
Aponeurotic: The flat tendonous sheets associated with flat muscle (like those
Parallel: The muscle bundles run parallel to each other the entire length of
muscle. This arrangement allows the greatest shortening, but less strength during a contraction.
Pennate: The muscle bundles are arranged to cover a tendon at an angle. This
two direction.
muscle.
Superficial Muscles
Brachiocephalicus
Trapezius
from T3 to T9.
forward or backward.
Innervation: Accessory.
Omotransversarius
Latissimus Dorsi
Innervation: Thoracodorsal
Superficial Pectoral
Origin: Sternum
Innervation: Pectoral.
Deep Muscles
Rhomboideus
Serratus Ventralis
support trunk.
Deep Pectoral
Origin: Sternum.
shoulder).
Intrinsic Muscles of the Thoracic Limb: Muscles that have their origin
Deltoid
Innervation: Axillary
Supraspinatus
humerus.
Innervation: Suprascapular
Infraspinatus
Innervation: Suprascapular
Subscapularis
Innervation: Subscapular.
Teres Major
Innervation: Axillary.
Teres Minor
Innervation: Axillary.
Coracobrachialis
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Innervation: Musculocutaneous.
Biceps Brachii
Innervation: Musculocutaneous.
Brachialis
Insertion: Radius.
Innervation: Musculocutaneous.
Triceps Brachii
Long Head
Lateral Head
Medial Head
Innervation: Radial.
Anconeus
Innervation: Radial.
fascia.
Innervation: Radial.
Insertion: Metacarpus.
Innervation: Radial.
Innervation: Radial.
Innervation: Radial.
Lateral Ulnar
Innervation: Radial.
Pronator Teres
Innervation: Median
Supinator
Insertion: Radius.
Innervation: Radial.
digit.
Innervation: Radial.
Innervation: Median.
Innervation: Ulnar.
Innervation: Ulnar.
Humeral Head
Radial Head
Ulnar Head
Psoas Minor
Psoas Major
femoral.
Iliacus
Quadratus Lumborum
Pelvic Muscles
Internal Obturator
Innervation: Ischiatic.
Gemelli
Origin: Ischium.
Innervation: Ischiatic.
Quadratus Femoris
Origin: Ischium.
Innervation: Ischiatic.
External Obturator
Innervation: Obturator.
Insertion: Gluteal.
Middle Gluteal
Innervation: Gluteal.
Deep Gluteal
Innervation: Gluteal.
Biceps Femoris
tarsal bone.
Innervation: Ischiatic.
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Innervation: Gluteal.
Semitendinosus
bone.
Innervation: Ischiatic.
Sartorius
Origin: Ilium.
Innervation: Femoral.
Gracilis
Innervation: Obturator.
Pectineus
Origin: Pubis.
Insertion: Femur.
Innervation: Obturator.
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Quadriceps
Rectus Femoris
Vastus Lateralis
Vastus Medialis
Vastus Intermedius
Action: Rectus femoris – flex hip and extend stifle. All vastus –
extend stifle.
Innervation: Femoral.
Adductor
Insertion: Femur.
Innervation: Obturator.
Semimembranosus
Innervation: Ischiatic.
Cranial Tibial
Innervation: Fibular.
Innervation: Fibular.
Long Fibular
Innervation: Fibular.
Third Fibular
Innervation: Fibular.
Origin: Fibula.
Innervation: Fibular.
Gastrocnemius
Innervation: Tibial.
Innervation: Tibial.
Origin: Femur.
Innervation: Tibial.
Stay Apparatus: The mechanism that allows a horse to rest while standing
without muscle fatigue. This allows a horse to instantly be able to flee.
similar to a sling.
Pelvic Limb: The pelvic limb is stabilized by the locking of the patella and the
Insertion: Aponeurosis of the ventral midline (linea alba) and iliac crest.
iliohypogastric.
Transversus Abdominis
Origin: Iliac crest, inguinal ligament, lumbar fascia, and cartilage of last
six ribs.
and pubis.
Rectus Abdominis
External Intercostal
Innervation: Intercostals.
Internal Intercostals
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Innervation: Intercostals.
Diaphragm
Origin: Xiphoid process, costal cartilage of last six ribs, and lumbar
vertebrae.
Innervation: Phrenic.
Notes
Cardiovascular System
Blood: A liquid connective tissue that has functions in transport, regulation, and
protection.
foreign microbes and toxins (phagocytic white blood cells, antibodies, interferon)
Formed Elements
5.4 million per mm3 of blood for males and 4.8 for females
Leukocytes (white blood cells): nucleated cells, some can live for
several months or years, but most only live a few days (during infection, some phagocytic WBC’s live only a
few hours)
is often S-shaped and the granules are round and variable in size
and stain blue-purple with basic dyes
inflammatory reactions
toxins
macrophages
following infection
mm3 of blood
Blood Types: four different blood types result from a combination of three
different alleles of the I gene. I A codes for the A antigen, I B codes for the
A=I AI A or I Ai
B = I B I B or I Bi
AB = I A I B
O = ii
Circulation
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Pericardium: A triple layer sac that that surrounds and protects the heart.
Coronary Sulcus: external groove that separates the atria and ventricles
Anterior and Posterior Sulcus: external groove that separate the right and left
ventricles
Fossa Ovalis: an oval depression that is the remnant of the foramen ovale
Tricuspid Valve: lies between the right atrium and ventricle (has three
flaps)
Bicuspid (Mitral) Valve: lies between the left atrium and ventricle (has
two flaps)
Semilunar (SL) Valves: lie between the ventricles and the vessels leaving the
heart
Pulmonary Semilunar Valve: lies between the pulmonary trunk and the
right ventricle
Aortic Semilunar Valve: lies between the left ventricle and the aorta
Respiratory System
Nasal Septum: vertical partition diving the nasal cavity into right and left
halves
Pharynx (Throat): a funnel-shaped tube that starts at the internal nares and
extends to the to the larynx
Houses tonsils, which helps eliminate foreign invaders through immune reactions
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Nasopharynx: lies posterior to the nasal cavity and extends to the soft palate
Two internal nare openings, two Eustachian tube openings, and the
oropharynx opening
Oropharynx: lies posterior to the oral cavity and extends from the soft palate
Laryngopharynx: begins at the level of the hyoid bone and connects the
Larynx (Voice Box): a short passage that connect the larnygopharynx and the
trachea
Lies anterior to C4 – C6
Voice Production: occurs when air passes over the vocal cords (folds of
mucous membranes)
If air is directed over the vocal cords, they will vibrate and send sound
waves through the column of air in the pharynx, nose and mouth.
The greater the air pressure, the louder the sound. The pitch is controlled
Trachea (Windpipe): A tubular passage that extends from the larynx to the fifth
thoracic vertebrae where it divides into the primary bronchi.
Carina: an internal ridge where the trachea divides into the right and left
primary bronchi
Bronchi: the right primary bronchus goes to the right lung and the left primary
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Each primary bronchi divides into secondary bronchi, then to tertiary bronchi
Mediastinum: along with the heart, it separates the thoracic cavity into two
distinct chambers
Parietal Pleura: superficial layer of that lines the wall of the thoracic
cavity
Right lung has three lobes, while the left has two
respiratory bronchioles
ducts
alveolar ducts
occurs
Inspiration: breathing in
Caused by lowering the pressure in the lungs, this is done by increasing the
intercostals
During labored breathing expiration becomes active and involves the internal
Urinary System
Kidneys: the smooth bean-shaped organs of the urinary system that filter the blood
resulting in the production of urine. (Cattle have lobular (not smooth) kidneys and the right kidney of the horse
is heart-shaped.)
Located in the lumbar region of the abdomen around the last thoracic / first
lumbar vertebrae.
They lie behind the peritoneum in non-ruminants and hang down into the
abdominal cavity in ruminants. The rumen also pushes the left kidney to the right of the median plane.
The right kidney lies slightly more cranially than the left kidney with the
Perirenal Fat: mass of fat surrounding the kidney that protects it and holds it
in place
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Hilus: the area where the vessels and ureters leave the kidneys
Lobes: the units of the kidney (are only visible in the cow)
Renal Papilla: the apex of a kidney lobe that drips urine into the ureter
Calyx: cup-shaped structure in pigs and cows that receives urine from the renal
papilla
Renal Sinus: the potential space occupied by the ureter, branches of the renal
artery and vein, the lymphatic vessels, and the nerves entering the kidney
Note: We will not cover the micro-anatomy of the kidney since that was
Adrenal Glands: endocrine glands that lie cranial to the kidneys. Except in
Ureter: the fibro-muscular tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary
bladder
The ureters enter the bladder at an acute (sharp) angle to allow for emptying into a
Urinary Bladder: a very distensible pouch that receives and stores urine from the
kidneys
When distended the bladder lies not only within the pelvic cavity but also extends
Urethra: the fibro-muscular tube that carries urine from the bladder for release
outside the body.
In males it also carries semen for ejaculation. Urine and semen are expelled
separately.
Notes:
Digestive System
Oral Cavity: the space extending from the lips to the pharynx
Philtrum: the median cleft in the upper lip of carnivores and small ruminants
Teeth: used for primarily for mastication, but also for food prehension
(gathering)
Gomphosis: the implantation of the teeth into the alveoli (bony sockets)
of the mandible, maxilla, and incisive bones - not a true joint because the teeth are not part of the skeleton
Incisors (I): the most rostral teeth embedded in the incisive (maxillary
Canines (C): the large tooth (one on each side) between the incisive and
Carnassial (Sectorial) Teeth: the 4th upper premolar and the 1st lower
Wolf Teeth: a term used to describe the rudimentary upper 1st premolar
Needle Teeth: the pigs deciduous 3rd incisors and canines that are usually
Deciduous Dentition: the "baby teeth" – they are usually smaller and
Permanent Dentition: the teeth that replace the "baby teeth" which must
Tongue: the muscular organ in the oral cavity that aids in swallowing, food
movement during mastication, vocalization, taste, temperature control (panting in dogs), and prehension of
food (in species such as the cow)
Root: the caudal end of the tongue that is attached to the hyoid apparatus
Salivary Glands: glands that secrete saliva into the oral cavity to wet and
IgA antibodies
Laryngopharynx: passage for food and water from the oropharynx to the
Esophagus: the muscular tube that is the passage of food from the pharynx to the
stomach
Passes through the hiatus of the diaphragm and terminates at the cardia of the
stomach
Its muscular movements mix the ingesta and enzymes and move them slowly on
to the duodenum
Greater Curvature: the long convex surface of the stomach that leads
Lesser Curvature: the short concave surface of the stomach that extends
Parietal Surface: the side of the stomach in contact with the liver
Visceral Surface: the side of the stomach in contact with the rest of the
abdominal viscera
Cardia: the part of the stomach around the esophagus – the "fixed"
Fundus: The blind, expanded portion of the left side of the stomach
Body: the largest part of the stomach that extends from the cardia to the
pylorus
Pylorus: the distal part of the stomach that opens into the duodenum at
Rumen: the largest of the four compartments, filling most of the left
Abomasum: the elongated "true stomach" that is lined with glandular tissue
Pylorus: the part of the abomasum that opens into the duodenum
Gastric Groove: a channel through the stomach that follows the lesser
curvature of the stomach, found in all domestic species, but is of greatest importance to the suckling ruminant
Suckling with the head tilted up causes the lips of the gastric groove to
close, forming a tube from the cardiac opening to the abomasum. This causes milk to bypass the rumen,
reticulum, and omasum and empty directly into the abomasum.
Small Intestine: the principle site of digestion and absorption which extends from
the pylorus to the large intestine
Jejunum: the longest part of the small intestine which extends from the
Ileum: the short terminal portion of the small intestine that empties into the
large intestine
Large Intestine: the portion of the digestive tract that functions to dehydrate the
fecal contents by absorbing water – it includes the cecum, colon and rectum
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Cecum: the blind diverticulum off the beginning of the colon which is the site
of fermentative digestion
Colon: the portion of the digestive tract that carries ingesta from the small
Horse: has a long double horseshoe shaped loop of the ascending colon
Rectum: the portion of the large intestine that lies within the pelvic cavity and
Anal Canal: the short terminal portion of the alimentary canal that opens to
Accessory Organs
function
Endocrine: secretes insulin and glucagon into the blood to keep sugar at
a constant level
Notes:
Male Anatomy
Scrotum: the sac-like structure that supports, protects, and regulates the temperature
of the testes
The skin portion has a large number of sweat and sebaceous (oil) glands
Testes: paired structures that are the primary sex organ of the male
Produces the male gametes (spermatozoa)
Produces hormones
Housed within the scrotum
Site of Spermatogenesis
Produce testosterone
Epididymis: paired convoluted tubules that transport sperm from the testes to the
ductus deferens
Spermatic Cord: paired structures that connect the testes to the urethra
Carry the nerve and blood supply to the testes
Carry sperm to the urethra through the ductus derferens (vas deferens)
Ductus Deferens: paired structures that transport sperm during ejaculation and
connect the epididymis to the pelvic urethra
Pelvic urethra
Penile urethra
Provide nutrients, buffers, and other substances necessary for sperm motility and
fertility
Sigmoid Flexure: an s-shaped bend in the penis of bulls, rams, and boars
Horse, however, has a great deal more erectile tissue which engorges with
Epididymis
Ductus Deferens
Pelvic Urethra
Penile Urethra
Cold weather causes these muscles to contract decreasing the surface area
Hot weather cause these muscles to relax increasing the surface area and allow
Hot weather causes these glands to become more active allowing evaporation
Pampiniform Plexus
The arteries that supply blood to the testes are very convoluted and pass
blood entering the testes to be cooled by the venous blood leaving the
testes. As the spermatic cord lengthens during hot weather, more surface area is provided for the heat exchange.
Notes:
Female Anatomy
Contains numerous sensory nerves and increases sexual excitement in the female
during copulation
Cervix: thick-walled, inelastic "tube" that separates the vagina the uterus
Usually a single structure except in species with duplex or didelphic uteruses
Corkscrew in pigs
Didelphic: two uteri (each with one body and one horn), two vagina, two
Ovaries: paired structures that are the primary sex organs in the female
Produces the female gametes (oocytes)
Produces hormones
Embryo/Fetal Development
Terminology:
fertilization, what was once and ovum and sperm are now a zygote.
conceptus is known as an embryo. This is usually not pat day 40 in the horse or day 60 in humans.
Morula: When the embryo has undergone three or four cell divisions and is at
Blastocyst: After fluid begins to collect in the innercellular spaces and forms a
Embryoblast: The cells of the inner cell mass which are located at one pole
Trophoblast: The outer cell mass that becomes the epithelial wall of the
blastocyst is called the trophoblast. The trophoblast will eventually become part of the placenta.
During the blastocyst stage the embryo hatches out of the Zona Pellucida
Fetus: After differentiation has been complete and until parturition the
1st Trimester: during the first 1/3rd of pregnancy in any species is the period of
when there is the largest increases in cell numbers
Nervous system is the first to begin to form but the last to complete
This period is when the embryo is most susceptible to problems with development
2nd Trimester: this is the period of growth and maturation of the organ systems
During this trimester, the germ cells are migrating into the gonads
Therefore, the female has the highest number of oocytes she will ever have at this
time
3rd Trimester: this is the period of largest growth and weight gain in the fetus
The fetus is putting on weight and preparing for birth