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IT6601 – MOBILE COMPUTING
M.I.E.T. ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Approved by AICTE and Affiliated to Anna University Chennai)
TRICHY – PUDUKKOTTAI ROAD, TIRUCHIRAPPALLI – 620 007
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

AND ENGINEERING
COURSE MATERIAL
IT6601-MOBILE COMPUTING
M.I.E.T./CSE/III YR/MOBILE COMPUTING


DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

SYLLABUS (THEORY)
Sub. Code : IT6601 Branch/Year/Sem : CSE/III/VI
Sub Name : MOBILE COMPUTING Batch : 2016-2020
Staff Name : A.BARVEEN Academic Year : 2018-2019
LTPC
3 0 03
UNIT I INTRODUCTION 9
Mobile Computing – Mobile Computing Vs wireless Networking – Mobile
Computing Applications –Characteristics of Mobile computing – Structure of
Mobile Computing Application. MAC Protocols –Wireless MAC Issues – Fixed
Assignment Schemes – Random Assignment Schemes – Reservation Based
Schemes.
UNIT II MOBILE INTERNET PROTOCOL AND TRANSPORT
LAYER 9
Overview of Mobile IP – Features of Mobile IP – Key Mechanism in Mobile IP
– route Optimization. Overview of TCP/IP – Architecture of TCP/IP- Adaptation
of TCP Window – Improvement in TCP Performance.
UNIT III MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM 9
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) – General Packet Radio
Service (GPRS) –Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS).
UNIT IV MOBILE AD-HOC NETWORKS 9
Ad-Hoc Basic Concepts – Characteristics – Applications – Design Issues –
Routing – Essential of Traditional Routing Protocols –Popular Routing Protocols
– Vehicular Ad Hoc networks ( VANET) –MANET Vs VANET – Security.
UNIT V MOBILE PLATFORMS AND APPLICATIONS 9
Mobile Device Operating Systems – Special Constrains & Requirements –
Commercial Mobile Operating Systems – Software Development Kit: iOS,
Android, BlackBerry, Windows Phone – M Commerce– Structure – Pros & Cons
– Mobile Payment System – Security Issues.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS

TEXT BOOK:
1. Prasant Kumar Pattnaik, Rajib Mall, “Fundamentals of Mobile
Computing”, PHI Learning Pvt.Ltd, New Delhi – 2012.
REFERENCES:
1. Jochen H. Schller, “Mobile Communications”, Second Edition, Pearson
Education, New Delhi,2007.
2. Dharma Prakash Agarval, Qing and An Zeng, "Introduction to Wireless and
Mobile systems",
Thomson Asia Pvt Ltd, 2005.
3. Uwe Hansmann, Lothar Merk, Martin S. Nicklons and Thomas Stober,
“Principles of Mobile
Computing”, Springer, 2003.
4. William.C.Y.Lee,“Mobile Cellular Telecommunications-Analog and Digital
Systems”, Second Edition,Tata Mc Graw Hill Edition ,2006.
5. C.K.Toh, “AdHoc Mobile Wireless Networks”, First Edition, Pearson
Education, 2002.
6. Android Developers : http://developer.android.com/index.html
7. Apple Developer : https://developer.apple.com/
8. Windows Phone Dev Center : http://developer.windowsphone.com
9. BlackBerry Developer : http://developer.blackberry.com/
SUBJECT IN-CHARGE HOD/CSE


DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
Sub. Code : IT6601 Branch/Year/Sem : CSE/III/VI

Sub Name : MOBILE COMPUTING Batch : 2016-2020
Staff Name : A.BARVEEN Academic Year : 2018-2019
COURSE OBJECTIVE
1. Understand the basic concepts of mobile computing
2. Be familiar with the network protocol stack
3. Learn the basics of mobile telecommunication system
4. Be exposed to Ad-Hoc networks
5. Gain knowledge about different mobile platforms and application

development
COURSE OUTCOMES
1. Comprehend the basics of mobile Computing

2. Express the functionality of Mobile IP and Transport Layer
3. Classify different types of mobile telecommunication systems
4. Implement Adhoc networks with routing protocols
5. Use mobile operating systems in developing mobile applications
6. Synthesize new knowledge in the area of mobile computing by using
appropriate techniques.
Prepared by Approved by Verified By

STAFF NAME PRINCIPAL HOD
(A.BARVEEN)


UNIT- I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Mobile Computing Introduction:

What is mobile Computing
• What is mobile computing?
Users with portable computers still have network connections while they move.
• A simple definition could be

Mobile Computing is using a computer (of one kind or another) while on the
move.
1.2 Mobile Computing Vs wireless Networking

Mobile computing means communication services on the move. Wireless
communication is the basis for mobile communication.
Wireless network is classified in to two types.
1) Fixed Infra structure Network.
2) Adhoc Network.
Fixed Infra structure Network: Wireless device connects to the access point to
connect to the network – Access point acts as a hub to connect two wireless
devices.
Adhoc Network: Collection of wireless mobile nodes (devices) dynamically

forming a temporary network without the use of any existing network
infrastructure

Wired Networks Mobile Networks
High bandwidth Low bandwidth
Low bandwidth High bandwidth

variability Variability
Can listen on wire Hidden terminal

Problem
High power Low power machines
machines
High resource Low resource
machines machines
need physical need proximity

access
1.3 Applications for mobile computing
There are several applications for mobile computing including wireless
remote access by travelers and commuters, point of sale, stock trading,
medical emergency care, law enforcement, package delivery, education, insurance
industry, disaster recovery and management, trucking industry, intelligence
and military.
Most of these applications can be classified into:
 Wireless and mobile access to the Internet
 Wireless and mobile access to private Intranets
 Wireless and Adhoc mobile access between mobile computers.
1.4 Mobile Computing -Characteristics
 Ubiquity
 Anywhere.
 Anytime.

 Location Awareness:
Current location of the user can be found out using GPS (Global
positioning system)
Ex: Personalized application to find car maintaining service, Traffic
control application, and Fleet management application when travelling by
car.
 Adaptation
Adjust the bandwidth fluctuation automatically without disturbing the user
 Personalization:
Services can be personalized according to the user need. Some type of information
can be obtained from the specific source.
1.5 Application Structure
The simple three tier architecture
Presentation tier:
 User interface: request and response in a meaningful way.
 Needs web browser and client program for transfer of information.

 Logical decision and calculation is performed in this layer.

Application tier:
 Get the information from the user and makes the decision.
 Moves data between presentation and data layers.
 This layer is implemented using JAVA, .NET services, cold fusion etc.
Data tier:
Contains database in which information is stored and retrieved.
1.6 Wireless MAC Protocols – Issues

The medium access control or media access control (MAC) layer is the
Lower sub layer of the data link layer (layer 2) of the seven-layer OSI model.
Wireless Channel (Wireless medium) is shared among multiple neighboring
nodes.
 If more than one MS transmit at a time on the shared media, a collision
occurs
 How to determine which MS can transmit?
Access Control protocols define rules for orderly access to the shared medium
It should have the following features


Fairness in sharing

Maximize the utilization of the channel

Support different types of traffic
Should be robust for equipment failures and changing network condition.
There are two types of basic classification to avoid medium access problem
1) Contention protocols
2) Conflict-free protocols
Contention protocols:
Contention protocols resolve a collision after it occurs or try to avoid it. These
protocols execute a collision resolution protocol after each collision.

Conflict-free protocols:
Conflict-free protocols (e.g., TDMA, FDMA, and CDMA) ensure that a
collision can never occur
Hidden Terminal Problem
A hidden node is one that is within the range of the intended destination but out
Of range of sender
 Node B can communicate with A and C both

 A and C cannot hear each other
 When A transmits to B, C cannot detect the transmission using the carrier
sense mechanism
 C falsely thinks that the channel is idle
 If C transmits, collision will occur at node B
Exposed Terminal Problem

• An exposed node is one that is within the range of the sender but
out of range of destination.
• B sends to A, C wants to send to D.
• C has to wait, CS signals a medium in use.
• since A is outside the radio range of C waiting is not necessary
• C is “exposed” to B.

1.7 Fixed-assignment schemes

FDMA
FDMA is the process of dividing one channel or bandwidth into multiple
individual bands, each for use by a single user. Each individual band or channel
is big enough to hold the signal to be propagated
For full duplex communication each user is allotted two channel

One channel for sending the data (forward link) other channel for receiving the
data (reverse channel).When the channel is not in use no one is permitted to use
that channel.
Advantages of FDMA
• Channel bandwidth is relatively narrow (30 kHz)
• FDMA algorithms are easy to understand and implement.
• Channel Operations in FDMA are simple.
• No need for network timing
• No restriction regarding the type of baseband or type of modulation

Disadvantages to using FDMA

If channel is not in use, it sits idle. No high channel utilization.
The presence of guard bands
• Need right RF filtering to reduce adjacent channel interference
• Maximum bit rate per channel is fixed
TDMA – Time Division Multiple Access

FDMA – Frequency Division Multiple Access
CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access
TDMA
TDMA allocates each user a different time slot on a given frequency.
TDMA Divides each cellular channel into three time slots in order to increase the
amount of data that can be carried. Each user occupies a cyclically repeating time
slot.
All the nodes use the same channel but in different time given to them in
Round Robin Fashion.

Advantages of TDMA
Flexible bit rate
• No frequency guard band required
• No need for precise narrowband filters
• Easy for mobile or base stations to initiate and execute hands off
• Extended battery life
• It is very cheap.
Disadvantages to using TDMA
 Unused time slot is wasted. So it will lead to less channel utilization.
Has a predefined time slot. When moving from one cell site to other, if all the time
slots in the moved cell are full the user might be disconnected.
 Multipath distortion
Code division Multiplexing Access: CDMA
Many users can use the channel to send the data. Collision can be avoided
using code. Each user is allotted different codes .when sending a data the users
can multiplex their data with the code and send the data in the same channel.so
different users use the same channel at the same time by using the coding
technique. The code can be generated by using a technique called m bit pseudo-
noise code sequence.by using m bits 2m codes can be obtained. From these each
user can use one code.
Advantages of CDMA
Many users of CDMA use the same frequency, TDD or FDD may be used
• Multipath fading may be substantially reduced because of large signal
bandwidth.
• No limit on the number of users.
• Easy addition of more users.
• Impossible for hackers to decipher the code sent.
Disadvantages to using CDMA

As the number of users increases, the overall quality of service decreases
• Self-jamming.
• Near-Far- problem arises.
1.8 Random Access Scheme
• ALOHA
• CSMA
Simple ALOHA
 “Free for all”: whenever station has a frame to send, it sends.
 It does not check if the channel is free or not.
 Station listens for maximum RTT for an ACK.
 If no ACK, re-sends frame.
 If two or more users send their packets at the same time, a collision occurs
and the packets are destroyed it does not work well when many nodes are
ready to send.
In pure ALOHA, frames are transmitted at completely arbitrary times
Pure ALOHA: Performance Vulnerable period for the shaded frame.

S=Ge-2G, where S is the throughput (rate of successful transmissions) and G is

the offered load.
• S = Smax=1/2e = 0.184 for G=0.5.
Slotted Aloha
• Divide time up into small intervals, each corresponding to one packet.
• At the beginning of the time slot only data will be sent.
• It sends a signal called beacon frame. All the nodes can send the data only
at the starting of the signal.
• This also does not work well if many nodes are there to send the data.
• Vulnerable period is halved.
• S = G e-G.
• S = Smax = 1/e = 0.368 for G = 1.

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

• Station that wants to transmit first listens to check if another transmission
is in progress (carrier sense).
• If medium is in use, station waits; else, it transmits.
• Collisions can still occur.
• Transmitter waits for ACK; if no ACK, retransmit.
Two types of Transmission:
CSMA/CA
CSMA/CDCSMA/CA Protocol
• If the channel is sensed as busy, no station will use it until it goes free
• If the channel is free the node can start transmitting the data.
• This is the basic idea of the Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
protocol.
• There are different variations of the CSMA protocols:
• 1-persistent CSMA
• No persistent CSMA
• p-persistent CSMA
• 1-persistent CSMA (IEEE 802.3)
– If medium idle, transmit; if medium busy, wait until idle; then transmit
with p=1.
– If collision, waits random period and starts again.
• Non-persistent CSMA: if medium idle, transmit; otherwise wait a
random time before re-trying.
– Thus, station does not continuously sense channel when it is in use.
• P-persistent: when channel idle detected, transmits packet in the first
slot with p,if the channel is not idle wait for thr the probability(1-p)and
the sense the channel.
CSMA/CD
• CSMA with collision detection. Stations can sense the medium
while transmitting

• A station aborts its transmission if it senses another transmission is

also happening (that is, it detects collision) in the same time.
CSMA/CD Protocol
1. If medium idle, transmit; otherwise 2.
2. If medium busy, some time and then sense the medium again, then transmit
with p=1.
3. If collision detected, transmit brief jamming signal and abort transmission.
4. After aborting, wait random time, try again.
Summary
 CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
 Improvement: Start transmission only if no transmission is
ongoing.
 CSMA/CA (CSMA with Collision Avoidance)
 Improvement: Wait a random time and try again when carrier is
quiet. If still quiet, then transmit.
 CSMA/CD (CSMA with Collision Detection)
 Improvement: Stop ongoing transmission if a collision is
detected.
1.9 Reservation based scheme:

CONCEPT:
 MACAW: A Media Access Protocol for Wireless LANs is based on
MACA (Multiple Access Collision Avoidance) Protocol

 MACA
• When a node wants to transmit a data packet, it first transmit a
RTS (Request to Send) frame.
• The receiver node, on receiving the RTS packet, if it is ready to
receive the data packet, transmits a CTS (Clear to Send) packet.
• Once the sender receives the CTS packet without any error, it
starts transmitting the data packet.
• If a packet transmitted by a node is lost, the node uses the binary
exponential back-off (BEB) algorithm to back off a random
interval of time before retrying.

MACAW
 Variants of this method can be found in IEEE 802.11 as DFWMAC
(Distributed Foundation Wireless MAC),
 MACAW (MACA for Wireless) is a revision of MACA.

• The sender senses the carrier to see and transmits a RTS
(Request to Send) frame if no nearby station transmits a RTS.
• The receiver replies with a CTS (Clear to Send) frame.
• Neighbors
• See CTS, then keep quiet.
• See RTS but not CTS, then keep quiet until the CTS is
back to the sender.
• The receiver sends an ACK when receiving a frame.
• Neighbors keep silent until see ACK.
• Collisions
• There is no collision detection.
• The senders know collision when they don’t receive CTS.
• They each wait for the exponential back off time.


UNIT II
MOBILE INTERNET PROTOCOL AND TRANSPORT LAYER
2.1 Overview of Mobile IP

Mobile IP (or MIP) is an Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) standard communications protocol that is designed to allow mobile
device users to move from one network to another while maintaining a
permanent IP address.
MOBILE IP Terminology.

Mobile Node (MN)

A system (node) that can change the point of attachment to the
network without changing its IP address. The Mobile Node is a device such
as a cell phone, personal digital assistant, or laptop which has roaming
capabilities.
Home Network
Home Network is the network of a mobile node where it gets its
original IP Address.
Home Agent (HA)
• Stores information about all mobile nodes and its permanent address.
• It maintains a location directory to store where the node moves.
• It acts as a router for delivering the data packets.
Foreign Agent (FA)
ds the packet to the MN

Care-of Address (COA)
Care-of address is a temporary IP address for a mobile node
(mobile device) that helps message delivery when the device is connected
somewhere other than its home network. The packet send to the home
network is sent to COA.
COA are of two types
Foreign agent COA: It is the static IP address of a foreign agent on a visited
network
Co-located COA: Temporary IP address is given to the node visited the
new network by DHCP.
Correspondent Node (CN)
Node communicating to the mobile node.
Foreign Network
The foreign network is current subnet to which the mobile node is visiting.

Tunnel
It is the path taken by the encapsulated packets.
2.2 Features of Mobile IP

 Transparency
 mobile end-systems keep their IP address
 Continuation of communication after interruption of link.
 Compatibility
 Compatible with all the existing protocols
 Security
 Provide secure communication in the internet
 Efficiency and scalability
 only little additional messages to the mobile system required
(connection typically via a low bandwidth radio link)
 World-wide support of a large number of mobile systems in
the whole Internet.
2.3 Key Mechanism in Mobile IP
To communicate with a remote host, a mobile host goes through three

phases:
Agent discovery, registration, and data transfer.
• Agent Discovery
A Mobile Node discovers its Foreign and Home Agents during its move.
• Registration
The Mobile Node registers its current location with the Foreign Agent
and Home Agent during registration.

• Tunneling
A Tunnel(like a pipe) is set up by the Home Agent to the care-of
address (current location of the Mobile Node on the foreign network) to
send the packets to the Mobile Node as it roams.
PACKET DELIVERY
1) Agent discovery
A mobile node has to find a foreign agent when it moves away from its
home network. To do this, mobile IP describes two methods:
 Agent advertisement.
 Agent solicitation.
Agent advertisement:
The Home Agent and Foreign Agent advertise their services on the network
by using the ICMP Router Discovery Protocol (IRDP). The Mobile Node
listens to these advertisements to determine if it is connected to its home
network or foreign network.

Home agents and foreign agents broadcast advertisements at regular

intervals by using the packet format given below.
Type: 16: agent advertisement.

Length: depends on number of care-of addresses advertised.
Sequence number: Number of advertisement sent since the
agent was initialized.
Lifetime: Lifetime of advertisement.
Address: Number of address advertised in this packet.
Addresses: Address of the router.
Registration Lifetime: Maximum lifetime a node can ask during
registration.
R: Registration with this foreign agent is required (or another foreign agent
on this network). Even those mobile nodes that have already acquired a
care-of address from this foreign agent must reregister.
B: Busy...
H: home agent on this network.
F: foreign agent on this network.
M: minimal encapsulation
G: This agent can receive tunneled IP datagrams that use Generic Routing
Encapsulation (GRE),
Y: This agent supports the use of Van Jacobson header compression
Care-of address: The care-of address or addresses supported by this agent
on this network.
Type: 19, indicates that this is a prefix-length advertisement

Length: N, where N is the value of the Numb Address field in the ICMP
router advertisement portion of this ICMP message.
Agent Solicitation: If the MN doesn’t receive any advertisement by the
agent, then the MN must ask its IP by means of solicitation.
2) Registration
Mobile nodes when visiting a foreign network, informs their home agent of
their current care-of address, renew a registration if it expires.
Diagram:
The mobile node when travels to the foreign network and gets the care of
address from the foreign network it has to inform this to the home network.
This is done using the registration process.
The process are
1) It first sends the registration request message to the foreign network .This
is the registration process with the foreign network. The registration request
message consists of mobile node’s Permanent IP Address and the home
agent’s IP address.
2) The foreign agent will send the registration request message to the home
agent.

3) The home agent will store this information in its routing table. This is
called mobility binding
4) The home agent then sends an acknowledgement to the foreign agent.
5) The foreign agent passes this reply to the mobile node
6) The foreign agent updates its visitor list.
3) Tunneling and encapsulation
This process forward IP datagram (packet) from the home

agent to the care-of address.
Tunnel makes a virtual pipe for data packets between a tunnel
entry and a tunnel endpoint.
Packets entering a tunnel travel inside the tunnel and comes out
of the tunnel without changing.
 When a home agent receives a packet for a mobile host, it forwards
that packet to the care of address using IP-within-IP encapsulation.
 IP-in-IP encapsulation means the home a get inserts a new IP
header (COA address) added to the original IP packet.
 The new header contains HA address as source and Care of Address
as destination.
Tunneling, i.e., sending a packet through a tunnel is achieved by using
encapsulation.
Encapsulation means taking a packet consisting of packet header and data
and putting it into the data part of a new packet.

 The new header is also called the outer header for obvious reasons.
 Old header is called inner header .There are three methods of
encapsulation
IP-in-IP encapsulation: The figure shows the format of the packet
The packet consists of outer header and inner header

Outer header fields
 The version field : 4 for IP version 4
IHL: DS (TOS) is just copied from the inner header.
 The length field covers the complete encapsulated packet.
 TTL must be high enough so the packet can reach the tunnel
endpoint.
 The next field, here denoted with IP-in-IP, is the type of the protocol
used in the IP payload. This field is set to 4, the protocol type for IPv4
because again an IPv4 packet follows after this outer header.
 IP checksum is calculated as usual.
 The next fields are the tunnel entry as source address (the IP address
of the HA) and the tunnel exit point as destination address (the
COA).

Inner header fields

It starts with the same fields as outer header. The only change is TTL
which is decremented by 1. This means that the whole tunnel is considered
a single hop from the original packet’s point of view. Finally, the payload
follows the two headers.
2.4 Route Optimization

 Triangle Routing: Tunneling forwards all packets go to home network (HA)
and then sent to MN via a tunnel.
(CN->HNMN)
 Two IP routes that need to be set-up, one original and the
second the tunnel route.
 It causes unnecessary network overhead and adds Delay.
 Route optimization: allows the correspondent node to learn the current
location of the MN and tunnel its own packets directly. Problems arise with
 Mobility: correspondent node has to update/maintain its cache.
 Authentication: HA has to communicate with the
correspondent node to do authentication.
Message transmitted in the optimized mobile IP are
1. Binding request:
Correspondent Node (CN) sends a request to the home Agent to know
the current location of mobile IP.
2. Binding Update:
The Home agent sends the Address of the mobile node to CN
3. Binding Acknowledgement:
The correspondent node will send an Acknowledgement after
getting the address from the HA.
4. Binding Warning:
When a correspondent node could not find the Mobile node it
sends a Binding Warning message to the HA.

DHCP.
 It is Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
 Administrator manually assigns the IP address to the system.
 Manual configuration is difficult and error-prone.
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is used to configure IP
automatically.
Using DHCP server.
 DHCP provides static and dynamic address allocation that can be manual
or automatic.
 In static allocation, a DHCP server has a manually created static
database that binds
 Physical addresses to IP addresses.
Dynamic address allocation
 The DHCP server maintains a pool (range) of available addresses .This

address will be allocated to the system if it wants.
1. A host which is joined newly in the network s end s a DHCPDISCOVER

message to Broadcast IP address (255.255.255.255) to all the server. In
the fig given below two servers receive the broadcast message.
2. Servers reply to the client’s request with DHCPOFFER and offer a list of
configuration parameters Client can now choose one of the configurations
offered.
3. The client in turn replies to the servers, by accepting one of the
configurations and rejecting the others using DHCPREQUEST.
4. If a server receives a DHCPREQUEST with a rejection, it can free the
reserved configuration for other clients.

5. The DHCP server will say ok by giving a command called DHCPACK.

6. The new system will take the new IP address assigned by the DHCP server.
7. The addresses assigned from the pool are temporary addresses.
8. The DHCP server issues that IP address for a specific time when the time
expires, the client must renew it. The server has the option to agree or
disagree with the renewal.
9. If a client leaves a subnet, it should release the configuration received by
the server using DHCPRELEASE. Now the server can free the context
stored for the client and offer the configuration again.
Origins of TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
effort by the U.S. Department of Defense
(DOD).
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA).
.
.
.
.
inclusion of the TCP/IP protocol with Berkeley UNIX (BSD UNIX).

2.5 Overview of TCP/IP

The TCP/IP model explains how the protocol suite works to
provide communications
layers: Application, Transport, Internetwork, and Network
Interface
Requests for Comments (RFCs)
describe, and standardize the implementation and
configuration of the TCP/IP protocol suite.
2.6 TCP/IP Architecture

Application Layer
 Protocols at the TCP/IP Application layer include:
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
 Network File System (NFS)
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
 Terminal emulation protocol (telnet)
 Remote login application (rlogin)
 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
 Domain Name System (DNS)
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
Transport Layer Performs end-to-end packet delivery, reliability, and flow
control.
 Protocols:
 TCP provides reliable, connection-oriented
communications between two hosts
 Requires more network overhead
 UDP provides connectionless datagram services between two hosts
 Faster but less reliable
 Reliability is left to the Application layer Ports
 TCP and UDP use port numbers for communications between hosts
 Port numbers are divided into three ranges:
 Well Known Ports are those from 1 through 1,023
 Registered Ports are those from 1,024 through 49,151
 Dynamic/Private Ports are those from 49,152 through 65,535

TCP three-way handshake

 Establishes a reliable connection between two points
 TCP transmits three packets before the actual data transfer occurs
 Before two computers can communicate over TCP, they must
synchronize their initial sequence numbers (ISN)
 A reset packet (RST) indicates that a TCP connection is to be terminated
without further interaction.

2.7 Adaption of TCP Window

TCP sliding windows
 Control the flow and efficiency of communication
 Also known as windowing
 A method of controlling packet flow between hosts

 Allows multiple packets to be sent and affirmed with a

Single acknowledgment packet
 The size of the TCP window determines the number of
acknowledgments sent for a given data transfer
 Networks that perform large data transfers should use large window
sizes
TCP sliding windows (continued)
 Other flow control methods include
 Buffering
 Congestion avoidance
Internetwork Layer
Four main protocols function at this layer
 Internet Protocol (IP)
 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
 ARP
 A routed protocol
 Maps IP addresses to MAC addresses
 ARP tables contain the MAC and IP addresses of other devices on the
network
 When a computer transmits a frame to a destination on the local
network
 It checks the ARP cache for an IP to MAC Address mapping for the
destination node
 ARP request
 If a source computer cannot locate an IP to MAC address mapping in
its ARP table
 It must obtain the correct mapping

ARP request (continued)

A source computer broadcasts an ARP request to all hosts on the
local segment
Host with the matching IP address responds this request
 ARP request frame
 See Figure 3-7
 ARP cache life
 Source checks its local ARP cache prior to sending packets on the
local network
ARP cache life (continued)

 Important that the mappings are correct
 Network devices place a timer on ARP entries

 ARP tables reduce network traffic

 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
 Similar to ARP
 Used primarily by diskless workstations
 Which have MAC addresses burned into their network cards but no IP
addresses
 Client’s IP configuration is stored on a RARP Server RARP request frame
 RARP client Once a RARP client receives a RARP reply, it configures its
IP networking components
 By copying its IP address configuration information into its
local RAM
 ARP and RARP compared
 ARP is concerned with obtaining the MAC address of other clients
 RARP obtains the IP address of the local host
ARP and RARP compared (continued)

 The local host maintains the ARP table
 A RARP server maintains the RARP table
 The local host uses an ARP reply to update its ARP table and to send
frames to the destination

 The RARP reply is used to configure the IP protocol on the local host
 Routers and ARP
 ARP requests use broadcasts
 Routers filter broadcast traffic
 Source must forward the frame to the router
ARP tables
 Routers maintain ARP tables to assist in transmitting frames from one
network to another.
 A router uses ARP just as other hosts use ARP.
 Routers have multiple network interfaces and therefore also include the
port numbers of their NICs in the ARP table.
 The Ping utility.
 Packet Internet Groper (Ping) utility verifies connectivity between two
points.
 Uses ICMP echo request/reply messages.

The Trace utility

 Uses ICMP echo request/reply messages
 Can verify Internetwork layer (OSI-Network Layer) connectivity shows
the exact path a packet takes from the source to the destination
 Accomplished through the use of the time-to-live (TTL) counter
 Several different malicious network attacks have also been created using
ICMP messages
 Example: ICMP flood
Network Interface Layer

 Plays the same role as the Data Link and Physical layers of the OSI
model
 The MAC address, network card drivers, and specific interfaces for the
network card function at this level

 No specific IP functions exist at this layer

 Because the layer’s focus is on communication with the network
card and other networking hardware Assume congestion to be the primary
cause for packet losses and unusual delays
 Invoke congestion control and avoidance algorithms, resulting in
significant degraded end-to-end performance and very high interactive
delays
TCP in Mobile Wireless Networks Communication characterized by sporadic
high bit-error rates (10-4 to 10-6) disconnections intermittent connectivity due to
handoffs low bandwidth
Mobile Networks Topology
TCP Performance with BER

Classification of Schemes
End-to-End protocols
 loss recovery handled by sender
 Link-layer solutions
 hide link-related losses from sender
 TCP sender may not be fully shielded
 Split-connection approaches
 hide any non-congestion related losses from TCP sender
 since the problem is local, solve it locally End-to-End Protocols
Make the sender realize some losses are due to bit-error, not congestion.
 Sender avoid invoking congestion control algorithms if non-congestion
related losses occur.
 E.g. Reno, New-Reno, SACK
Link-Layer Protocols Hides the characteristics of the wireless link from the
transport layer and tries to solve the problem at the link layer
 Uses technique like forward error correction (FEC)
 Snoop, AIRMAIL(Asymmetric Reliable Mobile Access In Link-layer)
Pros:
 The wireless link is made more reliable
 Doesn’t change the semantics of TCP
 Fits naturally into the layered structure of network protocols
Cons:
 If the wireless link is very lousy, sender times-out waiting for ACK, and
congestion control algorithm starts Split Connection
Split the TCP connection into two separate connections.
 1st connection: sender to base station
 2nd connection: base station to receiver
 The base station simply copies packets between the connections in both
directions.

Pros:
 Sender shielded from wireless link.
 Better throughput can be achieved by fine tuning the wireless protocol link.
Cons:
 Violates the semantics of TCP
 Extra copying at the Base station
Classification of Schemes
2.8 Improving TCP/IP Performance over Wireless Networks

Snoop-TCP
A (snoop) layer is added to the routing code at BS which keep track of packets in
both directions
 Packets meant to MH are cached at BS, and if needed, retransmitted in the
wireless link
 BS suppress DUPACKs sent from MH to FH
 BS use shorter local timer for local timeout Changes are restricted to BS
and optionally to MH as well
 E2E TCP semantics is preserved


I-TCP: Indirect TCP for Mobile Hosts

I-TCP –LAN Performance
Normal and overlapped – effective reaction to high BER.

Non-Overlapped – No congestion avoidance algorithm

I-TCP – WAN Performance
 End-to-end semantics is not followed

Disadvantages
 MSR sends an ack to the correspondent but loses the packet to the mobile
 Copying overhead at MSR

host
 Conclusion: I-TCP particularly suited for applications which are

throughput intensive
Slow Start
 On receiving Ack, congestion window is set to 2.

Sender starts by transmitting 1 segment
 On receiving Acks, congestion window is doubled.

 Continues until Timeout occurs
 After thresh, the sender increases its window size by [current window]on
receiving Ack.(Congestion Avoidance phase)

Fast Recovery
 Why?
After Fast retransmit, perform congestion avoidance instead of slow start.
 Duplicate ACK indicates that there are still data flowing between the two
ends → Network resources are still available.
 TCP does not want to reduce the flow abruptly by going into slow start.
End to End Protocols
 Slow start, Congestion avoidance, fast retransmit

Tahoe: Original TCP
 Reno: TCP Tahoe + Fast Recovery

 Significant Improvement - single packet loss.
 Suffers when multiple packets are dropped.
 New-Reno: Reno + Stay in Fast Recovery
 The first non-duplicate ACK but not the expected one.
 SACK: Reno + SACK option
 When multiple packets are dropped
 Fast Retransmission
Packet Loss Scenario
 ssthresh = 0.5 x current window size

 congestion window = 1
 Reno, New-Reno and SACK
 Fast Retransmission
 Fast Recovery
 congestion window = 0.5 x current window size +3 x segment size
 Increase window size by 1 on receiving a dup ACK


UNIT III
MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Cellular Network Organization
 Use multiple low-power transmitters (Base station) (100 W or less)
 Areas divided into cells
 Each served by its own antenna
 Served by base station consisting of
transmitter, receiver, and control unit
 Band of frequencies allocated
 Cells set up such that antennas of all neighbors are equidistant
(Hexagonal pattern)
Cellular systems implements Space Division Multiplexing Technique
(SDM). Each transmitter is called a base station and can cover a fixed area called
a cell. This area can vary from few meters to few kilometres.
Mobile network providers install several thousands of base stations each
with a smaller cell instead of using power full transmitters with large cells

Basic concepts:
 High capacity is achieved by limiting the coverage of each base station to
a small geographic region called a cell
 Same frequencies/ timeslots/codes are reused by spatially separated base
station
 A switching technique called handoff enables a call to proceed
uninterrupted when one user moves from one cell to another
 Neighboring base stations are assigned different group of channels so as to
minimize the interference
 By systematically spacing base station and the channels group may be
reused as many number of times as necessary
 As demand increases the number of base stations may be increased thereby
providing additional capacity
Frequency Reuse
 adjacent cells assigned different frequencies to

avoid interference or crosstalk
 Objective is to reuse frequency in nearby cells
 10 to 50 frequencies assigned to each cell

Advantages
1. Higher capacity
Smaller the size of the cell more the number of concurrent user’s i.e. huge cells
do not allow for more concurrent users.
2. Less transmission power
Huge cells require a greater transmission power than small cells.
3. Local interference only
For huge cells there are a number of interfering signals, while for small cells
there is limited interference only.
4. Robustness
As cellular systems are decentralized, they are more robust against the failure of
single components.
Disadvantages:
 Infrastructure needed: Cellular systems need a complex
infrastructure to connect all base stations
 Handover needed: The mobile station has to perform a handover
when changing from one cell to another.
3.1 GSM ARCHITECTURE
 GSM is a digital cellular system designed to support a wide variety of
services, depending on the user contract and the network and mobile
equipment capabilities.
 formerly: Group Special Mobile (founded 1982)
 now: Global System for Mobile Communication
 GSM offers several types of connections
 voice connections, data connections, short message service
There are three service domains
 Bearer Services
 Telematics Services
 Supplementary Services

3.1.1 GSM SERVICES AND FEATURES

Bearer Services
 Telecommunication services to transfer data between access points
 Specification of services up to the terminal interface (OSI layers 1-3)
 Different data rates for voice and data (original standard)
Data Service (circuit
switched)
 synchronous: 2.4, 4.8 or 9.6 kbit/s
 asynchronous: 300 - 1200 bit/s
Data service (packet switched)
 synchronous: 2.4, 4.8 or 9.6 kbit/s
 asynchronous: 300 - 9600 bit/s
Tele Services
 Telecommunication services helps for voice communication via mobile
phones
 Offered voice related services
 electronic mail (MHS, Message Handling System, implemented in
the fixed network)
 ShortMessageServiceSMS
alphanumeric data transmission to/from the mobile terminal using
the signaling channel, thus allowing simultaneous use of basic
services and SMS (160 characters)
 MMS
Supplementary services
 Important services are
 identification: forwarding of caller number
 automatic call-back
 conferencing with up to 7 participants
 locking of the mobile terminal (incoming or outgoing calls)

Architecture of the GSM system

 GSM is a PLMN (Public Land Mobile Network)
 several providers setup mobile networks following the GSM
standard within each country
 components
 MS (mobile station)
 BS (base station)
 MSC (mobile switching center)
 LR (location register)
 subsystems
 RSS (radio subsystem): covers all radio aspects
 NSS (network and switching subsystem): call forwarding,
handover, switching
 OSS (operation subsystem): management of the network
3.1.3 GSM SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
GSM: elements and interfaces
radio cell
BSS
MS MS
Um radio cell
RSS BTS MS
BTS
Abis
BSC BSC
A
MSC MSC
NSS signaling
VLR VLR
ISDN, PSTN
HLR GMSC
PDN
IWF
O
OSS
EIR AUC OMC
ICS 243E - Ch4. Wireless Winter 2001 4.12

Telecomm. Sys.
GSM Network consists of three main parts:

 Radio subsystem RSS
 Base Station Subsystem BSS
 Network and Switching Subsystems NSS
Radio subsystem:
 The Radio Subsystem (RSS) contains three main parts
 Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
 Base Station Controller (BSC)
 Mobile Stations (MS)
 Base Transceiver Station (BTS) defines a cell and is responsible for radio
link protocols with the Mobile Station
 Base Station Controller (BSC) controls multiple BTSs and manages radio
channel setup, and handovers. The BSC is the connection between the
Mobile Station and Mobile Switching Center.
 A mobile station (MS) is a hand portable and vehicle mounted unit
It contains several functional groups
 SIM (Subscriber Identity Module)
 personalization of the mobile terminal, stores user parameters
 PIN
 IMEI
 Cipher key
 Location Area Identification
 It also has Display, loudspeaker, microphone and programmable keys.
Base Station Subsystem Consists of:
 Base Transceiver Station (BTS) defines a cell and is responsible for
radio link protocols with the Mobile Station
 Base Station Controller (BSC) controls multiple BTSs and manages
radio channel setup, and handovers. The BSC is the connection between
the Mobile Station and Mobile Switching Center.
Network and Switching Subsystems
It consists of
 Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
 Home Location Register (HLR)
 Visitors Location Register (VLR)
 Authentication Center (AuC)

Mobile Switching Center (MSC) is the central component of the NSS.

Its functions:
 Manages the location of mobiles
 Switches calls
 Manages Security features
 Controls handover between BSCs
 Resource management
 Interworks with and manages network databases
 Collects call billing data and sends to billing system
 Collects traffic statistics for performance monitoring
Home Location Register (HLR)
Contains all the subscriber information for the purposes of call control, and
location determination. There is logically one HLR per GSM network.
Visitors Location Register (VLR)
Local database for a subset of user data - data about all users currently visiting in
the domain of the VLR.
Operation subsystem
 The OSS (Operation Subsystem) used for centralized operation,
management, and maintenance of all GSM subsystems
The main Components of OSS are
 Authentication Center (AUC)
 Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
 Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC)
Authentication Center (AUC)
 It is a protected database that stores the security information for each
subscriber (a copy of the secret key stored in each SIM).
Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
 It contains a list of all valid mobile equipment on the network.
Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC)
 It has different control capabilities for the radio subsystem and the network
subsystem

Radio spectrum is very limited resource and this is shared by all users. Time- and
Frequency-Division Multiple Access (TDMA/FDMA) is used to share the
frequency. FDMA divides frequency bandwidth of the (maximum) 25 MHz into
124 carrier frequencies. Each Base Station (BS) is assigned one or more carrier
frequencies.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) - the users take turns (in a round robin),
each one periodically getting the entire bandwidth for a little time.
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) - the frequency spectrum is
divided among the logical channels, with each user using some frequency band.
Mobile unit can be in two modes
Idle - listening Dedicated: sending/receiving data
There are two kinds of channels: Traffic channels (TCH) and Control channels
Organization of bursts, TDMA frames, and multi frames for speech and data.
The fundamental unit of time in TDMA scheme is called a burst period and it
lasts 15/26 msec. Eight bust periods are grouped in one TDMA frame (120/26
msec), which forms a basic unit of logical channels. One physical channel is
one burst period per TDMA frame. Traffic channels. It is used to transmit data.
It is divided to Full rate TCH and Half rate TCH.
In GSM system two types of traffic channels used:
 Full Rate Traffic Channels (TCHF): This channel carries information at
rate of 22.8 Kbps.
 Half Rate Traffic Channels (TCHH): This channels carries information
at rate of 11.4 Kbps.

Control channels : carries control information to enable the system to operate

correctly.
1. BROADCAST CHANNELS (BCH)
 Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)
 Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH)
 Synchronization Channel (SCH)
 Cell Broadcast Channel (CBCH)
2. DEDICATED CONTROL CHANNELS (DCCH)
 Standalone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH)
 Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH)
 Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH)
3. COMMON CONTROL CHANNELS (CCCH)
 Paging Channel (PCH)
 Random Access Channel (RACH)
 Access Grant Channel (AGCH)
GSM Protocol:
GSM architecture is a layered model used to allow communications
between two different systems. The GMS protocol stacks diagram is shown
below:
MS Protocols
GSM signaling protocol is divided in to three layers:
 Layer 1: The physical layer. It uses the channel structures over the air
interface.

 Layer 2: The data-link layer. Across the Um interface, the data-link layer
is LAP-D protocol is used. Across Abs interface (LAP-Dm) is used. Across
the A interface, the Message Transfer Part (MTP) is used.
 Layer 3 : GSM protocol’s third layer is divided into three sub layers:
o Radio Resource Management (RR),
o Mobility Management (MM), and
o Connection Management (CM).
THIRD LAYER (RR, MM, AND CM):
The RR layer (radio resource) is the lower layer that manages both radio
and fixed link, between the MS and the MSC. The work of the RR layer is to
setup, maintenance and release of radio channels .
The MM layer is above the RR layer. It handles the functions of the
mobility of the subscriber, authentication and security and Location
management...
The CM layer is the topmost layer of the GSM protocol stack. This layer
is responsible for Call Control, Supplementary Service Management, and Short
Message Service Management call establishment, selection of the type of service
(including alternating between services during a call), and call release.
SECOND LAYER:
To Signal between entities in a GSM network requires higher layers. For
this purpose, the LAPDm protocol is used at the Um interface for layer two.
LAPDm is called link access procedure for the D-channel (LAPD. LAPDm gives
reliable data transfer over connections, sequencing of data frames, and flow
control.
PHYSICAL LAYER:
 The physical layer handles all radio-specific functions. It multiplexes the
bursts into a TDMA frame, synchronization with the BTS, detection of idle
channels, and measurement of the channel quality on the downlink.
 The physical layer at Um uses GMSK for digital modulation and performs
encryption/decryption of data.
 The main tasks of the physical layer comprise channel coding and error

detection/correction.
 It uses forward error correction (FEC) schemes.
 The GSM physical layer tries to correct errors, but it does not deliver
erroneous data to the higher layer.
The physical layer does voice activity detection (VAD)
CONNECTION ESTABLISHMENT
Mobile Terminated Call

1: calling a GSM subscriber
2: forwarding call to GMSC
3: signal call setup to HLR
4, 5: request MSRN from VLR
6: forward responsible MSC to GMSC
7: forward call to current MSC
8, 9: get current status of MS
10, 11: paging of MS
12, 13: MS answers
14, 15: security checks
16, 17: set up connection

Security in GSM
Security services
 Access control/authentication
 User SIM (Subscriber Identity Module): secret
PIN (personal identification number)
 SIM network: challenge response method
 Confidentiality
 voice and signaling encrypted on the wireless link (after
successful authentication)
 Anonymity
 temporary identity TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber
Identity)
 newly assigned at each new location update (LUP)
 encrypted transmission
3 algorithms specified in GSM
 A3 for authentication (“secret”, open interface)
 A5 for encryption (standardized)
 A8 for key generation (“secret”, open interface)
AUTHENTICATION
Authentication key Ki,, the user identification IMSI, and the algorithm
used for authentication A3 is stored in the sim. This is known only to the MS
and BTS. Authentication uses a challenge-response method: The access
control AC (BTS) generates a random number RAND this is called as
challenge, and the SIM within the MS reply with SRES (signed
response) .This is called as SRES response.
N/W side:
BTS send random number RAND to MS.
MS side:
MS prepares SRES response by giving the random number RAND and
Ki, to the algorithm A8.The output is the SRES which is sent to the BTS.
BTS side:
BTS also prepares the same SRES and the output from the MS is compared
with result created by the BTS.
If they are the same, the BTS accepts the subscriber, otherwise the
subscriber is rejected.
ENCRYPTION
To maintain the secrecy of the conversation, all messages are encrypted
in GSM. Encryption is done by giving the cipher key Kc with message to the
algorithm A5 .Here the key is generated separately.

Kc is generated using the Ki which is stored in SIM and a random

number RAND given by BTS, by applying the algorithm A8. Note that the SIM
in the MS and the network both calculate the same Kc based on the random value
RAND. The key Kc itself is not transmitted over the air.
MOBILITY MANAGEMENT
Handover or Handoff:
Handover basically means changing the point of connection while
communicating.
Whenever mobile station is connected to Base station and there is a need to
change to another Base station, it is known as Handover
 A handover should not cause a cut-off, also called call drop. handover
duration is 60 ms.
 There are two basic reasons for a handover:
 The mobile station moves out of the range. The received signal level
decreases. Error rate may increase. all these effects may lower the
quality of the radio link
 The traffic in one cell is too high and shift some MS to other cells with
a lower load (if possible). Handover may be due to load balancing.
Four possible handover scenarios in GSM:

 Intra-cell handover:
 Within a cell, narrow-band interference could make transmission at
a certain frequency impossible.
 The BSC could then decide to change the carrier frequency (scenario
1).
 Inter-cell, intra-BSC handover:
 The mobile station moves from one cell to another, but stays within
the control of the same BSC.
 The BSC then performs a handover, assigns a new radio channel in
the new cell and releases the old one (scenario 2).
 Inter-BSC, intra-MSC handover:

 As a BSC only controls a limited number of cells; GSM also has to

perform handovers between cells controlled by different BSCs.
 This handover then has to be controlled by the MSC (scenario 3).
 Inter MSC handover: A handover could be required between two cells
belonging to different MSCs. Now both MSCs perform the handover
together (scenario 4).
 Whether to take handover or not
 HD depends on the average value of received signal when MS moves away
from BT sold to another closer BTS new
 BSC collects all values from BTS and MS calculates average values
 Values are then compared with threshold (HO_MARGIN_ hysteresis to
avoid ping-pong effect)
 Even with the HO_MARGIN, the ping-pong effect may occur in GSM-a
value which is too high could cause too many handovers
Typical signal flow during an inter-bsc, intra-msc handover.

 The MS sends its periodic measurements reports to BTS old, the BTSold
forwards these reports to the BSC old together with its own measurements.
 Based on these values and, e.g., on current traffic conditions, the BSC old
may decide to perform a handover and sends the message HO_required to
the MSC.
 MSC then checks if the resources available needed for the handover from
the new BSC, BSC new.
 This BSC checks if enough resources (typically frequencies or time slots)
are available and allocates a channel at the BTS new to prepare for the arrival
of the MS.
 The BTS new acknowledges the successful channel activation to BSC new,
BSC new acknowledges the handover request.
 The MSC then issues a handover command that is forwarded to the MS.
 The MS now breaks its old connection and accesses the new BTS.

 The next steps include the establishment of the link (this includes layer
two link
Establishment and handover complete messages from the MS).
 the MS has then finished the handover, release its old resources to the old
BSC and BTS
3.2 GPRS NETWORK ARCHITECTURE:

GPRS is the short form of General Packet Radio Service. It is mainly used
to browse internet in mobile devices. GPRS is GSM based packet switched
technology. It needs MS (mobile subscriber) or user to support GPRS, network
operator to support GPRS and services for the user to be enabled to use GPRS
features.
GPRS network Architecture

Entire GPRS network can be divided for understanding into following basic
GPRS network

 Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)- It is similar to MSC of GSM

network. SGSN functions are outlined below.
Data compression Authentication of GPRS subscribers VLR.
Mobility management
Traffic statistics collections.
User database
 Gateway GPRS Support Node(GGSN)-
Packet delivery between mobile stations and external networks
Authentication

 Packet data is transmitted from a PDN, via the GGSN and SGSN directly
to the BSS and finally to the MS.
 The MSC, which is responsible for data transport in the traditional circuit-
switched GSM, is only used for signaling in the GPRS scenario.
Before sending any data over the GPRS network, an MS must attach to it,
following the procedures of the mobility management. A mobile station must
register itself with GPRS network.
 GPRS attach
 GPRS detach
GPRS detach can be initiated by the MS or the network.
The attachment procedure includes assigning a temporal identifier, called a
temporary logical link identity (TLLI), and a ciphering key sequence number
(CKSN) for data encryption.
A MS can be in 3 states:
 IDLE
 READY
 STANDBY
 In idle mode an MS is not reachable and all context is deleted.
 In the standby state only movement across routing areas is updated to the
SGSN but not changes of the cell.
In the ready state every movement of the MS is indicated to the SGSN
PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE
 Protocol architecture of the transmission plane for GPRS.

 All data within the GPRS backbone, i.e., between the GSNs, is transferred
using the GPRS tunneling protocol (GTP).
 GTP can use two different transport protocols, either the reliable TCP
(needed for reliable transfer of X.25 packets) or the non-reliable UDP
(used for IP packets).
 The network protocol for the GPRS backbone is IP (using any lower
layers).
 Sub network dependent convergence protocol (SNDCP) is used
between an SGSN and the MS. On top of SNDCP and GTP, user packet
data is tunneled from the MS to the GGSN and vice versa.
 To achieve a high reliability of packet transfer between SGSN and MS, a
special LLC is used, which comprises ARQ and FEC mechanisms for PTP
(and later PTM) services.
 A base station subsystem GPRS protocol (BSSGP) is used to convey
routing and QoS-related information between the BSS and SGSN.

 BSSGP does not perform error correction and works on top of a frame
relay (FR) network.
 Finally, radio link dependent protocols are needed to transfer data over the
Um interface.
 The radio link protocol (RLC) provides a reliable link.
3.3 UMTS (Universal Mobile Telephone System

• Reasons for innovations
- new service requirements
- availability of new radio bands
• User demands
- seamless Internet-Intranet access
- wide range of available services
- compact, lightweight and affordable terminals
- simple terminal operation
- open, understandable pricing structures for the whole
spectrum of available services
UMTS Basic Parameter
• Frequency Bands (FDD : 2x60 MHz):
– 1920 to 1980 MHz (Uplink)
– 2110 to 2170 MHz (Downlink)
• Frequency Bands (TDD: 20 + 15 MHz):
– 1900 – 1920 MHz and 2010 – 2025 MHz
• RF Carrier Spacing:
– 4.4 - 5 MHz
• RF Channel Raster:
– 200 KHz
• Power Control Rate:
– 1500 Cycles per Second

UMTS W-CDMA Architecture


UNIT 4
MOBILE AD HOC NETWORKS
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF MANET

In early 1970s, the Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) was called packet radio
network, which was sponsored by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
(DARPA). They had a project named packet radio having several wireless
terminals that could communication with each other on battlefields. “It is interesting
to note that these early packet radio systems predict the Internet and indeed were part
of the motivation of the original Internet Protocol suite”.
The whole life cycle of Ad hoc networks could be categorized into the
First, second, and the third generation Ad hoc networks systems. Present Ad
hoc networks systems are considered the third generation.
The first generation goes back to 1972. At the time, they were called
PRNET (Packet Radio Networks). In conjunction with ALOHA (Arial
Locations of Hazardous Atmospheres) and CSMA (Carrier Sense Medium
Access), approaches for medium access control and a kind of distance-vector
routing PRNET were used on a trial basis to provide different networking
capabilities in a combat environment.
The second generation of Ad hoc networks emerged in 1980s, when the
Ad hoc network systems were further enhanced and implemented as a part of
the SURAN (Survivable Adaptive Radio Networks) program. This
provided a packet-switched network to the mobile battlefield in an
environment without infrastructure. This Program proved to be beneficial in
improving the radios' performance by making them smaller, cheaper, and
resilient to electronic attacks.
In the 1990s (Third generation), the concept of commercial Ad hoc
networks arrived with notebook computers and other viable communication
equipment’s. At the same time, the idea of a collection of mobile nodes was
Proposed at several researchers gatherings IEEE 802.11.

Had adopted the term "Ad hoc networks" and the research community had
started to look into the possibility of deploying Ad hoc networks in other
areas of application.
4.1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MOBILE AD HOC NETWORKS
An Ad hoc network is a collection of mobile nodes, which forms a
temporary network without the aid of centralized administration or standard
support devices regularly available as conventional networks. These nodes
generally have a limited transmission range and, so, each node seeks the
assistance of its neighboring nodes in forwarding packets and hence the nodes
in an Ad hoc network can act as both routers and hosts. Thus a node may
forward packets between other nodes as well as run user applications. By
nature these types of networks are suitable for situations where either no fixed
infrastructure exists or deploying network is not possible. Ad hoc mobile
networks have found many applications in various fields like military,
emergency, conferencing and sensor networks. Each of these application areas
has their specific requirements for routing protocols.
Since the network nodes are mobile, an Ad hoc network will typically
have a dynamic topology, which will have profound effects on
network characteristics. Network nodes will often be battery powered, which
limits the capacity of CPU, memory, and bandwidth. This will require network
functions that are resource effective. Furthermore, the wireless (radio) media
will also affect the behavior of the network due to fluctuating link bandwidths
resulting from relatively high error rates. These unique desirable features pose
several new challenges in the design of wireless Ad hoc networking protocols.
Network functions such as routing, address allocation, authentication and
authorization must be designed to cope with a dynamic and volatile network
topology. In order to establish routes between nodes, which are farther than a
single hop, specially configured routing protocols are engaged. The unique
feature of these protocols is their ability to trace routes in spite of a dynamic
topology. In the simplest scenarios, nodes may be able to communicate directly
with each other, for example, when they are within wireless transmission
range of each other. However, Ad hoc networks must also support
communication between nodes that are only indirectly connected by a series

of wireless hops through other nodes. For example, in Fig 3.1, to establish
communication between nodes A and C the network must enlist the aid of node
B to relay packets between them. The circles indicate the nominal range of each
node’s radio transceiver. Nodes A and C are not in direct transmission range of
each other, since A’s circle does not cover C.
Figure 3.1: A Mobil Ad hoc network of three nodes, where nodes

A and C
Must discover the route through B in order to
communicate.
In general, an Ad hoc network is a network in which every node is

potentially a router and every node is potentially mobile. The presence
of wireless communication and mobility make an Ad hoc network unlike
a traditional wired network and requires that the routing protocols used in an
Ad hoc network be based on new and different principles. Routing protocols
for traditional wired networks are designed to support tremendous
numbers of nodes, but they assume that the relative position of the nodes
will generally remain unchanged.
4.2 CHARACTERSTICS OF MOBILE AD HOC NETWORKS

Characteristics of MANET
In MANET, each node act as both host and router. That is it is
autonomous in behavior.

Multi-hop radio relaying- When a source node and destination node for a
Message is out of the radio range, the MANETs are capable of multi-hop
routing.
Distributed nature of operation for security, routing and host
configuration. A centralized firewall is absent here.
The nodes can join or leave the network anytime, making the network
topology dynamic in nature.
Mobile nodes are characterized with less memory, power and light
weight features.
The reliability, efficiency, stability and capacity of wireless links are
often inferior when compared with wired links. This shows the
fluctuating link bandwidth of wireless links.
Mobile and spontaneous behavior which demands minimum human
intervention to configure the network.
All nodes have identical features with similar responsibilities and
capabilities and hence it forms a completely symmetric environment.
High user density and large level of user mobility.
Nodal connectivity is intermittent.
The mobile Ad hoc networks has the following features-

Autonomous terminal Distributed operation Multichip routing
Dynamic network topology Fluctuating link capacity Light-
weight terminals
Autonomous Terminal
In MANET, each mobile terminal is an autonomous node, which may
function as both a host and a router. In other words, beside the basic processing
ability as a host, the mobile nodes can also perform switching functions as a
router. So usually endpoints and switches are indistinguishable in MANET.

Distributed Operation
Since there is no background network for the central control of the
network operations, the control and management of the network is distributed
Among the terminals. The nodes involved in a MANET should collaborate
amongst themselves and each node acts as a relay as needed to implement
functions like security and routing.
Multi hop Routing

Basic types of Ad hoc routing algorithms can be single-hop and multi hop,
based on different l in k la ye r attributes and r o u t i n g protocols . Single-
hop MANET is simpler than multi hop in terms of structure and implementation,
with the lesser cost of functionality and applicability. When delivering data
packets from a source to its destination out of the direct wireless transmission
range, the packets should be forwarded via one or more intermediate nodes.
Dynamic Network Topology
Since the n o d e s are mobile, the network topology may change rapidly
and predictably and the connectivity among the terminals may vary with time.
MANET should adapt to the traffic and propagation conditions as well as the
mobility patterns of the mobile network nodes. The mobile nodes in the network
dynamically establish routing among themselves as they move about, forming
their own network on the fly. Moreover, a user in the MANET may not only
operate within the Ad hoc network, but may require access to a public fixed
network (e.g. Internet).
Fluctuating Link Capacity

The nature of high bit-error rates of wireless connection might be more
profound in a MANET. One end-to-end path can be shared by several sessions.
The channel over which the terminals communicate is subjected to noise, fading,
and interference , and h a s less bandwidth than a wired network . In
so me scenarios, the path between any pair of users can traverse multiple
wireless links and the link themselves can be heterogeneous.
Light Weight Terminals

In most of the cases, the MANET nodes are mobile devices with less
CPU processing capability, small memory size, and low power storage. Such
devices need optimized algorithms and mechanisms that implement the
computing and communicating functions.
4.3 APPLICATIONS OF AD HOC NETWORKS
Defense applications: On-the-fly communication set up for soldiers on

the ground, fighter planes in the air, etc.
Crisis-management applications: Natural disasters, where the entire
communication infrastructure is in disarray
Tele-medicine: Paramedic assisting a victim at a remote location can
access medical records, can get video conference assistance from a
surgeon for an emergency intervention
ele-Geo processing applications: Combines geographical information
system, GPS and high capacity MS, Queries dependent of location
information of the users, and environmental monitoring using sensors
Vehicular Area Network: in providing emergency services and other
information in both urban and rural setup
Virtual navigation: A remote database contains geographical
representation of streets, buildings, and characteristics of large metropolis
and blocks of this data is transmitted in rapid sequence to a vehicle to
visualize needed environment ahead of time
Education via the internet: Educational opportunities on Internet to K-
12 students and other interested individuals. Possible to have last-mile
wireless Internet access
A Vehicular Ad hoc Network [VANET]
VANET is a form of Mobile Ad hoc network, to provide communications among
nearby vehicles and between vehicles and nearby fixed equipment, usually
described as roadside equipment. The main goal of VANET is providing safety

and comfort for passengers. To this end a special electronic device will be placed
inside each vehicle which will provide Ad hoc Network connectivity for the
passengers. This network tends to operate without any infrastructure or legacy
client and server communication. Each vehicle equipped with VANET device
will be a node in the Ad hoc network and can receive and relay others messages
through the wireless network. Collision warning, road sign alarms and in-place
traffic view will give the driver essential tools to decide the best path along the
way. There are also multimedia and internet connectivity facilities for passengers,
all provided within the wireless coverage of each car. Automatic Payment for
parking lots and toll collection are other examples of possibilities inside
VANET. Most of the concerns of interest to MANETS are of interest in
VANETS, but the details differ. Rather than moving at random, vehicles tend to
move in an organized fashion. The interactions with roadside equipment can
likewise be characterized fairly accurately. And finally, most vehicles
are restricted in their range of motion, for example by being constrained to follow
a paved high way.
Fig 3.5: A Vehicular Ad hoc Network

In addition, in the year 2006 the term MANET mostly describes an
academic area of research, and the term VANET perhaps its most promising
area of application. In VANET, or Intelligent Vehicular Ad hoc Networking,
defines an intelligent way of using Vehicular Networking. In VANET integrates
on multiple Ad hoc networking technologies such as WiFi IEEE 802.11 b/g,
WiMAX IEEE 802.16, Bluetooth, IRA, ZigBee for easy, accurate, effective and

simple communication between vehicles on dynamic mobility. Effective

measures such as media communication between vehicles can be enabled as well
methods to track the automotive vehicles are also preferred. In VANET helps in
defining safety measures in vehicles, streaming communication between
vehicles, infotainment and telematics. Vehicular Ad hoc Networks are expected
to implement variety of wireless technologies such as Dedicated Short Range
Communications (DSRC) which is a type of WiFi. Other candidate wireless
technologies are Cellular, Satellite, and WiMAX. Vehicular Ad hoc Networks
can be viewed as component of the Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS).
Wireless Sensor Networks
Advances in processor, memory and radio technology will enable small
and cheap nodes capable of sensing, communication and computation.
Networks of such nodes called wireless sensor networks can coordinate
to perform distributed sensing of environmental phenomena.
Sensor networks have emerged as a promising tool for monitoring (and

possibly actuating) the physical world, utilizing self-organizing networks of
battery-powered wireless sensors that can sense, process and communicate. A
sensor network] is a network of many tiny disposable low power devices, called
nodes, which are spatially distributed in order to perform an application-oriented
global task. These nodes f o r m a network by communicating with each other
through the existing wired networks. The primary component of the network is
the sensor, essential for monitoring real world physical conditions such as sound,

temperature, humidity, intensity, vibration, pressure, motion, pollutants etc. at

different locations.
Wireless sensor networks can be considered as special case of mobile Ad
hoc networks (MANET) with reduced or no mobility. Initially WSNs was
mainly motivated by military applications. Later on the civilian application
domain of wireless sensor networks as shown in Fig 3.6 have been considered,
such as environmental and species monitoring, disaster management, smart
home production and healthcare etc. These WSNs may consist of
heterogeneous and mobile sensor nodes, the network topology may be as simple
as a star topology; the scale and density of a network varies depending on the
application.
Wireless mesh networks

Wireless mesh networks are Ad hoc wireless networks, which are formed
to provide communication infrastructure using mobile or fixed nodes/users.
The mesh topology provides alternative path for data transmission from the
source to the destination. It gives quick re-configuration when the firstly chosen
path fails. Wireless m e s h n e t w o r k s h o u l d b e capable o f s e l f -
organization a n d s e l f - maintenance. The main advantages of wireless mesh
networks are high speed, low cost, quick deployment, high scalability, and high
availability. It works on 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequency bands, depending on
the physical layer used. For example, if IEEE 802.11a is used, the speed
can be up to 54 Mbps. An application example of wireless mesh network
could be a wireless mesh networks in a residential zone, which the radio
relay devices are built on top of the rooftops. In this situation, once one of the
nodes in this residential area is equipped with the wired link to the Internet,
this node could be the gateway node. Others could connect to the Internet
from this node. Other possible deployments are highways, business zones,
and university campus.

4.4 DESIGN ISSUES OF MOBILE AD HOC NETWORKS
Ad hoc networking has been a popular field of study during the last few
years. Almost every aspect of the network has been explored in one way or other
at different level of problem. Yet, no ultimate resolution to any of the problems
is found or, at least, agreed upon. On the contrary, more questions have arisen.
The topics that need to be resolved are as follows
 Scalability.
 Routing.
 Quality of service
 Client server model shift Security
 Energy conservation
 Node cooperation
 Interoperation
The approach to tackle above aspects has been suggested and possible
update solutions have been discussed [31]. In present research work one of the
aspects “the routing” has been reconsidered for suitable protocol performing
better under dynamic condition of network.
Scalability
Most of the visionaries depicting applications which are anticipated to
benefit from the Ad hoc technology take scalability as granted. Imagine, for
example, the vision of ubiquitous computing where networks can be of "any
size". However, it is unclear how such large networks can actually grow. Ad
hoc networks suffer , by nature, from the s c alabilit y problems in
c a p a ci t y. To exemplify this , we may look into simple interference
studies. In a non- cooperative network, where Omni-directional antennas
are being used, the throughput per node decreases at a rate 1/√N, where N
is the number of nodes
That is, in a network with 100 nodes, a single device gets, at most,
Approximately one tenth of the theoretical network data rate. This problem,
however, cannot be fixed except by physical layer improvements, such as

directional antennas .If the available capacity like bandwidth, radiation pattern of
antenna sets some limits for communications. This demands the formulation of
new protocols to overcome circumvents. Route acquisition, service location and
encryption key exchanges are just few examples of tasks that will require
considerable overhead as the network size grows. If the scarce resources are
wasted with profuse control traffic, these networks may see never the day dawn.
Therefore, scalability is a boiling research topic and has to be taken into account
in the design of solutions for Ad hoc networks.
Routing
Routing in wireless Ad hoc networks is nontrivial due to highly dynamic
Environment. An Ad hoc network is a collection of wireless mobile nodes
dynamically forming a temporary network without the use of any preexisting
network infrastructure or centralized administration. In a typical Ad hoc
network, mobile nodes come together for a period of time to exchange
information. While exchanging information, the nodes may continue to move,
and so the network must be prepared to adapt continually to establish routes
among themselves without any outside support.
Quality of Service
The heterogeneity o f e x i s t i n g I n t e r n e t a p p l i c a t i o n s h a s
c h a l l e n g e d network designers who have built the network to provide best-
effort service only. Voice, live video and file transfer are just a few
applications having very diverse requirements. Qualities of Service (QoS)
aware solutions are being developed to meet the emerging requirements of
these applications. QoS has to be guaranteed by the network to provide certain
performance for a given flow, or a collection of flows, in terms of QoS
parameters such as delay, jitter, bandwidth, packet loss probability, and
so on. Despite the current research efforts in the QoS area, QoS in Ad hoc
networks is still an unexplored area. Issues of QoS in robustness, QoS in
routing policies, algorithms and protocols with multipath, including
preemptive, priorities remain to be addressed.

Client-Server Model Shift

In the Internet, a network client is typically configured to use a server as
its partner for network transactions. These servers can be found automatically or
by static configuration. In Ad hoc networks, however, the network structure
cannot be defined by collecting IP addresses into subnets. There may not be
servers, but the demand for basic services still exists. Address allocation, name
resolution, authentication and the service location itself are just examples of the
very basic services which are needed but their location in the network is
unknown and possibly even changing over time. Due to the infrastructure less
nature of these networks and node mobility, a different addressing approach may
be required. In addition, it is still not clear who will be responsible for managing
various network services. Therefore, while there have been vast
research initiatives in this area, the issue of shift from the traditional client-
server model remains to be appropriately addressed.
Security
A vital issue that has to be addressed is the Security in Ad hoc networks.
Applications like Military and Confidential Meetings require high degree of
security against enemies and active/passive eavesdropping attacker. Ad hoc
networks are particularly prone to malicious behavior. Lack of any centralized
network management or certification authority makes these dynamically
changing wireless s t ru c tu r es v e ry vulnerable to i n fi lt r a ti on ,
e a v e sd ro pp ing , interference, and so on. Security is often considered to be
the major "roadblock" in the commercial application.
Energy Conservation
Energy conservative networks are becoming extremely popular within the
Ad hoc networking research. Energy conservation is currently being addressed
in every layer of the protocol stack. There are two primary research topics
which are almost identical: maximization of lifetime of a single battery
and maximization of the lifetime of the whole network. The former is related
to commercial applications and node cooperation issues whereas the latter is
more fundamental, for instance, in military environments where node cooperation
is assumed. The goals can be achieved either by developing better batteries, or

by making the n e t w o r k t e r mi n a l s o p e r a t i o n mo r e e n e r g y ef fici ent .
The f i r s t approach is likely to give a 40% increase in battery life in the near
future (with Li-Polymer batteries). As to the device power consumption, the
primary aspect are achieving energy savings through the low power hardware
development using techniques such as variable clock speed CPUs, flash
memory, and disk spin down. However, from the networking point of view,
our interest naturally focuses on the device's network interface, which is
often the single largest consumer of power. Energy efficiency at the network
interface can be improved by developing transmission/reception technologies
on the physical layer.
Much research has been carried out at the physical, medium access control
(MAC) and routing layers, while little has been done at the transport and
application layers. Nevertheless, there is still much more investigation to be
carried out.
Node (MH) Cooperation
Closely related to the security issues, the node cooperation stands in the
way of commercial application of the technology. To receive the corresponding
services from others there is no alternative but one has to rely on other people’s
data. However, when differences in amount and priority of the data come into
picture, the situation becomes far more complex. A critical fire alarm box should
not waste its batteries for relaying gaming data, nor should it be denied access
to other nodes because of such restrictive behavior. Encouraging nodes to
cooperate may lead to the introduction of billing, similar to the idea suggested
for Internet congestion control. Well-behaving network members could be
rewarded,
While selfish or malicious users could be charged higher rates. Implementation

of any kind of billing mechanism is, however, very challenging. These issues
are still wide open

Interoperation
The self-organization of Ad hoc networks is a challenge when two
independently formed networks come physically close to each other. This is
an unexplored research topic that has implications on all levels on the
system design. When two autonomous Ad hoc networks move into same
area the interference with each other becomes unavoidable. Ideally, the
networks would recognize the situation and be merged. However, the issue
of joining two networks is not trivial; the networks may be using different
synchronization, or even different MAC or routing protocols. Security also
becomes a major concern. Can the networks adapt to the situation? For
example; a military unit moving into an area covered by a sensor network
could be such a situation; moving unit would probably be using different
routing protocol with location information support, while the sensor network
would have a simple static routing protocol. Another important issue comes into
picture when we talk about all wireless networks. One of the most important
aims of recent research on all wireless networks is to provide seamless
integration of all types of networks. This issue raises questions on how the Ad
hoc network could be designed so that they are compatible with wireless LANs,
3 Generation (3G) and 4G cellular networks.
ISSUES TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN DEPLOYING MANET
The following are some of the main routing issues to be considered when
Deploying MANETs
Unpredictability of environment Unreliability of Wireless Medium
Resource- Constrained Nodes
Dynamic Topology
Transmission Error
Node Failures
Link Failures
Route Breakages
Congested Nodes or Links

Unpredictability of Environment: Ad hoc networks may be deployed

in unknown terrains, hazardous conditions, and even hostile environments
where tampering or the actual destruction of a node may be imminent.
Depending on the environment, node failures may occur frequently.
Unreliability o f W i r e l e s s M e d i u m : Communication through the

wireless medium is unreliable and subject to errors. Also, due to varying
environmental conditions s uc h as h i g h levels o f electro -magnetic
i nt e r f e r en c e ( EMI) or inclement weather, the quality of the wireless link may
be unpredictable.
Resource-Constrained N o d e s : Nodes in a MANET are typically

battery powered as well as limited in storage and processing capabilities.
Moreover, they may be situated in areas where it is not possible to re- charge
and thus have limited lifetimes. Because of these limitations, they must have
algorithms which are energy efficient as well as operating with limited
processing and memory resources. The available bandwidth of the wireless
medium may also be limited because nodes may not be able to sacrifice the
energy consumed by operating at full link speed.
Dynamic Topology: The topology in an Ad hoc network may change

constantly due to the mobility of nodes. As nodes move in and out of range of
each other, some links break while new links between nodes are created.
As a result of these issues, MANETs are prone to numerous types of faults
included.
Transmission Errors: The unreliability of the wireless medium and the
unpredictability of the environment may lead to transmitted packets being
Garbled and thus received packet errors.
Node Failures: Nodes may fail at any time due to different types of hazardous
conditions in the environment. They may also drop out of the network either
voluntarily or when their energy supply is depleted.
Link Failures: Node failures as well as changing environmental conditions

(e.g., increased levels of EMI) may cause links between nodes to break. Link
failures cause the source node to discover new routes through other links.
Route Breakages: When the network topology changes due to node/link

failures and/or node/link additions to the network, routes become out-of-date
and thus incorrect. Depending upon the network transport protocol, packets
forwarded through stale routes may either eventually be dropped or be delayed.
Congested Nodes or Links: Due to the topology of the network and the nature
of the routing protocol, certain nodes or links may become over utilized, i.e.,
congested. This will lead to either larger delays or packet loss.
4.5 ROUTING PROTOCOLS
Collection of wireless mobile nodes (devices) dynamically forming a
temporary network without the use of any existing network infrastructure
or centralized administration
– useful when infrastructure not available, impractical, or expensive
– military applications, rescue, home networking
– Data must be routed via intermediate nodes.
Proactive Routing Protocols:
Proactive protocols set up tables required for routing regardless of any
traffic .This protocol is based on a link-state algorithm. Link-state
algorithms flood their i n f o r ma t i o n about neighbors periodically with
routing table.
Ex: Destination sequence distance vector (DSDV)
Advantage of proactive
QoS guaranteed.
The routing tables reflect the current topology with a certain precision.
Disadvantage
erheads in lightly loaded networks

Example of proactive Routing:

Destination sequence distance vector (DSDV)
Destination sequence distance vector (DSDV) routing is the extension to
distance vector routing for ad-hoc networks.
Concept:
Each node exchanges routing table periodically with its neighbors.
Changes at one node in the network passes slowly through the network
This create loops or unreachable regions within the network.
DSDV now adds two things to the distance vector algorithm:
Sequence numbers: Each routing advertisement comes with a sequence
Number. Advertisements may propagate along many paths. Sequence numbers
help to receive advertisements in correct order. This avoids the loops that are in
distance vector algorithm.
Damping: changes in topology that are of short duration should not
destabilize the Routing.
Advertisements about such short changes in the topology are therefore not
transmitted further. A node waits without advertisement if these changes are
unstable. Waiting time depends on the time between the first and the best
announcement of a path to a certain destination.
Next Hop: number of nodes the source will jump to reach the Destination.
Metric: Number of Hops to Destination
Sequence Number: Seq No of the last Advertisement
Install Time when entry was made

The routing table for N1 in Figure would be as shown in Table

Advantages: Loop free
Low memory
Quick convergence.
REACTIVE PROTOCOLS
Reactive protocols setup a path between sender and receiver only if there
is a need for communication.
Ex:
Dynamic source routing and ad -hoc on-demand distance vector
AODV
Advantage
.
evices can utilize longer low-power periods
Disadvantages
initial search latency.
caching mechanism is useful only when there is high mobility.
Dynamic source routing (DSR),
In DSDV all nodes maintain path to all other nodes.
Due to this there is heavy traffic
To save Battery power DSR is used.
DSR divides the routing into two separate problems.
1) Route Discovery
2) Route Maintenance
Route discovery: A node discover a route to a destination one and only i f
it has to send something to this destination and there is currently no known route.
Route maintenance: If a node is continuously sending packets via a route, it
has to ma i n t a in that route. If a node detects problems with the current route,
it has to find a different route.
Working Principle:
If a node needs to discover a route, it broadcasts a route request with a unique

Identifier and the destination address as parameters.

Node that receives a route request does the following.
1) If the node has already received the request it drops the request packet.
2) If the node finds its own address as the destination, the request has reached
its target.
3) Otherwise, the node adds its own address in the route and broadcasts this
updated route request.
When the request reaches the destination, it can return the request packet
containing the list to the receiver using this list in reverse order.
One condition for this is that the links work bi-directionally.
The destination may receive several lists containing different paths from the
Sender. It has to choose the shortest path.
Route discovery:
From N1 to N3 at time t1.
1) N1 broadcasts the request (N1, id = 42, target = N3) to N2 and N4
1-a)N2 broadcasts ((N1, N2), id = 42, target = N3) to N3,N5.
N3 recognizes itself as target, N5 broadcasts ((N1, N2, N5), id = 42, target
= N3) to N3 and N4. N4 drops N5’s broadcast, N3 recognizes (N1, N2, N5) as
an alternate,but longer route
1-b) N4 broadcasts ((N1, N4), id = 42, target = N3) to N1,N2 and N5. N1,
N2, and
N5 drop N4’s broadcast packet, because they received it already .
2) N2 has to go back to the path from N3->N2->N1.It is called reverse
forwarding.(Symmetric link assumed)
Route Maintenance:
After a route is discovered, it has to be maintained until the node sends
packets through this route.
If that node uses an acknowledgement that acknowledgement can be
considered for good route.
The node can listen to the next node forwarding the packet in the route.
A node can ask for an acknowledgement if the data is successfully sent.
Multicast routing with AODV Routing protocol
AODV is a packet routing protocol designed for use in mobile ad hoc

networks (MANET)
Intended for networks that may contain thousands of nodes
One of a class of demand-driven protocols
The route discovery mechanism is invoked only if a route to a destination
is not known.
Route requests
This Protocol finds out multicast routes on demand using a
broadcast route discovery mechanism. When a node wishes to join the
multicast group or it wants to send packets to the group, it needs to find
a route to the group. This is done using two messages; RREQ and RR
EP.
When a node wants to join a multicast group, it
sends a route request (RREQ) message to the group. Only the members of
the multicast group respond to the join RREQ. If any nonmember receives
a RREQ it rebroadcast the RREQ to its neighbors. But if the RREQ is not
a join request any node of the multicast group may respond.
Figure 1 depicts the propagation of RREQ.
Fig: RREP Propagation
The important fields for RREQ are given as follows:

Source address: The address of the node which sends the data
Destination address: The address of the multicast group that is the target
of the discovery.
Join –flag: if this is set, then the node originating RREQ wants to join the
multicast tree. If it is unset, then the originator is a source of multicast
transmission.

Pointers:
Every node sets up pointers to determine the reverse route in its routing table
when receiving a RREQ. This entry is used later to pass on a response back to
the route requester. This entry is not activated until or unless it gets multicast
activation message from the requester. The responding node unicasts the route
response RREP (figure 2) back to the route requester after the completion of
necessary updates on it routing table.
Route reply
When a node receives a RREQ for a multicast route, it first checks the
Join -flag in the message. If the Join -flag is set, then the node may answer
only if it is itself a member of the multicast tree and its sequence number for
this tree greater than the number in the RREQ.
If the Join -flag is not set, then any node may answer
Creation of the multicast tree
The first node that wants to join the multicast group, selects itself as
the multicast group leader. The reason of this node is to keep the count of
the sequence number that is given to the multicast group address.
The group leader assigns the sequence number by sending periodic Group
Hello messages. Group Hellos messages are used to distribute group
information.
Message types
MAODV uses four different message types for creation of the
multicast routing table. These messages are;
Route request (RREQ) Route reply (RREP) Multicast activation (MACT)
Group hello (GRPH)
Control tables
MADV has a routing table for the multicast routes. The entries in this
table have the following attributes;
Multicast group IP address Multicast group leader IP address
Multicast group sequence number Next hop(s) Hop count to next
multicast group member Hop count to multicast group leader
Each next hop entry has the following fields;

Next hop IP address
Next hop interface Link
direction Activated flag
In addition, a node may also keep a multicast group leader table, which is
used to optimize the routing. This has the following fields;
Multicast group IP address

Group leader IP address
Multicast activation
A single node may get multiple replies to the RREQ message. It must
choose the best out of these to be used for the multicast tree creation. For
This reason, the node joining the group send the in red to the node having
greatest seq no and less distance. This is done using MCAST m e s s a g e .
The receiver of the MACT message updates its multicast routing table by
setting the source of the message as a next hop neighbor.
The MACT message has four flags. These are join, prune, grpld r and update.
The join is used, if the node wishes to join the tree p r u n e is for leaving the
tree. The two other messages are used, if the tree breaks and must be
repaired.
Leaving the tree
The membership of the multicast group is dynamic. Each node can join
or leave the group at any time. The leaving of the tree is done by sending the
MACT message with the prune-flag set.

4.8 VEHICULAR AREA NETWORK (VANET)
Basic objective is to find some relevant local information, such as close by

gas stations, restaurants, grocery stores, and hospitals
Primary motivation is to obtain knowledge of local amenities
Hello beacon signals are sent to determine other vehicle in the vicinity
Table is maintained and periodically updated in each vehicle
Vehicle in an urban area move out relatively low speed of up to 56 km/hr
while
Speed varies from 56 km/hr to 90 km/hr in a rural region
Freeway-based VANET could be for emergency services such as
accident, traffic-jam, traffic detour, public safety, health conditions, etc.
Early VANET used 802.11-based ISM band
75 MHz has been allocated in 5.850 - 5.925 GHz band
Coverage distance is expected to be less than 30 m and data rates of 500
kbps
FCC has allocated 7 new channels of in 902 - 928 MHz range to cover a
distance of up to 1 km using OFDM
It is relatively harder to avoid collision or to minimize interference
Slotted ALOHA does not provide good performance
Non-persistent or p-persistent CSMA is adopted

4.9 SECURITY CHALLENGES IN MANET
Missing authorization facilities hinders the usual practice of distinguishing

nodes as trusted or non-trusted
Malicious nodes can advertise non-existent links, provide incorrect link
state information, create new routing messages and flood other nodes
with routing traffic
Attacks include active interfering, leakage of secret information,
eavesdropping, data tampering, impersonation, message replay, message
distortion, and denial-of-service (DoS)
Encryption and authentication can only prevent external nodes from
disrupting the network traffic
Internal attacks are more severe, since malicious insider nodes are
protected with the network’s security mechanism Disrupting Routing
Mechanism by A Malicious Node
Changing the contents of a discovered route
Modifying a route reply message, causing the packet to be dropped as
an invalid packet
Invalidating the route cache in other nodes by advertising incorrect paths
Refusing to participate in the route discovery process
Modifying the contents of a data packet or the route via which that data
packet is supposed to travel
Behaving normally during the route discovery process but drop data
packets causing a loss in throughput
Generate false route error messages whenever a packet is sent from a
source to a destination Attacks by A Malicious Node
Can launch DoS attack
A large number of route requests due to DoS attack or a large number
of broken links due to high mobility
Can spoof its IP and send route requests with a fake ID to the same
destination
Routing protocols like AODV, DSDV, DSR have many vulnerabilities

Authority of issuing authentication is a problem as a malicious node can

leave the network unannounced
Security Approaches
Intrusion Detection System (IDS)
Automated detection
Subsequent generation of an alarm
IDS is a defense mechanism that continuously monitors the
network for unusual activity and detects adverse activities
Capable of distinguishing between attacks originating from inside the
network and external ones
Intrusion detection decisions are based on collected audit data


UNIT V
MOBILE PLATFORMS AND APPLICATIONS
5.1 Mobile Device Operating Systems
Mobile Operating System Structure
JAVA ME Platform
Special Constrains & Requirements
Commercial Mobile Operating Systems
Windows Mobile
Palm OS
Symbian OS
iOS
Android
Blackberry Operating system
an operating system
that is specifically designed to run on mobile devices such as mobile phones,
smartphones, PDAs, tablet computers and other handheld devices.
programs, called application programs, can run on mobile devices.
include processor, memory, files, and various types of attached devices such as
camera, speaker, keyboard and screen.
and networks.
Control, data and voice communication with BS using different types of
protocols.
A mobile OS is a software platform on top of which other programs called
application programs, can run on mobile Devices such as PDA, cellular phones,
smart phone and etc.

Features
Java ME Platform
J2ME platform is a set of technologies, specifications and libraries developed
for small devices like mobile phones, pagers, and personal organizers.
va ME was designed by Sun Microsystems. It is licensed under GNU
General Public License Configuration: it defines a minimum platform
including the java language, virtual machine features and minimum class
libraries for a grouping of devices. E.g. CLDC
Profile: it supports higher-level services common to a more specific class of
devices. A profile builds on a configuration but adds more specific APIs to make
a complete environment for building applications. E.g. MIDP

Java ME platforms are composed of the following elements:

5.2 Special Constrains & Requirements
Limited memory
Limited screen size
Miniature keyboard
Limited processing power
Limited battery power
Limited and fluctuating bandwidth of the wireless medium
Requirements
Support for specific communication protocol
Support for a variety of input mechanism
Compliance with open standard
Extensive library support
Support for integrated development environment
5.3 Commercial Mobile Operating Systems
Windows Mobile
Windows Mobile OS
Windows Mobile is a compact operating system designed for mobile devices and
based on Microsoft Win32.
to manipulate their data.

Edition) - designed specifically for
Handheld devices, based on Win32 API.
PDA (personal digital assistant), palmtop computer, Pocket were original
intended platform for the Windows Mobile OS.
For devices without mobile phone capabilities, and those that included mobile
phone capabilities
Palm OS
Palm OS is an embedded operating system designed for ease of use with a touch
screen-based graphical user interface.
on a wide variety of mobile devices such as
smartphones, barcode readers, and GPS devices.
-based processors. It is designed asa 32-b
The key features of Palm OS
-tasking OS:
but it does not expose
tasks or threads to user applications. In fact, it is built with a set of threads
that cannot be changed at runtime.
higher) does support multiple threads but doesn’t
support creating additional processes by user applications. Expansion support:
This capability not only augments the memory and I/O, but also it facilitates
data interchanges with other Palm devices and with other non-Palm devices
such as digital cameras, and digital audio players.
synchronization with PC computers
Support of serial port, USB, Infrared, Bluetooth and Wi-Fi connections

management)
applications to store calendar, address, and task and note entries, accessible by
third-party applications

Symbian OS Features
Multimedia
recording, playback and streaming,
and Image conversion.
-oriented and component- based
-server architecture
-efficient inter process communication. This
feature also eases porting of code written for other platforms to Symbian OS.
A Hardware Abstraction Layer (HAL)
layer provides a consistent interface to hardware and supports device-
independency
s hard real-time guarantees to kernel and user mode threads
5.4 Software Development Kit
5.4.1 iPhone OS
Apple’s Proprietary Mobile

iOS is Apple’s proprietary mobile operating system initially developed for
iPhone and now extended to iPAD, iPod Touch and Apple TV.
“iPhone OS”, in June 2010
renamed “iOS”.
enabled for cross licensing, it can only be used on Apple’s devices
The user interface of iOS is based on the concept of usage of multi touch gestures.
is a UNIX based OS.
iOS uses four abstraction layers, namely: the Core OS layer, the Core
Services layer, the Media layer, and the Cocoa Touch layer.
’s App store contains close to 550,000 applications as of March

2012.
is estimated that the APPs are downloaded 25B times till now.
version of iOS is released in 2007 with the mane ‘OS X’and then in 2008
the first beta version of ‘iPhone OS’ is released.
mber Apple released first iPod Touch that also used this OS.
iPad is released that has a bigger screen than the iPod and iPhone.
Cisco owns the trademark for ‘IOS’;
Apple licenses the usage of ‘iOS’ from Cisco.

5.4.2 Android
Google owns a trademark for Android – Google’s permission is necessary to
use Android’s trademark
made an agreement with Android device
manufacturers (including Samsung and HTC) to collect fees from them.
source code is available under Apache License version 2.0. The
Linux kernel changes are available under the GNU General Public License
version 2.
Android is Linux based mobile OS for mobile devices such as Tablets and
Smartphones.
in 2007 Google formed an Open Handset Alliance with 86 hardware,

software and telecom companies. Now, this OS is being used by multiple device
manufacturers (Samsung, Motorola, HTC, LG, Sony etc) in their handsets
community has large number of developers preparing APPs
in Java environment and the APP store ‘Google Play’ now has close to 450,000
APPs, among which few are free and others are paid.
that, as of December 2011, almost 10B APPs were downloaded
It is estimated that as of February 2012 there are over 300M Android devices and
approximately 850,000 Android devices are activated every day.
earliest recognizable Android version is 2.3 Gingerbread, which supports
SIP and NFC.
3.2) are released with focus on
Tablets. This is mainly focused on large screen devices
Handset layouts–compatible with different handset designs such as larger,
VGA, 2D graphics library, 3D graphics library based.
–a lightweight relational database, is used for data storage
- DO, UMTS, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi,
LTE, NFC & –SMS, MMS, threaded text messaging and
Android Cloud To Device Messaging (C2DM)

Google faced many patent lawsuits against Android such as by Oracle in 2006
that included patents US5966702 and US6910205.
5.4.3 Blackberry OS
The first operating system launched by Research in Motion
(RIM the company behind BlackBerry)
-
Interface).
Blackberry OS Features
Gestures
Multi-tasking
Blackberry Hub
Blackberry Balance
Keyboard
Voice Control

Key Terms in Blackberry OS

Process Management
– Microkernel
Advantages of Blackberry OS
It provides good security for data.
promotion: Dedicated content channels and feature banners that

provide prime real estate to help distribute your app to the right users.
discovery: Universal search, top lists, social sharing, reviews, and
ratings help users find the right app.
(in combination with Score loop): A specialized portal for
gaming allowing multiplayer, social connections.
Disadvantages of Blackberry OS
New operating system was introduced too late into the ever-growing market.
Yet to have as many apps available for purchase or download compared to
other phone in the market.
Consumers have switched over to other devices made by Apple or Android.
is opened, you have to swipe
up to return to the main display.
Android Software Development Kit a software development kit that
enables developers to create applications for the Android platform.
e Android SDK includes sample projects with source code, development
tools, an emulator, and required libraries to build Android applications.
Dalvik, a custom virtual machine designed for embedded use which runs on top
of a Linux kernel.
Android SDK Environment
The Android Development Tools (ADT) plugin for Eclipse adds powerful
extensions to the Eclipse integrated development environment. It allows you to
create and debug Android applications easier and faster.

Advantages:
inside the Eclipse
IDE. For example, ADT lets you access the many capabilities of the DDMS
tool: take screenshots, Manage port‐forwarding, set breakpoints, and view
thread and process information directly from Eclipse.
promotion: Dedicated content channels and feature banners that
provide prime real estate to help distribute your app to the right users.
discovery: Universal search, top lists, social sharing, reviews, and ratings
help users find the right app.
The Games app (in combination with Score loop): A specialized portal for
gaming allowing multiplayer, social connections.
Disadvantages of Blackberry OS
New operating system was introduced too late into the ever-growing market.
yet to have as many apps available for purchase or download compared to
other phone in the market.
Consumers have switched over to other devices made by Apple or Android.
Once an application is opened, you have to swipe up
to return to the main display.
Android Software Development Kit
A software development kit that enables developers to create applications
for the Android platform.
Android SDK includes sample projects with source code, development
tools, an emulator, and required libraries to build Android applications.
Dalvik, a custom virtual machine designed for embedded use which runs on top
of a Linux kernel.
Android SDK Environment
The AndroidDevelopment Tools (ADT) plugin for Eclipse adds powerful
extensions to the Eclipse integrated development environment. It allows you to
create and debug Android applications easier and faster.

Advantages:
inside the Eclipse
IDE. For example, ADT lets you access the many capabilities of the DDMS
tool: take screenshots,
Manage port‐forwarding, set breakpoints, and view thread and process
information directly from Eclipse.
5.5 M- Commerce
M-commerce (mobile commerce)is the buying and selling of goods and
services through wireless handheld devices such as cellular telephone and
personal digital assistants (PDAs).Known as next- generation e-commerce, m-
commerce enables users to access the Internet without needing to find a place
to plug in.
-commerce, which is based on the Wireless
Application Protocol (WAP), has made far greater strides in Europe, where
mobile devices equipped with Web-ready micro-browsers are much more
common than in the United states.
M-commerce can be seen as means of selling and purchasing of goods and
services using mobile communication devices such as cellular phones, PDA s
etc, which are able to connect to the Internet through wireless channels and
interact with e- commerce systems
-commerce can be referred to as an act of carrying- out transactions using a
wireless device
is understood as a data connection that results in thetransfer of value in
exchange for information, services or goods. It can also be seen as a natural
extension of e-commerce that allows users to interact with other users or
businesses in a wireless mode, anytime/anywhere.
perceived to be any electronic transaction or information interaction
conducted using a mobile device and mobile network thereby guaranteeing
customers virtual and physical mobility, which leads to the transfer of real or
perceived value in exchange for personalized, location-based information,
services, or goods.

-commerce can also be seen and referred to as wireless commerce.

It is any transaction with a monetary value that is conducted via a mobile
telecommunications network. M-commerce can also be seen and referred to as
wireless commerce.
any transaction with a monetary value that is conducted via a mobile
telecommunications network.
access an IT-System whilst moving from one place to the other
using a mobile device and carry out transactions and transfer information
wherever and whenever needed to.
Mobile commerce from the future development of the mobile telecommunication
sector is heading more and more towards value-added services. Analysts
forecast that soon half of mobile operator’s revenue will be earned through mobile
commerce.
Consequently operators as well as third party providers will focus on value-
added-services. To enable mobile services, providers with expertise on different
sectors will have to cooperate.
scenarios will be needed that meet the customer‘s
expectations and business models that satisfy all partners involved.
Generations
-1992 wireless technology
current wireless technology; mainly accommodates text
3rd generation technology (2001-2005) Supports rich media

(Video clips)
faster multimedia display (2006-2010)
M-Commerce Terminology
Terminology and Standards
-based Global Positioning System
—handheld wireless computer

Application Protocol
—Internet-enabled cell phones with attached applications
5.6 M-Commerce Structure
5.7 Pros of M-Commerce

M-commerce is creating entirely new service opportunities such as payment,
banking, and ticketing transactions - using a wireless device.
-commerce allows one-to-one communication between the business and
the client and also business-to-business communication.
-commerce is leading to expectations of revolutionary changes in
business and markets.
-commerce widens the Internet business because of the wide coverage by
mobile networks
Cons of M-Commerce
Mobile devices don’t have enough processing power and the developer has to be
careful about loading an application that requires too much processing. Also,
mobile devices don’t have enough storage space. The developer has to be also
concerned about the size of his application in the due process of development.
quite vulnerable to theft, loss and corruptibility. Security
solutions for mobile appliances must, therefore, provide for security under these
challenging scenarios.

5.8 Mobile Payment System

Mobile Payment can be offered as a stand-alone service.
also be an important enabling service for other m-
commerce services (e.g. mobile ticketing, shopping, gambling…)
-
friendly.
service providers have to gain revenue from an m-commerce service. The

consumer must be informed of:
how much to pay options to pay the payment must
be made payments must be traceable.
Customer requirements:
consistent payment interface when making the
Purchase with multiple payment schemes, like:
Merchant benefits:
-to-use payment interface development

Bank and financial institution benefits


5.9 Security Issues

WAP Risks
WAP Gap
WTLS protects WAP as SSL protects HTTP
protocol to another, information is
decrypted and re-encrypted recall the WAP Architecture.
-encryption in the same process on the WAP
gateway Wireless gateways as single point of failure
Platform Risks: Without a secure OS, achieving security on mobile devices is
almost impossible
Memory protection of processes protected kernel rings
File access control Authentication of principles to resources
untrusted code
Does not differentiate trusted local code from untrusted code downloaded from
the Internet. So, there is no access control!!
-safe.

can be scheduled to be pushed to the client device without the user’s

knowledge
Theft or damage of personal information abusing user’s

authentication information maliciously offloading money saved on smart cards
Bluetooth Security
Bluetooth provides security between any two Bluetooth devices for user
protection and secrecy
authentication
encryption key length
allowed to have access service Y)

The device has been previously authenticated, a link key is
stored and the device is marked as “trusted” in the Device Database
Untrusted Device: The device has been previously authenticated, link key is
stored but the device is not marked as “trusted” in the Device Database
Device: No security information is available for this device. This is
also an untrusted device. Automatic output power adaptation to reduce the
Range exactly to requirement, makes the system extremely difficult to eavesdrop
New Security Risks in M-Commerce Abuse of cooperative nature of ad-hoc
networks: An adversary that compromises one node can disseminate false
routing information.
A single malicious domain can compromise devices by
downloading malicious code
Users roam among non-trustworthy domains Launching attacks from
mobile devices with mobility, it is difficult to identify attackers

security at the lower layers only: a stolen device can still be

trusted Problems with Wireless Transport Layer Security (WTLS) protocol.
Server only certificate (Most Common).
.
-establishing connection without re-authentication.
new Privacy Risks Monitoring
user’s private information.
.
.
added services based on location awareness (Location-Based Services).

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IT6601 – MOBILE COMPUTING

M.I.E.T. ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

M.I.E.T./CSE/III YR/MOBILE COMPUTING

M.I.E.T. ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

M.I.E.T./CSE/III YR/MOBILE COMPUTING

SUBJECT IN-CHARGE HOD/CSE

M.I.E.T./CSE/III YR/MOBILE COMPUTING

M.I.E.T. ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Sub. Code : IT6601 Branch/Year/Sem : CSE/III/VI

1. Understand the basic concepts of mobile computing

2. Be familiar with the network protocol stack

3. Learn the basics of mobile telecommunication system

4. Be exposed to Ad-Hoc networks

5. Gain knowledge about different mobile platforms and application

1. Comprehend the basics of mobile Computing

Prepared by Approved by Verified By

M.I.E.T./CSE/III YR/MOBILE COMPUTING

M.I.E.T. ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.1 Mobile Computing Introduction:

• A simple definition could be

1.2 Mobile Computing Vs wireless Networking

Adhoc Network: Collection of wireless mobile nodes (devices) dynamically

M.I.E.T./CSE/III YR/MOBILE COMPUTING

Wired Networks Mobile Networks

High bandwidth Low bandwidth

Low bandwidth High bandwidth

Can listen on wire Hidden terminal

need physical need proximity

M.I.E.T./CSE/III YR/MOBILE COMPUTING

1.5 Application Structure

The simple three tier architecture

M.I.E.T./CSE/III YR/MOBILE COMPUTING

 Logical decision and calculation is performed in this layer.

1.6 Wireless MAC Protocols – Issues

M.I.E.T./CSE/III YR/MOBILE COMPUTING

 Node B can communicate with A and C both

Exposed Terminal Problem

M.I.E.T./CSE/III YR/MOBILE COMPUTING

1.7 Fixed-assignment schemes

For full duplex communication each user is allotted two channel

M.I.E.T./CSE/III YR/MOBILE COMPUTING

Disadvantages to using FDMA

TDMA – Time Division Multiple Access

M.I.E.T./CSE/III YR/MOBILE COMPUTING

Disadvantages to using CDMA

Pure ALOHA: Performance Vulnerable period for the shaded frame.

M.I.E.T./CSE/III YR/MOBILE COMPUTING

S=Ge-2G, where S is the throughput (rate of successful transmissions) and G is

M.I.E.T./CSE/III YR/MOBILE COMPUTING

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

M.I.E.T./CSE/III YR/MOBILE COMPUTING

• A station aborts its transmission if it senses another transmission is

1.9 Reservation based scheme:

M.I.E.T./CSE/III YR/MOBILE COMPUTING

M.I.E.T./CSE/III YR/MOBILE COMPUTING

 MACAW (MACA for Wireless) is a revision of MACA.

M.I.E.T./CSE/III YR/MOBILE COMPUTING

M.I.E.T. ENGINEERING COLLEGE

2.1 Overview of Mobile IP