NAME: JAYSETTE JUNE N.

SACUPASO RATING: ________________________

GROUP NO. 2 DATE: 01/08/21

ACTIVITY 16

BIOCHEMISTRY OF HORMONES

Cells and tissues communicate with each other by releasing or responding to secreted
substances that aim in altering the specific function of a cell or tissue. These messengers
are termed hormones. This communication is required for the development and organisation
of tissues, the control of growth, division and death and coordinating the diverse cellular
activities. This message system is termed the endocrine system.

The term hormone (hormacin/hormao-to excite) was first used by William M. Bayliss and his
brother-in law Ernest H. Starlng. In 1904, they showed that a chemical substances (secretin)
from the intestine could stimulate the action f pancreatic secretion. These substances were
then called as “chemical messengers”. Wenrt and Thimann (1937) defines a hormone “as a
substance which produced in any part of an organism, is transferred to another part and
there influence a specific physiological process.

The tissue or organs where they are produces are called effectors and those where they
exert their influence as targets.

Based on their site of action, hormones are two types, local and general. The local
hormones obviously have specific local effects, whence their nomenclature. These may be
exemplifies by acetylcholine, secretin, cholecystokinin, etc. the general hormones , on the
other hand, are secreted by specific endocrine glands and are transported in the blood that
cause physiology actins at points remote their place of origin. A few of the general hormones
affects almost all cells pf the body, e.g., growth hormones (GH) and thyroid hormones;
whereas other general hormones however, affect specific tissues far more than other
tissues. e.g., adrencorticotropin ( a hormone secreted from adenohypophysis and stimulating
the adrenal cortex) and ovarian hormones (affecting the uterine endometrium

I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the exercise, the students should be able to

1. Discuss the 3 classification of hormones according to chemical structures.

2. Know the different types of hormones-glands that secretes, activated by,

specific function/s, target organ and antagonist (if any)

3. Differentiate a negative feedback from a positive feedback mechanism of

hormones. Give an example of each.

4. Explain the fight or flight response mechanism.

II. II. MATERIALS

Work sheet Biochemistry book E-article/E-book on Biochemistry

III. PROCEDURE

1. Answer the research questions

IV. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the three classification of hormones according to structures.

a. Peptide /protein hormones

- Peptide and protein hormones are products of translation. They vary

considerably in size and post-translational modification, ranging from peptides as
short as three amino acids to large; multi-subunit glycoproteins. Peptide hormones
are synthesized in endoplasmic reticulum, into secretory vesicles for export

b. Steroid hormones

- Steroid are lipids and more specifically, derivatives of cholesterol. Examples

include the sex steroids such as testosterone and adrenal steroids such as cortisol

c. Amino acid hormones

- There are two groups of hormones derived from the amino acid, tyrosine:

- Thyroid hormones are basically a ‘’double’’ tyrosine with the critical

incorporation with 3 or 4 iodine

- Catecholamine include epinephrine and norepinephrine which are used as

both hormones and neurotransmitters

2. Complete the table of the common types of hormones- classification, glands

that secretes, activated by, specific function/s, target organ and antagonist (if any)
Hormone Characteristics Other information
 Classification: Protein hormone Insulin helps keep
the glucose in your
Insulin Gland: pancreas blood within a
normal range. It
Activated by: Elevated concentrations of does this by taking
glucose in blood stimulate release of glucose out of your
bloodstream and
insulin.
moving it into cells
throughout your
Function/s: Insulin is an anabolic
body. The cells then
hormone that promotes glucose uptake, use the glucose for
glycogenesis, lipogenesis, and protein energy and store the
synthesis of skeletal muscle and fat excess in your liver,
muscles, and fat
tissue through the tyrosine kinase tissue.
receptor pathway.

Target organ/s: liver, muscle, and fat

have been regarded as major target
tissues for insulin.

Antagonist (if any): Glucagon

Classification: Peptide or
Protein Glucagon is
hormone available under the
Glucagon following different
Gland: It is produced by the alpha cells, brand names:
Glucagen, Glucagon
found in the islets of Langerhans in the
Emergency Kit, and
pancreas. GlucaGen HypoKit.

Activated by: When blood glucose levels

are high, large amounts of glucose are The pancreas
taken up by the liver. Later, when blood releases glucagon
when the amount of
glucose levels begin to fall, glucagon is
glucose in the
secreted and acts on hepatocytes to bloodstream is too
activate the enzymes that depolymerize low. Glucagon
glycogen and release glucose. causes the liver to
 Function/s: Glucagon is a glucoregulatory engage in
peptide hormone that counteracts the glycogenolysis:
converting stored
actions of insulin by stimulating hepatic
glycogen into
glucose production and thereby increases glucose, which is
blood glucose levels. released into the
bloodstream. High
blood-glucose
levels, on the other
hand, stimulate the
release of insulin.
Target organ/s: The Liver represents the
major target organ for glucagon.

Antagonist (if any): Insulin

Classification: peptide hormone ADH is also called

arginine
Gland: Pituitary gland vasopressin. It's a
hormone made by
Activated by: Osmolarity is sensed in the the hypothalamus in
Antidiuretic Hormone hypothalamus by neurons known as an the brain and stored
in the posterior
osmoreceptors, and those neurons, in
pituitary gland. It
turn, stimulate secretion from the neurons tells your kidneys
that produce antidiuretic hormone. When how much water to
conserve. ADH
plasma osmolarity is below a certain
constantly regulates
threshold, the osmoreceptors are not and balances the
activated and secretion of antidiuretic amount of water in
hormone is suppressed. your blood.

Function/s: Anti-diuretic hormone helps to

control blood pressure by acting on the
kidneys and the blood vessels. Its most
important role is to conserve the fluid
volume of your body by reducing the
amount of water passed out in the urine.
 Target organ/s: Kidney tubules, Smooth
muscle in arterioles

Antagonist (if any): Tolvaptan is a

vasopressin receptor antagonist.

Classification: Tropic hormone Adrenocorticotropic

hormone (ACTH) is
Adrenocorticotropic Gland: Anterior pituitary made in the pituitary
Hormone (ACTH) gland. It is needed
(adenohypophysis)
for your adrenal
Activated by: Glucocorticoids glands to work
properly and help
hypothalamic hormones
your body react to
stress. ACTH
Function/s: ACTH controls the production
stimulates the
of another hormone called cortisol. release of another
Cortisol is made by the adrenal glands, hormone called
two small glands located above the cortisol from the
cortex (outer part) of
kidneys. Cortisol plays an important role the adrenal gland.
in helping you to: Respond to stress.

Target organ/s: Adrenal cortex

Antagonist (if any): ACTH is the only

known naturally occurring agonist for this
receptor. This lack of redundancy and
high degree of ligand specificity suggests
that antagonism of this receptor could
provide a useful therapeutic aid and a
potential investigational tool.

Classification: Peptide hormone PTH is made by four

tiny parathyroid
Gland: Parathyroid glands glands in your neck.
Parathyroid Hormone These glands
Activated by: 34-N-terminal amino acids control calcium
(PTH)
levels in your blood.
 of PTH When calcium levels
are too low, the
Function/s: Parathyroid hormone is glands release PTH
directly involved in the bones, kidneys, to bring the calcium
levels back up into a
and the small intestine. In the bones, PTH
normal range. When
stimulates the release of calcium in an your calcium levels
indirect process through osteoclasts rise, the glands stop
releasing PTH.
which ultimately lead to resorption of the
bones.

Target organ/s: Bone, kidneys, intestine

Antagonist (if any): Calcitonin

Classification: Protein hormones The calcitonin test is

primarily used to
Calcitonin Gland: C-cells of Thyroid gland help diagnose C-cell
hyperplasia and
Activated by: The secretion of both medullary thyroid
calcitonin hormone is determined by the cancer, to help
determine whether
level of calcium in the blood. When levels
treatment has been
of calcium in the blood increase, effective, and to
calcitonin is secreted higher quantities. monitor for
recurrence of thyroid
Function/s: Calcitonin is involved in cancer
helping to regulate levels of calcium and
phosphate in the blood, opposing the
action of parathyroid hormone. This
means that it acts to reduce calcium
levels in the blood.

 When the osteoclasts break down

bone tissue, the calcium enters the
bloodstream.
 The hormone also seems to decrease
 the amount of calcium the kidneys can
reabsorb, lowering levels further.

Target organ/s: Bone

Antagonist (if any): Parathyroid hormone

Classification: Amino acid- derived The ratio of

hormone epinephrine to
Norepinephrine/ norepinephrine
Epinephrine present in the
Gland: Adrenal medulla
adrenal gland is
Activated by: Sympathetic activation of species dependent,
with the ratio in the
the adrenal glands causes the part called
human being
the adrenal medulla to release approximately 80:
norepinephrine (as well as epinephrine) 20. A major effect of
exogenously
into the bloodstream, from which,
administered
functioning as a hormone, it gains further norepinephrine is
access to a wide variety of tissues. increased systolic
and diastolic blood
Function/s: Epinephrine and pressure, which is
norepinephrine are similar chemicals that accompanied by
reflex slowing of the
act as both neurotransmitters and
heart rate.
hormones in the body. Both substances
play an important role in the body's fight
or flight response, and their release into
the bloodstream causes increased blood
pressure, heart rate, and blood sugar
levels.

 Epinephrine and norepinephrine

stimulate increased heart rate and
contractility, which increase blood
pressure. Because blood flow is
dependent on blood pressure, it is
 critical that blood pressure be
maintained during the stress
response.

Target organ/s: All tissues

Antagonist (if any): Adrenergic antagonist

(adrenoblockers)

Classification: Steroid hormone Mineralocorticoids

are produced in the
Gland: Adrenal cortex adrenal cortex and
Aldosterone influence salt and
Activated by: The release of aldosterone water balances
(Mineralocorticoids) from the adrenal glands is regulated via (electrolyte balance
and fluid balance).
the renin-angiotensin II-aldosterone
The primary
system. This system is initially activated mineralocorticoid is
via a decrease in the mean arterial blood aldosterone.
pressure to increase the blood pressure.

Function/s: Its main role is to regulate salt

and water in the body, thus having an
effect on blood pressure.

Target organ/s: primarily kidneys

Antagonist (if any): Spironolactone, an

aldosterone receptor antagonist, has
been used for decades in the
management of excess volume, although
generally playing a minor role relative to
the more potent loop diuretic.

Classification: Steroid hormone Cortisol is a steroid

hormone that
 Gland: Adrenal glands regulates a wide
range of vital
Activated by: Cortisol is a glucocorticoid processes
Cortisol hormone produced by the adrenal cortex throughout the body,
including
(zona fasciculata and zone reticularis)
metabolism and the
when stimulated by adrenocorticotropic immune response. It
hormone (ACTH) produced by the also has a very
important role in
anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, which
helping the body
is in turn controlled by corticotropin- respond to stress.
releasing hormone (CRH) released by the
hypothalamus.

Function/s: Cortisol can help control

blood sugar levels, regulate metabolism,
help reduce inflammation, and assist with
memory formulation. It has a controlling
effect on salt and water balance and
helps control blood pressure.

Target organ/s: Liver, muscle, adipose

tissue, pancreas.

Antagonist (if any): GR antagonists

counteract the effects of cortisol at tissue
level by blocking the GR.

Classification: Peptide hormone Growth hormone

(GH) or
Gland: pituitary gland somatotropin, also
known as human
Activated by: Growth hormone levels are growth hormones
Human Growth increased by sleep, stress, exercise and (hGH or HGH) in its
Hormone (hGH) human form, is a
low glucose levels in the blood. They also
peptide hormone
increase around the time of puberty. that stimulates
Growth hormone release is lowered in growth, cell
 pregnancy and if the brain senses high reproduction, and
levels of growth hormone or insulin-like cell regeneration in
humans and other
growth factors already in the blood.
animals. It is thus
important in human
Function/s: HGH, produced by the
development.
pituitary gland, spurs growth in children
and adolescents. It also helps to regulate
body composition, body fluids, muscle
and bone growth, sugar and fat
metabolism, and possibly heart function.

 acts on virtually every tissue of the

body to control metabolism and
growth
Target organ/s: Liver

Antagonist (if any): Pegvisomant

Classification: protein hormone A prolactin (PRL)

test measures the
Gland: Anterior pituitary level of prolactin in
the blood. Prolactin
Activated by: the main stimulus for is a hormone made
Prolactin (PRL) prolactin secretion is suckling, the effect by the pituitary
gland, a small gland
of which is neuronally mediated. A key
at the base of the
regulator of prolactin production is brain. Prolactin
estrogens that enhance growth of causes the breasts
to grow and make
prolactin producing cells and simulate
milk during
prolactin production directly, as well as pregnancy and after
suppressing dopamine. birth. Prolactin levels
are normally high for
Function/s: Prolactin contributes to pregnant women
hundreds of physiologic functions, but the and new mothers.

two primary responsibilities are milk

production and development of mammary
glands within breast tissues. Prolactin
promotes the growth of mammary alveoli,
 which are the components of the
mammary gland, where the actual
production of milk occurs.

Target organ/s: mammary gland

Antagonist (if any): A mechanism of

action of PRLR antagonist.

Classification: Steroid hormone In addition to

regulating the
Gland: Ovary menstrual cycle,
Estrogen estrogen affects the
Activated by: Hormone (FSH) stimulates reproductive tract,
the ovarian production of estrogens by the urinary tract, the
heart and blood
the granulosa cells of the ovarian follicles
vessels, bones,
and corpora lutea. breasts, skin, hair,
mucous
Function/s: The primary function of membranes, pelvic
estrogens is development of female muscles, and the
secondary sexual characteristics. These brain.

includes breasts, endometrium, regulation

of the menstrual cycle etc. In male’s
estrogen helps in maturation of the sperm
and maintenance of a healthy libido.

 Estrogen helps control the menstrual

cycle and is important for childbearing.
Estrogen also has other functions:
Keeps cholesterol in control. Protects
bone health for both women and men.

Target organ/s: Uterus, Hypothalamus,

 pituitary, bone, mammary tissue, liver.

Antagonist (if any): Antiestrogen

Androgen Classification: Steroid hormone An androgen is any

natural or synthetic
Gland: Adrenal cortex steroid hormone that
regulates the
Activated by: The androgen receptor development and
(AR), also known as NR3C4 (nuclear maintenance of
male characteristics
receptor subfamily 3, group C, member
in vertebrates by
4), is a type of nuclear receptor that is binding to androgen
activated by binding any of the receptors.
androgenic hormones, including
testosterone and dihydrotestosterone in
the cytoplasm and then translocating into
the nucleus.

Function/s: Androgens are crucial for

male sexual and reproductive function.
They are also responsible for the
development of secondary sexual
characteristics in men, including facial
and body hair growth and voice change.
Androgens also affect bone and muscle
development and metabolism.

Target organ/s: heart

Antagonist (if any): Antiandrogens, also

known as androgen antagonists or
testosterone blockers, are a class of
drugs that prevent androgens like
testosterone and dihydrotestosterone
 (DHT) from mediating their biological
effects in the body.

Classification: Glycoprotein hormone If you're a woman,

abnormally high
Gland: Anterior pituitary levels of LH during
nonovulatory times
Activated by: Luteinizing hormone is a in your menstrual
Luteinizing Hormone part of a neurological pathway comprised cycle may mean you
(LH) are in menopause. It
of the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland,
may also mean that
and gonads. In this pathway, LH release you have a pituitary
is stimulated by gonadotropin-releasing disorder or
polycystic ovary
hormone (GnRH) and inhibited by
syndrome. Low
estrogen in females and testosterone in levels of LH may
males. mean you have a
pituitary disorder,
Function/s: LH plays an important role in anorexia,
sexual development and functioning. In malnutrition, or are
under stress.
male, LH stimulates testosterone release
by the Leydig cells of the testes. In
female, LH helps control the menstrual
cycle. It also triggers the release of an
egg from the ovary. This is known as
ovulation.

Target organ/s: Ovaries/testes (Leydig

cells)

Antagonist (if any): As with LHRH

agonists, antagonists work by blocking
the luteinizing hormone (LH) or
gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor
in the pituitary.

Classification: Peptide hormone Oxytocin is a

hormone and a
 Gland: posterior pituitary neurotransmitter that
(neurohypophysis) is involved in
childbirth and
Oxytocin (OCT) Activated by: The maternal release of breast-feeding. It is
also associated with
oxytocin is induced by activation of
empathy, trust,
sensory nerves in the skin, which are sexual activity, and
activated by touch, warmth, and stroking relationship-building.
It is sometimes
in connection with skin-to-skin contact
referred to as the
with the baby and also by massage-like “love hormone,”
hand movements performed by the baby. because levels of
oxytocin increase
Function/s: Oxytocin is a hormone that during hugging and
acts on organs in the body (including the orgasm.
breast and uterus) and as a chemical
messenger in the brain, controlling key
aspects of the reproductive system,
including childbirth and lactation, and
aspects of human behaviour.

 The two main actions of oxytocin in

the body are contraction of the womb
(uterus) during childbirth and lactation.
Oxytocin stimulates the uterine
muscles to contract and also
increases production of
prostaglandins, which increase the
contractions further.

Target organ/s: Uterine smooth muscle,

mammary gland

Antagonist (if any): Oxytocin receptor

antagonists (OTR-A) have been
developed as tocolytics for the
 management of preterm labor due to the
significant role of oxytocin (OT) in the
onset of both term and preterm labor.

Classification: Glycoprotein hormone In women, FSH

helps manage the
Gland: Anterior pituitary menstrual cycle and
(adenohypophysis) stimulates the
ovaries to produce
Follicle-Stimulating Activated by: A system called the eggs. The test is
Hormone (FSH) used to help
hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis.
diagnose or
Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone is evaluate:
released from the hypothalamus and Menopause. Women
who have polycystic
binds to receptors in the anterior pituitary
ovary syndrome,
gland to stimulate both the synthesis and ovarian cysts.
release of follicle stimulating hormone
and luteinising hormone.

Function/s: Follicle stimulating hormone is

one of the hormones essential to pubertal
development and the function of women's
ovaries and men's testes. In women, this
hormone stimulates the growth of ovarian
follicles in the ovary before the release of
an egg from one follicle at ovulation. It
also increases oestradiol production.

Target organ/s: ovaries/testes (tubules)

Antagonist (if any): AntiA and antiB

immunoglobulins (IgGs) behave as
antagonists for 125I-FSH binding and for
FSH-dependent cAMP production, while
antiC IgGs did not compete for hormone
binding.
 Classification: Steroid hormones In combination,
these two hormones
Gland: Ovaries can reduce the hot
flashes, night
Activated by: Progesterone is an sweats, and other
Progesterone endogenous steroid hormone that is side effects of
menopause.
commonly produced by the adrenal
Progesterone thins
cortex as well as the gonads, which the uterine lining,
consist of the ovaries and the testes. helping to prevent
the development of
Progesterone is also secreted by the
endometrial cancer.
ovarian corpus luteum during the first ten Taken on its own or
weeks of pregnancy, followed by the with estrogen,
placenta in the later phase of pregnancy. progesterone may
also improve sleep
Function/s: Progesterone prepares the and protect some
cognitive functions.
endometrium for the potential of
pregnancy after ovulation. It triggers the
lining to thicken to accept a fertilized egg.
It also prohibits the muscle contractions in
the uterus that would cause the body to
reject an egg.

Target organ/s: uterus

Antagonist (if any): Mifepristone, an

antiprogestogen that is used to induce
medical abortions. Antiprogestogens, or
antiprogestins, also known as
progesterone antagonists or
progesterone blockers.

Classification: Steroids hormones It is difficult to define

normal testosterone
Gland: Testes levels, because
levels vary
Activated by: Luteinizing hormone (LH) throughout the day
Testosterone stimulates testosterone production. and are affected by
body mass index
Function/s: Testosterone is a sex (BMI), nutrition,
hormone that plays important roles in the alcohol
consumption, certain
body. In men, it's thought to regulate sex
medications, age
drive (libido), bone mass, fat distribution, and illness.
muscle mass and strength, and the
production of red blood cells and sperm.
A small amount of circulating testosterone
is converted to estradiol, a form of
estrogen

Target organ/s: reproductive organs

Antagonist (if any): Antiandrogens, also

known as androgen antagonists or
testosterone blockers, are a class of
drugs that prevent androgens like
testosterone and dihydrotestosterone
(DHT) from mediating their biological
effects in the body.

Thyroxine Classification: Amino acid derived Once in the

hormone bloodstream,
thyroxine travels to
Gland: Thyroid gland the organs, like the
liver and kidneys,
Activated by: The hypothalamus secretes where it is converted
to its active form of
thyrotropin-releasing hormone which, in
triiodothyronine.
turn, stimulates the pituitary gland to Thyroxine plays a
produce thyroid stimulating hormone. crucial role in heart
and digestive
This hormone stimulates the production
function,
of the thyroid hormones, thyroxine and metabolism, brain
triiodothyronine, by the thyroid gland. development, bone
health, and muscle
Function/s: Thyroxine is the main
 hormone secreted into the bloodstream control.
by the thyroid gland. It plays vital roles in
digestion, heart and muscle function,
brain development and maintenance of
bones.

Target organ/s: Most tissues

Antagonist (if any): NH-3 is the first

thyroid hormone antagonist to
demonstrate potent inhibition of thyroid
hormone action in both cell culture-and
whole animal-based assays.

Triiodothyronine Classification: Glycoproteins hormones The thyroid gland

uses iodine from
Gland: Thyroid gland food to make two
thyroid hormones:
Activated by: Triiodothyronine (T3) is triiodothyronine (T3)
secreted by the thyroid and is the major and thyroxine (T4). It
also stores these
active product formed from thyroxine (T4)
thyroid hormones
in the tissues under the influence of and releases them
microsomal deiodinase enzymes, which as they are needed.
remove the iodine from the “outer” ring of
thyroxine (5'-deiodination) (Hernandez
and Germain, 1997).

Function/s: Triiodothyronine is a thyroid

hormone that plays vital roles in the
body's metabolic rate, heart and digestive
functions, muscle control, brain
development and function, and the
maintenance of bones
 Target organ/s: Most tissues

Antagonist (if any): NH3 is a thyroid

hormone receptor (TR) antagonist that
inhibits binding of thyroid hormones to
their receptor and that inhibits cofactor
recruitment.

Thyroid-Stimulating Classification: Glycoprotein hormones TSH stands for

Hormone (TSH) “thyroid stimulating
Gland: Anterior pituitary hormone” and the
(adenohypophysis) test measures how
much of this
Activated by: Thyroid-releasing hormone hormone is in your
blood. TSH is
(TRH) from the hypothalamus stimulates
produced by the
TSH from the pituitary, which stimulates pituitary gland in
thyroid hormone release. As blood your brain. This
gland tells your
concentrations of thyroid hormones
thyroid to make and
increase, they inhibit both TSH and TRH, release the thyroid
leading to "shutdown" of thyroid epithelial hormones into your
cells. blood.

Function/s: TSH, in turn, stimulates

thyroid follicular cells to release thyroxine
or T4 (80%), and triiodothyronine or T3
(20%). Somatostatin, on the other hand,
is another hormone produced by the
hypothalamus that inhibits the release of
TSH from the anterior pituitary.

Target organ/s: Thyroid gland

 Antagonist (if any): because of the TSH
receptor (TSHR) plays an important role
in the pathogenesis of thyroid disease, a
TSHR antagonist could be a novel
treatment.

Cortisone Classification: Synthetic Steroid Because

hormones glucocorticoids have
(Glucocorticoids) so many functions,
Gland: Adrenal cortex man-made or
synthetic
Activated by: Glucocorticoids affect cells glucocorticoids have
been developed to
by binding to the glucocorticoid receptor.
help treat many
The activated glucocorticoid receptor- different conditions.
glucocorticoid complex up-regulates the
expression of anti-inflammatory proteins
in the nucleus (a process known as
transactivation) and represses the
expression of proinflammatory proteins in
the cytosol by preventing the
translocation of other transcription factors
from the cytosol into the nucleus
(transrepression).

Function/s: Glucocorticoids are powerful

medicines that fight inflammation and
work with your immune system to treat
wide range of health problems. Your body
actually makes its own glucocorticoids.
These hormones have many jobs, such
as controlling how your cells use sugar
and fat and curbing inflammation.

Target organ/s: Thymus

 Antagonist (if any): At present,
mifepristone is the only GR antagonist
available for clinical use.

Adrenaline Classification: Amino acid-derived Adrenaline, also

hormone called epinephrine,
(or epinephrine) is a hormone
Gland: Adrenal medulla released by your
adrenal glands and
Activated by: Adrenaline is released some neurons. The
adrenal glands are
mainly through the activation of nerves
located at the top of
connected to the adrenal glands, which each kidney. They
trigger the secretion of adrenaline and are responsible for
producing many
thus increase the levels of adrenaline in
hormones, including
the blood. This process happens aldosterone, cortisol,
relatively quickly, within 2 to 3 minutes of adrenaline, and
the stressful event being encountered. noradrenaline.

Function/s: Adrenaline triggers the body's

fight-or-flight response. This reaction
causes air passages to dilate to provide
the muscles with the oxygen they need to
either fight danger or flee. Adrenaline also
triggers the blood vessels to contract to
re-direct blood toward major muscle
groups, including the heart and lungs.

 Key actions of adrenaline include

increasing the heart rate, increasing
blood pressure, expanding the air
passages of the lungs, enlarging the
pupil in the eye, redistributing blood to
the muscles and altering the body's
metabolism, so as to maximise blood
glucose levels (primarily for the brain).
 Target organ/s: All tissues

Antagonist (if any): Adrenergic

antagonists (adrenoblockers) are
compounds that inhibit the action of
adrenaline.

Noradrenalin Classification: Amino acid-derived Recently, the

(Norepinephrine) hormone essential role of
noradrenaline in the
Gland: Adrenal Medulla central nervous
system (CNS) has
Activated by: Norepinephrine is released emerged.
Noradrenaline
when a host of physiological changes are
affects behaviors of
activated by a stressful event. In the individuals including
brain, this is caused in part by activation a modulation of
vigilance, arousal,
of an area of the brain stem called the
attention, motivation,
locus ceruleus. This nucleus is the origin reward, and also
of most norepinephrine pathways in the learning and
brain. memory.

Function/s: Together with adrenaline,

norepinephrine increases heart rate and
blood pumping from the heart. It also
increases blood pressure and helps break
down fat and increase blood sugar levels
to provide more energy to the body.

 The general function of

norepinephrine is to mobilize the brain
and body for action. Norepinephrine
release is lowest during sleep, rises
during wakefulness, and reaches
much higher levels during situations of
stress or danger, in the so-called fight-
 or-flight response. In the brain,
norepinephrine increases arousal and
alertness, promotes vigilance,
enhances formation and retrieval of
memory, and focuses attention; it also
increases restlessness and anxiety.

Target organ/s: All tissues

Antagonist (if any): Tricyclic

antidepressants, beta blockers,
antipsychotics

3. Differentiate a negative feedback from a positive feedback mechanism of

hormones. Give an example of each.

a. Negative feedback

- occurs to reduce the change or output; the result of a reaction is to reduce to bring the
system back to a stable state

Example;

b. Positive feedback

- occurs to increase the change or output; the result of a reaction is amplified to make it
occur more quickly

Example;

4. Explain the principles of fight or flight response.

References

www.albert.io

www.exmples.youdictionary.com

www.ib.bioninja.com