BIOL 324 – INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY

CREDIT HOURS 1
A. Lecture Topics

1.0 General Introduction and sub – disciplines

2.0 Brief survey of microorganisms

2.1 Viruses
2.2 Prokaryotes (bacteria, Actnomycetes, mycoplamas & cyanobacteria
2.3 Eukaryotes – (protozoan, yeasts & Other fungi, algae)

3.0 Metabolism of Microorganisms

3.1 Nutrition and fermentation;
3.2 Metabolic regulations
3.3 Carbohydrates, lipids and protein/amino acids;
3.4 Metabolism and pathways
3.5 Nitrogen fixation

4.0. Growth and control of microorganisms

4.1 Growth of microorganisms
4.2 Control of microorganisms - intrinsic and extrinsic factor

1
BIOL 324 - INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY
Microbiology is the study of microscopic forms of life. Like most other sciences, it
had its origin deeply rooted in curiosity. At first, microorganisms were thought to
be mysterious oddities of little practical importance. However, the work of many
individuals, including Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch, and Joseph Lister, drastically
changed this limited view of microbes during the late nineteenth century. For the first
time, the world became aware of the desirable and undesirable effects of
microorganisms on the environment – including spoilage, disease, and death. This
realization ushered in a whole new era of research in microbiology.

In its early period, microbiology as a science was concerned with the isolation,
identification, and control of microorganisms. Major advances in microscopy and
biochemical techniques from the 1940s to the present showed microorganism to be
useful models for the study of various processes of living systems, particularly in the
areas of genetics and metabolism. Moreover, these and numerous other studies have
clearly shown that microorganism perform many activities that are beneficial to
humans. For example, these microscopic forms of life manufacture antibodies,
vitamins, and growth factors for humans, other animals and plants; decompose
sewage and solid and industrial wastes; and are essential to the formation of foods
and beverages such as cheeses, yogurt, bread, pickles, sauerkraut, wine and beer.

Many of these microbial products are of commercial importance. Continued advances

in microbiology and related branches of science are also providing many new and
exciting ways to make microorganisms more useful. Through genetic engineering
technology, it is possible to produce new forms of microorganisms by inserting into
them specific pieces of foreign genetic material (genes). Such newly altered
microorganism can thus be directed to produce important proteins such as the
hormones insulin (used for the treatment of diabetes) and human growth
hormone (used to increase bone growth) and the antiviral agent interferon (used in
the treatment of certain cancers and diseases caused by viruses); or they may be
used to make an amino acid essential for good nutrition. This type of genetic
tinkering has not only moved microbiology, and science in general, into a new stage of
development but has also increased public concern with and interest in the advances of
science and the impact of technology on the quality of human life.

Despite the established useful functions and the potentially valuable activities of
microorganisms, these microscopic forms of life may be best known as agents of
foods spoilage and causes of diseases, including acquired immune deficiency
syndrome or AIDS, herpes, Legionnaire’s disease, Listeriosis, the disease
associated with contaminated Mexican-style cheeses. So far as is known, all
primitive and civilized societies have experienced diseases caused by microbes,
2
frequently with disastrous results. Moreover, microorganisms have played profound
roles in warfare, religion, and the migration of population. An understanding of these
and other activities of microorganisms can best begin with an examination of the
microbial world.

Microscopic forms of life are present in vast numbers in nearly every environment.
They are found in the soil, in water bodies, in food we consume and water we
drink, and even in the air we breathe. Many animal parasites, such as hookworms
and tapeworms, have microscopic stages in their life cycles, and these forms are studied
in the applied aspects of medical microbiology. Ordinarily, however, these metazoan
(multicellular) parasites are considered separately in the specialized branch of
Parasitology.
Microbiology can also be organized into subdisciplines by using an applied approach.
Several areas of microbiology are oriented along lines of problem solving or involve the
study of locations where organism occur (habitat). The table below lists and describes a
number of these disciplines.

Aquatic microbiology
The study of microorganism in aquatic environments such as lakes, ponds, and rivers and the
effects of environmental changes on microbial processes.

Industrial microbiology and biotechnology

These subdisciplines, wherever applicable, are concerned with the use of microorganisms to
produce Economically important products and with the development of techniques used to
prevent microbial destruction of economically important products formed by others means.

Food and diary microbiology

Food and diary microbiology involves the efforts of Chemists, Engineers, and Microbiologists to
gain efficient control of fermentation (the conversion of raw materials into desirable end
products by carefully selected microorganisms).

-Food microbiology is also concerned with preventing and making improvements in the
nutritional value, aroma, flavour, and general quality of foods.
-Diary microbiology deals with the manufacture of cheeses, and other fermented milk products,
such as yogurt. The production of foods free of disease-producing agents is the goal of both
applied areas.

Marine microbiology
The study of microorganism in marine or oceanic environments and the effects of environmental
changes on microbial populations and processes.

Medical microbiology
This sub-discipline is concerned with the harmful effects of microorganism (pathogens).

3
Additional investigations in this area include determining the properties and disease-producing
capabilities of microorganism, developing procedures to detect the presence of pathogens
(diagnosis), developing treatments and/or vaccines against pathogens, and using both chemical
and physical methods to manage and control of infections diseases in the population.

Soil microbiology
The study of microorganism that use soil as a terrestrial habitat, the various microbial processes
associated with biodegradation (the biological breakdown of various compounds in soil), and the
cycling of minerals (biogeochemical cycles).

Veterinary microbiology
This subdiscipline deals with harmful effects of infectious disease agents (microorganism and
worms) on domestic livestock and agriculturally important plants. The spread and control of
such pathogens are of major concern.

The French scientist “Louis Pasteur” was one of the first scientists to recognise
the true functions of microbes (microorganisms). He was born on December 27,
1822 in the little French village of Dole and eventually became a major figure
in the development of biology and medicine. His discoveries brought to light
dramatic new concepts as well as new approaches to the old-age problems.
THE MICROBIAL WORLD
Micro-organisms are difficult to define – They include all organisms which cannot be properly
seen without the use of a microscope. They include sub microscopic viruses which cannot be
seen with an ordinary microscope. They can occur in a wide variety of forms and display a
wide range of activities. Many microorganisms or microbes occur as single cells, others
are multicellular and others, such as viruses, do not have true cellular appearance. Some
are capable of carrying out their vital functions in the absence of oxygen (anaerobes)
and other as in the majority of organisms require free oxygen (aerobes). They range in
size from microns (micrometer) to millimicrons (nanometer).

10 mm = 1 cm
1mm = 10-1 cm = 1/10 of a cm
1 micron or micrometer (µm) = 10-3mm
1nanometer (nm) = 10-3 micron or 1 millimicron

The main groups of micro-organisms are viruses, Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. This includes the
study of viruses (Virology), Bacteria (Bacteriology) and protozoa (Protozoology)

(i) VIRUSES
A virus is a small infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of other
organisms. Viruses are not free living.Viruses can infect all types of life forms, from
4
animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria and archaea. They are capable of
replication within a living cell. When outside of the cell it is incapable of doing
anything. It can be crystallised. Viruses are considered at the threshold of living and
non-living because they show both the characteristics of a living and a non-living. As
they react like non-living in the free atmosphere but when they enter the body of a
living organism then they show the features of a living organism and start
reproduction. They have no cellular organisation. They consist of only nucleic acids
and few proteins. They are incapable of independent metabolism and are obligate
pathogens of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes.

Viruses are found in almost every ecosystem on Earth and are the most abundant type of
biological entity. Most known viruses are pathogens in humans, animals, plants, in
sewage and intestine of some insects - because bacteria are found in such environments
they are referred to as bacteriophage

(ii) PROKARYOTES
Prokaryotes are more complex than viruses. They are usually small, single-celled (or at most
filaments of similar cells). They lack membrane bound organelles, have no mitochondrion and
have a single usually circular strand of DNA . They include: Mycoplasmas, Rikettsia,
Actinomycetes and true bacteria, Cyanobacteria – oxygenic, photo autotrophs with
chlorophylla.
 Why are cyanobacteria classified as bacteria and at the same time as algae?
Ans. Like all other prokaryotes, cyanobacteria lack a membrane-bound nucleus, mitochondria,
Golgi apparatus, chloroplasts, and endoplasmic reticulum. All of the functions carried out in
eukaryotes by these membrane-bound organelles are carried out in prokaryotes by the
bacterial cell membrane.
 Differences between cyanobacteria and a true bacterium:

5
 Cyanobacteria Bacteria
1. The cells are comparatively smaller.
1. The cells are comparatively larger.
2. The cell wall is 1—2 layered.
2. The cell wall is four layered.

3. They are often present.

3. Plasmodesmata and pores do not occur in
cell wall.
4. They show higher degree of morphological
complexity as well as structural elaboration. 4. They exhibit lesser structural elaboration.

5. Cyanobacteria are generally autotrophic.
6. Cyanobacteria contain chlorophyll a as found
in eukaryotic autotrophs.
7. Photosynthesis its oxygenic.
8. They possess accessory water soluble
photosynthetic pigments known as phycobilins.
9. Flagella are absent.
10. Carbohydrate reserve food is a special starch
known as cyanophycean starch.
5. Bacteria are both autotrophic and hetero-
trophic.
6. Autotrophic bacteria possess
bacteriochlorophyll.
7. Photosynthesis is an-oxygenic.
8. Photoautotrophic bacteria do not contain
phycobilins.
9. Flagella may be present.
10. Carbohydrate reserve food is glycogen.

(iii) EUKARYOTES
These are organisms (plants and animals) which have membrane bound nuclei, mitochondria
and other organelles. They include fungi – yeasts and filamentous; protozoa and algae
(filamentous/unicellular).

VIRUSES
A. NOTE= STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF VIRUSES

Viruses are difficult to define, but they share the following characteristics
(i) They are sub-cellular particles which behave like ordinary living organisms inside a
cell but outside of a cell they are inert. It cannot replicate or reproduce. But inside a
cell it can. Viruses by themselves are not alive. They cannot grow or multiply on
their own and need to enter a human or animal cell and take over the cell to
help them multiply. These viruses may also infect bacterial cells.

(ii) Viruses do not have the chemical machinery needed to survive on their own. They,
thus seek out host cells in which they can multiply. The virus particle or the virion
attack the cell and take over its machinery to carry out their own life processes of

6
 multiplication and growth. An infected cell will produce viral particles instead
of its usual products.

(iii) They are very small – usual range is 20 nm – 100nm diameter. The virus particles are
100 times smaller than a single bacteria cell. The bacterial cell alone is more than 10
times smaller than a human cell and a human cell is 10 times smaller than the
diameter of a single human hair.

(iv) They have a simple structure. There is no cytoplasm or nucleus, no organised cell
membrane or cell wall. A virion (virus particle) has three main parts:

(a) Nucleic acid – this is the core of the virus with the DNA or RNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid respectively). The DNA or RNA
holds all of the information for the virus and that makes it unique and helps it
multiply.
(b) Protein Coat (capsid) – This is covering over the nucleic acid that protects it.
(c) Lipid membrane (envelope) – this covers the capsid. Many viruses do not have
this envelope and are called naked viruses.

Some viruses have only RNA with no protein coat and they are crystallisable. Viruses
are thus acellular micro-organisms having no nucleus, no energy generation systems
(lack catabolic or anabolic enzymes) or organelles; therefore, they are non-motile and
cannot live outside a living cell. They are obligate intracellular parasites.

Viruses are classified according to their structure. The structure and morphology of
viruses is heterogenous. They are either icosahedral or helical. Some are spherical, long,
narrow, cylindrical, brick shaped and some may also have spherical head and a long
tail.

A complete virus particle known as a virion. Each virus (viron) consist of two parts – a
single linear, single strand or double stranded DNA or RNA molecule. This single
molecule of DNA or RNA forms the core of the virus and this is the infective part of the
virus. Surrounding this core of DNA or RNA is a protein shell called the capsid. The
capsid is made up of several identical structural units each of which is called a
capsomere. The protein shell is only protective and physiologically inert. It however
helps in the penetration of living cell or host.

Bacteriophages are tadpole like or sperm like with a polyhedral head and narrow tail.
The head contains all the active materials i.e. nucleic acids, DNA, the tail is a hollow
tube of protein.

7
A virus has either a DNA or an RNA genome and is called a DNA virus or an RNA
virus, respectively. The vast majority of viruses have RNA genomes. Plant viruses tend
to have single-stranded RNA genomes and bacteriophages tend to have double-stranded
DNA genomes. In general, RNA viruses have smaller genome sizes than DNA viruses
because of a higher error-rate when replicating, and have a maximum upper size limit.
 DNA VIRUSES include:
1. Herpes simplex 230nm x 300nm - polyhedral
2. Adeno 75 nm - polyhedral
3. T4 Phage Head (95 x 65) nm – polyhedral head, helical tail

 RNA VIRUSES include:

Tobacco mosaic virus (rod) 300 nm long – Helical
Influenza virus 80nm – 200 nm
Polio virus 28 nm

Viruses exist in two phases:

(1) An extracellular phase in which the virus consist of an inert, infectious particle
or virion. The virion is made of the protein capsid enclosing 1 or more of the
molecules of nucleic acid – either DNA or RNA

(2) An Intracellular Phase in which the virus consists of a replicating nucleic acid
– DNA or RNA. During the intracellular phase the viral DNA or RNA is
replicated by the host cell. Also the viral DNA or RNA serves as a genetic
determinant for the synthesis of viral proteins by the host cell.

8
Diagram of Generalised structure of Virus

B. Life cycle of a basic virus

The life cycle of viruses differs greatly between species but there are six basic stages in
the life cycle of viruses: These include:

1. A virus particle attaches to a host cell. This is called the process of adsorption
2. The particle injects its DNA or RNA into the host cell called entry.
3. The invading DNA or RNA takes over the cell and recruits the host’s enzymes
4. The cellular enzymes start making new virus particles called replication
5. The particles of the virus created by the cell come together to form new viruses.
This is called assembly
6. The newly formed viruses kill the cell so that they may break free and search for
a new host cell. This is called release.
C. Effects on the host cell

The range of structural and biochemical effects that viruses have on the host cell is
extensive. These are called cytopathic effects. Most virus infections eventually result in
the death of the host cell. The causes of death include cell lysis, alterations to the cell's
surface membrane and apoptosis. Often cell death is caused by cessation of its normal
activities because of suppression by virus-specific proteins, not all of which are
components of the virus particle.

Some viruses cause no apparent changes to the infected cell. Cells in which the virus is
latent and inactive show few signs of infection and often function normally. This causes
persistent infections and the virus is often dormant for many months or years. This is
often the case with herpes viruses, HIV. Some viruses, such as Epstein–Barr virus, can cause
cells to proliferate without causing malignancy while others, such as papillomaviruses, are
established causes of cancer.

D. Host range

Viruses are by far the most abundant biological entities on Earth and they outnumber all
the others put together. They infect all types of cellular life including animals, plants,
bacteria and fungi. However, different types of viruses can infect only a limited range of
hosts and many are species-specific. Some, such as smallpox virus for example, can
infect only one species – in this case humans, and are said to have a narrow host range.
Other viruses, such as rabies virus, can infect different species of mammals and are said
to have a broad range. The viruses that infect plants are harmless to animals, and most
viruses that infect other animals are harmless to humans. The host range of some
bacteriophages is limited to a single strain of bacteria and they can be used to trace the
source of outbreaks of infections by a method called phage typing.
9
E. Overview of the main types of viral infection and the most notable species
involved

Examples of common human diseases caused by viruses include the common cold,
influenza, chickenpox, and cold sores. Many serious diseases such as Ebola virus disease,
AIDS, avian influenza, and SARS are caused by viruses. The relative ability of viruses to
cause disease is described in terms of virulence.

Viruses have different mechanisms by which they produce disease in an organism,

which depends largely on the viral species. Mechanisms at the cellular level primarily
include cell lysis, the breaking open and subsequent death of the cell. In multicellular
organisms, if enough cells die, the whole organism will start to suffer the effects.
Although viruses cause disruption of healthy homeostasis, resulting in disease, they may
exist relatively harmlessly within an organism. An example would include the ability of
the herpes simplex virus, which causes cold sores, to remain in a dormant state within the
human body. This is called latency and is a characteristic of the herpes viruses,
including Epstein–Barr virus, which causes glandular fever, and varicella zoster virus,
which causes chickenpox and shingles. Most people have been infected with at least one
of these types of herpes virus. However, these latent viruses might sometimes be
beneficial, as the presence of the virus can increase immunity against bacterial
pathogens, such as Yersinia pestis.

Some viruses can cause lifelong or chronic infections, where the viruses continue to
replicate in the body despite the host's defense mechanisms. This is common in hepatitis
B virus and hepatitis C virus infections. People chronically infected are known as
carriers, as they serve as reservoirs of infectious virus. In populations with a high
proportion of carriers, the disease is said to be endemic.

10
 F. Role of viruses in human disease

G. Epidemiology
Viral epidemiology is the branch of medical science that deals with the transmission and
control of virus infections in humans. Transmission of viruses can be vertical, which
means from mother to child, or horizontal, which means from person to person.
Examples of vertical transmission include hepatitis B virus and HIV, where the baby is
born already infected with the virus. Another, more rare, example is the varicella zoster
virus, which, although causing relatively mild infections in humans, can be fatal to the
foetus and newborn baby.

Horizontal transmission is the most common mechanism of spread of viruses in

populations. Transmission can occur when: body fluids are exchanged during sexual
activity, e.g., HIV; blood and other body fluids are exchanged by contaminated
transfusion or needle sharing, e.g., hepatitis C; exchange of saliva by mouth, e.g.,
Epstein–Barr virus; contaminated food or water is ingested, e.g., norovirus; aerosols
containing virions are inhaled, e.g., influenza virus; and insect vectors such as
mosquitoes penetrate the skin of a host, e.g., dengue. Ebola which is spread through :

 Direct contact with wounds, body fluid like blood, saliva, vomits, stool and urinre
of an infected person or splashing of such fluids from an infected person to
another person.
 Skin piercing instruments that have been used by an infected person

11
  Direct or physical handling of persons who have died of Ebola
 Eating dead animals and fruits left over or partly eaten by wild animals that
harbour the virus

The rate or speed of transmission of viral infections depends on factors that include
population density, the number of susceptible individuals, (i.e., those not immune), the
quality of healthcare and the weather.

Epidemiology is used to break the chain of infection in populations during outbreaks of

viral diseases. Control measures are used that are based on knowledge of how the virus
is transmitted. It is important to find the source, or sources, of the outbreak and to
identify the virus. Once the virus has been identified, the chain of transmission can
sometimes be broken by vaccines. When vaccines are not available, sanitation and
disinfection can be effective. Often, infected people are isolated from the rest of the
community, and those that have been exposed to the virus are placed in quarantine. To
control the outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in cattle in Britain in 2001, thousands of
cattle were slaughtered. Most viral infections of humans and other animals have
incubation periods during which the infection causes no signs or symptoms. Incubation
periods for viral diseases range from a few days to weeks, but are known for most
infections. Somewhat overlapping, but mainly following the incubation period, there is
a period of communicability — a time when an infected individual or animal is
contagious and can infect another person or animal. This, too, is known for many viral
infections, and knowledge of the length of both periods is important in the control of
outbreaks. When outbreaks cause an unusually high proportion of cases in a population,
community, or region, they are called epidemics. If outbreaks spread worldwide, they are
called pandemics.

PROKARYOTES
STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF PROKARYOTES
(Bacteria, Actinomycetes and the Blue-greens)
The Prokaryotes are more complex than the viruses but less so than the Eukaryotes.
They differ from Eukaryotes in the following ways:

(i) They lack a membrane bound nucleus

(ii) They lack membrane – bound organelles like mitochondria, chloroplasts
(iii) They do not have a definite life cycle
(iv) They do not show cytoplasmic streaming
(v) The number of chromosomes in Prokaryotes is always 1 and that in
Eukaryotes is more than 1
(vi) Eukaryotes have a true nucleus. The nucleus of each cell is enclosed within
a well-defined nuclear membrane. It is thus segregated from the cytoplasm.
12
Differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes Eukryotes
1 No nuclear membrane Nuclear membrane present (true nucleus )
2 No mitosis and meiosis Nucleus exhibit complex phenomenon of
mitosis and meiosis
3 No typical gamete Reproduction by typical gametes
4 No membrane enclosed organelles Presence of membrane bound organelles
chloroplast, nucleus, mitochondria , etc
5 Cell wall of polysaccharide amino- Cell wall of cellulose; mainly chitin in
acid heteropolymer called fungi
mucocomplex, mucopolysaccharide
or mucopeptide. In gram negative
bacteria, combined with lipids and
lipoprotiens in several
configuration
6 No streaming of cytoplasm Cytoplasm exhibit active streaming
movement
CLASSIFICATION OF PROKARYOTES
The classification of prokaryotes is unsatisfactory. Firstly, they have very simple
structures and therefore very few morphological characters. Secondly, there is usually
very little metabolic relationship between members of groups which are distinguishable
in terms of shared structural properties.

METABOLISM IN MICROORGANISMS

MICROBIAL NUTRITION
Nutrients are extracellular substances required by cells for building materials (growth)
or for obtaining energy. Practically any material on earth can nourish one microbe or
another. Nutrients utilised by microbes range from proteins, sugars, purines and
pyrimidines, to the unusual such as rubber, paper, leather, oil, aircraft fuel, turpentine,
carbon monoxide, iron and elemental sulphur, etc.

No one microbe is capable of utilising every nutrient. Differences in the ability to utilise
nutrient is a taxonomic tool in identifying and classifying microorganisms e.g.
Thiobacillus oxides thiosulphates, Ferrobacillus oxidises ferrous to ferric but does
oxidise thiosulphate.

13
Many fungi can grow and sporulate satisfactorily with a simple sugar, an inorganic or
simple organic nitrogen source and mineral elements. Parasitic microbes however,
often require complex molecules which can only be acquired if they are grown on plant
or animal extracts. Some obligate parasites have very exacting nutritional requirements
and cannot be grown axenically on artificial media except on living hosts. In some
green algal flagellates and protozoa enforced darkness may trigger a change from
photoautotrophic to chemoheterotrophic nutrition. They lose chlorophyll in darkness.

Amongst microorganisms, bacteria are the most versatile in terms of nutrition. They
include chemoautotrophs (with varying requirements) photoautotrophs and
photoheterotrophs.

NUTRIENT SOURCE
Any substance which is oxidised by an organism to provide energy for metabolic
processes is termed substrate. Chemoautotrophs use inorganic substrates whilst
chemoheterotrophs utilise organic ones. (Micro) organisms require not only a source of
energy but must also find in its environment all the materials needed to build and
maintain its cellular organisation i.e a carbon-source. The energy source and carbon
source make up the NUTRIENTS. All materials in nature can serve as a source of
nutrients for one or other microorganism. Even materials like aircraft fuel, paint, iron
or rubber can serve as source of nutrients.

 NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS FOR MICROORGANISMS

The essential elements are chemical elements which are essential for optimal physical
and mental well-being, and required in bulk (cf. trace elements) quantities in a normal
animal. Cells are made of several chemical elements. There six major elements
needed to make and replace cell structures

Essential elements to Nonessential elements Trace elements for cell

make and replace structure.
cell structures

Carbon (C) Potassium (K) Co

Hydrogen (H) Calcium (Ca) Zn
Oxygen (O) Ion (Fe) Cu
Nitrogen (N) Sodium (Na) Mn.
Sulphur (S)
Phosphorus (P)

For a particular nutrient to provide any of the above elements for any microbe, the
microbe must be able to take it up and also it must have the necessary enzymes to

14
metabolise it. Some fungi and bacteria release extracellular enzymes which break down
large polymers into transportable units.

Sometimes, even with the provision of all of the nutrients above, a microbe may fail to
grow. This is an indication that the microbe is sensitive to its physical environment e.g
temperature and pH. Clostridium for example was believed to be unable to utilise
Ammonium salts as Nitrogen-source. We now know that this is because it is sensitive
to low pHs caused by ammonium (NH4+-salts) and by buffering to alkaline pH
Clostridium can indeed grow on NH4+-salts.

INORGANIC NUTRIENTS

A. CARBON SOURCES
Carbon is the element required by organisms in the greatest amount because it is the
structural unit of all organic compounds. All phototrophs can reduce atmospheric CO 2
or bicarbonate ion as sole source of carbon but not all can use CO 2 as energy source.
Some chemotrophs oxidize organic substances as energy and Carbon source.
Chemoautotrophic forms like nitrifying bacteria utilise inorganic substances exclusively
and therefore must use atmospheric CO2.

The range of organic compounds from which carbon is extracted by chemoheterotropic

microorganisms is very wide. Carbohydrates are the mostly readily available source of
carbon for microbes. Fungi, most protozoa and bacteria use simple carbohydrates like
hexoses (D-glucose, fructose etc.) but disaccharides, polyhydric alcohols such as
mannitol and glycerol, amino acids, lipids and polymers such as starch and cellulose are
also utilised. Hydrocarbons can serve as sole source of carbon for a few bacteria like
Corynebacterium, Mycobacterium and Pseudomonas. Even lignin may under aerobic
conditions be used by fungi especially the Basidiomycetes. In general, the nutritional
requirements of fungi are more exacting when they are reproducing than when
vegetative. Many fungi and bacteria have a wide array of catabolic and anabolic
enzymes and can synthesise all the substances they require from a single Carbon source
or they can use a large selection of substances. Most protozoans, many bacteria and
fungi have a narrow range of enzymes and cannot convert a single source of carbon to
all compounds that they require.

Carbohydrate Micro-organism
Glucose Leptomyces lactus, Pseudomonas
putrificans, Polytomella caeca
Sucrose Yeast (in fermentation),
Phycomycetes blakeleanus
Galactose & Xylulose Few species of fungi
Polysaccharide - Starch Saccharomycetes diasficus,
15
 Aspergillus, Phytophtora
palmivora, Mucor ramanialus and
the bacteria Bacillus micoides
Cellulose – this is the largest reservoir of Basidiomycetes in general:
biologically utilizable carbon. Microbes Stereum polypticus, schizophyllum
break it down especially those that have Ascomycetes: chaetomium,
the enzyme cellulose. Such microbes are Sordania, Trichoderma,
present in the guts of herbivores. Helminthosporium

B. NITROGEN SOURCES
Relatively large amounts of Nitrogen (N) are required for synthesis of amino acids and
proteins, purine and pyrimidine nucleotides and certain vitamins. Nitrogen in nature
occurs in several oxidation states, each or which can be utilized by different
microorganisms. The preferred oxidation state for most microbes is the ammonium ion
(NH4+) which is the form in which N occurs in organic compounds. When ammonia is
used the nitrification process occurs in two steps.

(i) NH3 + 1½O2 NO 2 - + H+ +H2O + energy

e.g Nitrosomonas

(ii) NO2 +1½02 NO 3- + Energy

e.g Nitrobacter and Aspergillus niger

Thus NO2- could also be used as a source of N.

Another common form of N is NO 3- which is used by many fungi and algae but not
many bacteria.

Organic Nitrogen sources are utilised by microbes that decompose them to produce
ammonia. Many micro-organisms could use a single amino acid as sole source of N.
Some bacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen.
(i) Symbionts growing in association with root nodules of legumes-
Rhizobium
(ii) free living bacteria – Azotobracter and some Clostridia which can fix N2 in
absence of ammonia as source of N. Some green algae also fix N 2 in
absence of ammonia e.g Nostoc, Anabaena and Cylindrosperum –
associated with specialised cells – the Heterocysts. Blue green fixers may
exist as symbionsts e.g Zamia (cycad) and Azolla (fern) host blue green
fixers.

16
 Nitrogen fixers
N2 Rhizobium, Acrobacter, Pseudomonas,
Closteridium
NO3 Many fungi
NO2 Nitrobacter, Aspergillus niger
Amines A. medileus
Purines and Pyrimidines Lactobacillus, S. boydii

C. PHOSPHORUS (P)
Phosphorous occurs in living organisms as sugar phosphates in nucleotides and nucleic
acids and phytates and phospholipids.
Phytates are phosphate esters of Inositol. Phospholipids are component of cell
membranes. Thus, P is needed in considerable quantity for growth. Most of the P
comes from soil minerals but some comes from breakdown of Inositol
hexaphosphate in soil organic matter.

D. SULPHUR(S)
Sulphur is present in microorganisms as the sulphydryl (-SH) group of the amino acid
Cysteine and most other S-Compounds in the cells such as methionine, biotin and
thiamine are derivatives of cysteine. Most microbes (and plants absorb S as sulphate
(SO4 2-) but some use thiosulphate (S2O32-) as sole source of S. Some microbes lack the
enzymes to reduce SO42- or S2O32- to sulphydyl and therefore must be supplied with
reduced S-compounds e.g H2S or Cysteine.

E. OTHER MINERAL ELEMENTS

Potassium (K), Magnesium (Mg) and Calcium (Ca) are also required in fairly large
quantities. In plants and animals such elements serve to build or repair structural
tissues but in microbes they are required as activators of various enzymes (prothetic
groups). Whereas, K, Mg and Ca are required in quantities of 10 -3 to 10-4 micronutrients
[Manganeese (Mn), Zinc (Zn), Cobolt (Co), Copper (Cu), Molybdenum (Mo)] are
needed in much lower concentrations –10-7 or lower. The micronutrient requirement of
most microbes is so low that it is not necessary to incorporate these elements into
nutrient media used for microbiological culture; Micronutrients are found as impurities
in sufficient quantities in the other constituents. Some microbes are however
sufficiently sensitive to micronutrients to be used as indicators e.g Aspergillus niger
needs copper for production of the brownish-black melanin pigments of the conidia –
the intensity of the pigmentation depends on the concentration of Cu in the medium.

F. VITAMINS
Vitamins are utilised by microbes especially those that can’t synthesize them. They are
required in small concentrations by microbes for normal functioning of their

17
physiological processes; vitamins are constituents or precursors of co-enzymes. Many
fungi, bacteria and algae can synthesise most of their own vitamins but protozoa usually
require an external supply of several vitamins. e.g Asperigillus niger can grow on a
medium without vitamin but Phycomyces blackesleeanus needs vitamin B1 (Thiamin).
Also, some strains of Saccharomyces cerevessiae have an absolute requirement for
biotin (prosthetic group of carboxylases and deaminases).

G. FATTY ACIDS
Microbes utilize fatty acids e.g Bacteriun diptherae. Lipids are also commonly used.
Dispyra (a fungus which grows as microparasites on other microbes) utilises glycerol.

2.2.2 ORGANIC NUTRIENTS: GROWTH FACTORS

In addition to vitamins other organic compounds may be required for growth and
reproduction but they are not found in enzymes. These include amino acids, purines,
pyrimidines, Inositol and chlorine. If a microorganism requires a growth factor, it
means that it lacks the ability to produce it. An organism that requires a particular
nutrient is said to be AUXOTROPHIC for that nutrient.

Inositol for example is needed by many fungi especially yeasts, but Actinomyces
israelii is the only bacterium that needs inositol. Oleic acid, a long chain fatty acid is
an absolute essential for several strain of the whooping cough bacterium
Corynebacterium diphtheriae. Some microbes are more demanding than others for
growth factors: Lactic acid bacteria and protozoa are amongst the most demanding; e.g
Lactobacillus bulgaricus has a specific requirement for Orotic acid. Purines and
Pyrimidines may be needed by protozoa and some Lactobacilli. Other unusual
requirements include those for haemotin by Pylobolus and mycotrophin by fungi
parasitic on other fungi (mycoparasites). Some growth factors are not essential but they
are stimulatory depending on whether the microbe is able to synthesise small amounts
but not enough to satisfy all its metabolic needs.

NUTRITIONAL CATEGORIES
Microorganisms, like all living cells, require energy and nutrients to build proteins and
structural membranes and drive biochemical processes. Microbes require sources of
carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, iron and a large number of other minerals. Carbon,
nitrogen and water are used in highest quantities. The nutritional requirements for
bacteria can be grouped according to the carbon source and the energy source.

Micro-organisms and indeed all living organisms fall into two nutritional categories: -

18
 (i) Autotrophic organisms (Autotrophs): These do not require the presence of
organic matter in the environment – They use light and inorganic compounds
like CO2, Ammonia and Sulphur to synthesise food;
(ii) Heterotrophic organisms (Heterotrophs): These need to take in already
manufactured organic molecules.

The distinction is not rigid because certain autotrophs even though they utilise inorganic
elements as carbon source, may require specific organic growth factors such as
vitamins.

Autotrophs -
Autotrophs are Microorganisms which obtain their nutrition from inorganic compounds.
Carbon dioxide is typically the sole source of cellular carbon. Autotrophs will use
hydrogen sulphide, ammonia or hydrogen gas to reduce carbon into necessary sugars.
Nitrifying bacteria, which oxidize ammonia to create nitrites and nitrates, are an
example of bacteria which use autotrophic nutrition.

Heterotrophs
Microbes that require organic sources of carbon such as sugars, fats and amino acids are
termed heterotrophs. Saprophytic bacteria are an example. They attain their nutrition
from dead organic matter. These bacteria will break down complex compounds by
means of enzymes and use the nutrients to release energy. Saprophytic bacteria are
essentially decomposers and play an important role in ecosystem by releasing simpler
products which plants and animals can use.

Phototrophs
Phototrophic microbes absorb light energy, which they utilize in photosynthesis to
create cellular energy. There are two types of phototrophs; those which do not produce
oxygen as a by-product are termed anaerobic phototrophs, while those which produce
oxygen are termed aerobic phototrophs. Both autotrophs and heterotrophs can be
phototrophs. Cyanobacteria are an example of bacteria which execute photoautotrophic
nutrition.

Chemotrophs
These microbes obtain chemical energy from their surroundings and convert it into
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for cellular use. Chemotrophs obtain energy from
oxidation-reduction reactions of inorganic compounds such ammonia, hydrogen
sulphide and iron. For instance, sulphur bacteria are a chemoautotroph which produces
energy by oxidizing hydrogen sulphide into sulphur and water.

19
Lithotrophs
Lithotrophs are microns which use reduced inorganic compounds as the electron donor
(H-donor) in anaerobic or aerobic respiration.

Four major nutritional categories of (micro) organisms have therefore been proposed.

1. Photoautotrophs: They use light as energy source and CO2 as principal carbon
source. e.g. green algae.

2. Chemoautotrophs: They derive energy from the oxidation of inorganic

compounds like sulphur, ammonia and use CO2, as carbon source. e.g Nitrifying
bacteria, Thiobacilli.

3. Photoheterotrophs: They use light as source of energy and get much of their
carbon from organic compounds. The category comprises specialised
photosynthetic bacteria known as non-sulphur purple bacteria.
4. Chemoheterotrophs: They use organic compounds as both energy and carbon
sources. They include protozoa, fungi, most bacteria and animals.
Chemoheterotrophs may be further divided into osmotrophs and Phototrophs.
Osmotrophs absorb organic substances in solution e.g bacteria and fungi and
Phototrophs ingest solid particles e.g animals and protozoans. Alternatively
Chemoheterotrophs may be subdivided into biotrophs if they feed on living
organisms or if they invade, kill and feed on dead remains, or saprotrophs when
they feed on dead organic matter, e.g. fungi, most protozoa and many bacteria.

Schematic Diagram of Nutritional Categories

Carbon source
Inorganic sources Organic sources

Autotrophs Heterotrophs

Energy Source - Phototrophic Photoautotrophs Photoheterotrophs

e.g. Green algae e.g. Non-sulphur
Sunlight purple bacteria
Chemotrophic Chemoautotrophs - Chemoheterotrophs
Energy Source - Nitogen-fixing – most bacteria and
bacteria e.g. fungi
Chemical Thiobacillus
reactions

Other Nutrtional Categories

20
Photolithotroph = A microbe that uses energy from light and inorganic
Compounds as electron donor (mostly photoautotrphs)

Photoorganotroph = A microbe that uses energy from light and Organic substance
as electron donors (Mostly photoheterotrophs)

Chemolitrotroph = A microbe that uses energy from light and Inorganic

compounds as electron donor (mostly chemoautrotrophs).

Chemoorganotroph = A microbe that uses energy from biochemical reactions and

Organic substance as electron donors

ENERGY YIELDING PROCESSESS OF MICROORGANISMS

All organisms produce ATP by releasing energy stored in glucose and other sugars.

 Plants make ATP during photosynthesis.

 All other organisms, including plants, must produce ATP by breaking down
molecules such as glucose

Microbes oxidise substrates to yield energy. Many of such oxidations take the form

AH2 + B BH2 + A
Substrate Hydrogen
acceptor
According to the nature of the (electron +) H- acceptor several kinds of energy yielding
processes may be identified amongst microbes:-

(a) Respiration – (Aerobic respiration) - the process by which a cell uses O2 to

"burn" molecules and release energy.

Here molecular oxygen is the hydrogen acceptor

[CH3CH2OH + O2 CH3COOH + H2O] + Energy

or CO2

The reaction: C6H12O6 + 6O2 >> 6CO2 + 6H2O

Note: this reaction is the opposite of photosynthesis

This reaction takes place over the course of three major reaction pathways

21
  Glycolysis
 The Krebs Cycle
 Electron Transport Phosphorylation (chemiosmosis)

(b) Anaerobic respiration – H-acceptor is inorganic substances

other than oxygen, example Desulphovibrio desulphurieans uses sulphate as
H- acceptor and products are H2S, H2O and Energy. Nitrates and carbohydrates
may also act as H/electron acceptors.

CH3CH2OH + SO4 → CH3COOH + H2S + Energy

(c) Fermentation – This is an enzymatically controlled anaerobic breakdown of an

energy rich compound such as carbohydrate to CO2 or alcohol or organic acid. This
type of fermentation is referred to as Alcohol Fermentation. It occurs in yeasts in
many bacteria . The product of fermentation, alcohol, is toxic to the organism
In this process, H and election acceptors as well as donors are organic compounds. Thus
substrate gives rise to a mixture of end products some which are more oxidised and
some are more reduced. An example is provided by alcoholic fermentation of glucose

C6H12O6 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH

substrate End products

Other substrates which may be fermented by microbes include organic acids,

amino acids, purines and pyrimidines

The categories are however not exclusive e.g. many microorganisms that respire
aerobically when Oxygen is available turn to anaerobes (organisms which live in the
absence of Oxygen) or fermentation when Oxygen is depleted – facultative anaerobes.

(d) Photosynthesis – may also yield energy by producing ATP using light as
energy source – photophosphorylation (conversion of ADP to ATP in
photosynthesis using radiant energy).

 CARBOHYDRATES METABOLISM

Carbohydrates – These are made up of one or more monosaccharide units joined by

glycosidic linkages. They serve two (2) functions to (micro) organisms.
(i) source of Carbon for synthesis e.g of microbial lipids, amino acids,
carbohydrates

22
 (ii) Source of energy (substrate)- carbohydrates must be broken down (oxidised) in
order to be assimilated by microorganisms and this may be by:

(a) Hydrolysis – decomposition involving the splitting of a bond of water and

addition of elements of water
sucrose + water glucose + fructose
(b) Phosphorylysis – reversible reaction similar to that of hydrolysis but uses
phosphoric acid instead of water to form a phosphate. E.g. Glucose 1-
phosphate.
sucrose + H3PO4 Glu-(P) + fructose

(c) Tranglycosidation

Dextran
n (sucrose) anhydroglucose + nfructose
sucrase

Carbohydrate hydrolysis is done by few microbes such as bacteria in soil, water and
rumen of ruminants. e.g cellulose breakdown by wood rotting and ruminating microbes;
starch breakdown by many fungi and bacteria.
Synthesis of Complex Sugars involves essentially the formation of glycosidic bond e.g
in sucrose synthesis.
Sucrose phosphorylase
Glucose (s) + fructose + ADP =========== Sucrose +ATP

This enzyme is found in many bacteria e.g Pseudomonas, Saccharophila, Leuconostoc

mesentroides. (The reaction is reversible but if the starting material is sucrose then it is
not). From sucrose other complex sugars may be formed by tranglycosidation:

e.g sucrose + sorbose glucosidal sorboside + fructose.

Another transglycosidose reaction involves synthesis of sucrose from uridine

diphosphale glucose – a derivative of Uracil, by yeast.

Uridine diphosphate + glucose + fructose uridine diphosphate + sucrose.

PATHWAYS OF GLUCOSE BREAKDOWN

23
There are four (4) principal pathways of glucose break down
(a) EMBDEN – MEYERHOF-PARNAS (EMP) PATHWAY- Glycolytic pathway –
enzymatic breakdown of carbohydrate (glucose or glycogen) by way of phosphate
derivatives
(b) PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY (PPP) OR HEXOSE
MONOPHOSPHATE SHUNT
(c ) ENTNER – DOUDOROFF PATHWAY (EDP)
(d) NON-PHOSPHORYLATING OXIDATION OF SUGAR

Pathway (a), (b), and (c) above are common to both respiratory and fermentative
metabolism and they convert sugars to the key metabolic intermediate – Pyruvic acid.
Three (3) main stages are involved: -
(i) Conversion of glucose by oxidation or/and phosphorylation to glucose – 6 –
(P) or another 6 – C compound;
(ii) Cleavage of this 6 - C compound to two 3- C segments or to two molecules
are with 5- C and the other being CO2
(iii) Metabolism of products of stage (ii) to pyruvate

1. EMBDEN – MEYERHOF – PARNAS PATHWAY (EMP)

24
Many bacteria and fungi like Aspergillus niger, Microsporium and claviceps. Two (2)
molecules of ATP are used to produce fructose –1, 6 – diphosphate. This is cleaved to
yield glyceraldehyde phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate – which are
interconvertible. These are then oxidised and NAD is reduced, producing 1, 3
diphosphoglyceric acid (1, 3 dPGA). The 1, 3 dPGA is converted to Pyruvic acid by a
series of steps that yields ATP. The net number of ATP yielded is 2. Net gain is 2 moles
of ATP and 2 moles of NADH

2. PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY (PPP)

Also called the Warburg-Dickens pathway – This does not lead directly to Pyruvic acid
but only oxidation of one of the Carbon atoms of the substrate. Glucose is first
phosphorylated to glucose-6-(p) coupled with NADP reduction.
The 6-Phosphogluconic acid produced is decarboxylated to Ribulose-5-Phosphate is
epimerised to Ribose-5-(P) and xylulose-5-(P) which are the starting points of
transketolase and transaldolase reactions. Eventually, glucose-6-(P) is reformed and
therefore this is a cyclical pathway. The cycle must be repeated six times before one (1)
molecule of glucose is completely oxidised to CO2 and before 6 molecules of NADP is
reduced to NADP. The functions of the pathway are thus: -
(i) It produces Ribose- 5-phosphate needed for synthesis of nucleic acids and
25
 ATP
(ii) It is a source of reductant (NADPH) for extramitochondial biosynthesis
(i) Used in the conversion of pentoses to sugar-phosphates e.g fructose-6-(P)
(ii) Alternative source of energy to EMP
(iii) Enables products of CO2 fixation to be converted to central metabolities in
autotrophs

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PPP

The PPP is important for the following reasons.

1. Because it needs no extra ATP, it is independent of the products of Kreb’s cycle.
It can thus produce energy alone or in conjunction with the Citric Acid cycle.
2. NADPH produced plays an important role in biosynthetic reactions especially in
actively growing tissues.

3. THE ENTNER DOUDOROFF (ED) SCHEME

Here glucose is phosphorylated to glucose-6 Phosphate and then as in the PPP oxidised
to 6 phosphogluconic acid. This is then converted to 2-keto-3-deoxy-6
phosphogluconic acid (KDPG) which is characteristic of this pathway. KDPG is
cleaved to one (1) molecule of pyruvic acid and one (1) of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
which is metabolised by enzymes in the pathway to produce another molecule of
pyruvic acid. Net yield is 1 ATP and 2 NADH for every molecule of glucose.

The process though not very common is found in Pseudomonads and some gram
negative bacteria e.g E.coli, Aspergillus flavus and caldomyris fumago.

26
4. NON-PHOSPHORYLATING OXIDATION OF SUGAR

This is first known to occur in Acetic Acid bacteria and Pseudomonads. This
pathway is now known to occur in gram positive bacteria in the presence of
oxygen e.g. Pseudomonas fluorescents, A. niger, Penicillium Chrysogenum.
Glucose is directly oxidised to Gluconic acid takes place in the in the presence of
the enzyme glucose oxidase.

27
IMPORTANCE OF THE VARIOUS PATHWAYS

Sometimes more than 1 pathway operates in a single organism. This is because each
pathway has its own role to play. Where the cell is actively undergoing synthesis a high
demand for reducing power (NADPH) may favour the PPP. Conversely where the cell
is actively dividing, demand for energy may favour the EMP with its high output of
ATP. In order to determine which pathway is being utilised by a microbe, the microbe
is fed with 14C labelled glucose in which C-1 is labelled and the products are analysed.
* In the EMP, the label appears in one of the two molecules of pyruvate.
* In ED it appears in the carboxyl group of one of the two products (pyruvic acid +
glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate).
* In the PPP, pyruvate is not labelled at all, the label appears in the Carbon dioxide
(CO2).

28
Percent (%0 glucose degraded during the various pathways.

Pathway Microbe
EMP Pentose ED
(Glycolysis) phosphate
1 100 - - Lactobacillus
2 88 12 - Saccharomyces cereviseae
3 72 28 - E. Coli
4 59 41 - Bacillus subtilis
5 - 29 71 Pseudomonas aerusinosa
6 - - 100 Pseudomonas saccharophyla
7 - 35 65 Caldariomyces fumago
8 82 18 - Fusarium lini
9 90 - 96 10 – 4 - Claviceps purpurea
10a - - 100 Tilletia coves (spore)
10b 66 34 - Tilletia coves (mycelium)

METABOLISM OF PYRUVATE
Pyruvic acid is the most important first intermediate in the oxidation of glucose by the
four pathways above. Further oxidation of pyruvic acid is by several different
processes e.g via the Kreb’s (TCA-Tricarboxylic Acid) cycle, fermentative processes
that release ethyl alcohol or lactic acid or by oxidative deamination to amino acids, fatty
acids, aldehydes etc.

In brief the various reactions of pyruvate are as follows:

1. OXIDATION TO LACTIC ACID

In Embden Mitterhoff pathway pyruvate is oxidated to lactic acid by an NAD

dependant lactate dehydrogenase.

Lactate dehydrogenase
CH3CO.COOH + 2NADH CH3CH.OH COOH + 2NAD Pyruvic
acid Lactic acid

This generally takes place in anaerobic conditions e.g in homofermentative lactobacilli

(Lactobacillus delbrueckii and Lactobacillus lactis).

29
 CONTROL AND REGULATION OF MICROBIAL METABOLISM

In living organisms, it is essential for the cell to conserve energy and materials as well
as to maintain metabolic balance. A close balance always exists between syntheses and
energy yielding processes which results in an orderly increase of cell constituents such
that one constituent is never over produced at the expense of another. There is thus
economy.
In microbial cells, enzymatic reactions may be regulated by two unrelated
modes:

This regulation is by two basic kinds.

1. ENZYME INDUCTION – Enzyme synthesis is specifically regulated
2. ENZYME INHIBITION – Enzyme activity is specifically regulated

(i) REGULATION OF ENZYME SYNTHESIS

Control or regulation of enzyme synthesis, including end-product repression,
functions in the regulation of biosynthetic pathways, and enzyme induction and
catabolite repression, which regulate mainly degradative pathways.

Microorganisms may have the ability to perform metabolic processes which are not of
obligate necessity and are thus not put into use except when needed. Thus, many
metabolic enzymes are inducible i.e they are only produced when a particular substrate
becomes available e.g. E. coli usually grown on glucose when transferred to lactose
takes some time before it can produce the necessary enzymes (β galactosidase) for
lactose metabolism. This is achieved by repression.

(a) Catabolite repression: A cell provided with a rapidly metabolisable energy source
generates plenty of ATP which represses the enzyme as well as repressing other sources
of energy which are less rapidly metabolisable.

(b) End product/Feedback repression

Biosynthetic enzymes are usually repressed by end products, for example, in synthesis
of L-histidine by E. coli all enzymes can be repressed by histidine thus regulating the
rate of production of histidine. If end products are available externally then end product
repression also shuts off synthesis of intermediates (a) and (b) above require a time lag
of hours.

(ii) REGULATION OF ENZYME ACTIVITY

Control or regulation of enzyme activity (feedback inhibition or end product

inhibition), mainly operates to regulate biosynthetic pathways; This operates very fast
and the enzymes affected are usually termed ALLOSTERIC enzymes. The process of
30
feedback inhibition regulates the activity of preexisting enzymes in the cells. The
processes of end-product repression, enzyme induction and catabolite repression are
involved in the control of synthesis of enzymes.

The regulator molecule attaches to the regulatory site of the enzyme thereby distorting it
and causing inhibition or sometimes activation of the enzyme. It is usually the end
product of the pathway or rarely the substrate molecule, which inhibits the first enzyme
of the pathway i.e. end product/feedback inhibition.

The processes which regulate the synthesis of enzymes may be either a form of positive
control or negative control.

End-product repression and enzyme induction are mechanisms of negative control

because they lead to a decrease in the rate of transcription of proteins.

Catabolite repression is considered a form of positive control because it affects an

increase in rates of transcription of proteins.

(iii) ALLOSTERIC PROTEINS

Although there are examples of regulatory processes that occur at all stages in
molecular biology of bacterial cells (see Table 1 above), the most common points of
regulation are at the level of transcription (e.g. enzyme induction and enzyme
repression) and changing the activity of preexisting proteins.  In turn, these levels of
control are usually modulated by proteins with the property of allostery.

An allosteric protein is one which has an active (catalytic) site and an allosteric
(effector) site. In an allosteric enzyme, the active site binds to the substrate of the
enzyme and converts it to a product. The allosteric site is occupied by some small
molecule which is not a substrate. However, when the allosteric site is occupied by the
effector molecule, the configuration of the active site is changed so that it is now unable
to recognize and bind to its substrate (Figure 1). If the protein is an enzyme, when the
allosteric site is occupied, the enzyme is inactive, i.e., the effector molecule decreases
the activity of the enzyme. There is an alternative situation, however. The effector
molecule of certain allosteric enzymes binds to its allosteric site and consequently
transforms the enzyme from an inactive to an active state (Figure 2). Some
multicomponent allosteric enzymes have several sites occupied by various effector
molecules that modulate enzyme activity over a range of conditions.

Some allosteric proteins are not enzymes, but nonetheless have an active site and an
allosteric site

CONTROL OF MICROORGANISMS
31
Controlling microorganisms can either be positive or negative:
POSITIVE control - you want to make them grow: Industrial Fermentations; beer, wine
and bread making

NEGATIVE control - you want to destroy them by (1) physical or chemical means or
(2) antibiotics

The control of microbial growth is necessary in many practical situations, and

significant advances in agriculture, medicine, and food science have been made through
study of this area of microbiology.

"Control of microbial growth", as used here, means to inhibit or prevent growth of

microorganisms. This control is affected in two basic ways: (1) by killing
microorganisms or (2) by inhibiting the growth of microorganisms. Control of growth
usually involves the use of physical or chemical agents which either kill or prevent the
growth of microorganisms. Agents which kill cells are called cidal agents; agents which
inhibit the growth of cells (without killing them) are referred to as static agents. Thus,
the term bactericidal refers to killing bacteria, and bacteriostatic refers to inhibiting
the growth of bacterial cells. A bactericide kills bacteria; a fungicide kills fungi, and so
on.

In microbiology, sterilization refers to the complete destruction or elimination of all

viable organisms in or on a substance being sterilized. There are no degrees of
sterilization: an object or substance is either sterile or not. Sterilization procedures
involve the use of heat, radiation or chemicals, or physical removal of cells.

 FACTORS AFFECTING THE GROWTH OF MICRO ORGANISMS

Foods are an ideal medium in which many micro-organisms readily grow and multiply.
The characteristics of a given food such as nutrient content, pH and osmotic pressure
determine the type of micro-organisms that grow and multiply in it or on it.
Food becomes readily contaminated by micro-organisms through the soil they grow in;
during harvest, processing and packaging; storage and handling, by animals like flies,
cockroaches, rats etc.; dirty utensils and equipment; and unhygienic habits of people
who handle it. Micro-organisms in contaminated food multiply rapidly if food is kept
at temperatures between 20 to 350C and if it is not cooked properly (long enough) to kill
the micro-organisms and their spore, and break down their toxins. When we eat
contaminated food, we tend to get diseases that affect the alimentary canal. Food
poisoning is a very common illness associated with eating contaminated food.
There are two basic sets of factors which affect microbial growth in foods: These are
Intrinsic factors and Extrinsic factors.

INTRINSIC FACTORS
32
Intrinsic factors are those which are the naturally present conditions in foods or the
inherent characteristics of the food, such as moisture, acidity and nutrients.
Generally, micro-organisms multiply more rapidly in moist nutritionally rich, pH
neutral foods. e.g. members of the genus Pseudomonas tend to flourish on moist, pH
neutral foods. Slight acidity can inhibit the growth of some species, giving way to the
slower growing lactic acid bacteria which now dominates the food. When growth of the
most common bacteria is restricted by conditions such as lack of moisture or high
acidity, fungi predominate despite their relatively slow growth.

1. Water

Foods with ample water such as fresh foods, fruits and other succulents will support
growth of many organisms. Dried foods, such as nuts, bread etc. have lower moisture
content and this provide relatively arid environment. Sugar rich foods such as jellies
and jams which are seemingly moist do not have available water. The water is
chemically interacting with the sugar, making it unavailable to the microbes.
Similarly, highly salted foods have little available water (low ᴪ p). The amount of
water available in food is referred to as water activity (αw). Pure water has a water
activity of 1.0. Most fresh foods have aw above 0.98, jam – 0.85 and cakes – 0.70.
Most bacteria require water activity above 0.9 and fungi, as low as 0.8. Fresh foods
are thus easily spoiled than dried foods.
2. pH

Many bacteria including pathogens cannot grow at pH below 4.5. Some lactic acid
bacteria can grow at pH as low as 3.5; fungi grow at lower pH than most spoilage
bacteria. pH influences the production of toxins, which may lead to food poisoning.
Clostridium botulimum which is the causative organism for botulism does not grow
or produce toxin below pH 4.5.

3. Nutrient availability

The growth of an organism will depend on the requirements of the organism. An

organism requiring a particular vitamin cannot grow in a food lacking that vitamin.
However, a microbe capable of synthesizing it can grow if other conditions are
favourable.

4. Biological barriers

These are protective coverings such as shells, rind of some fruits, etc. which limits
the extent to which the microbe enters the food. E.g. Eggs retain their quality much
longer if the shell is intact and unbroken or without cracks. Cracks in the shell
33
 provide entrance into the egg of micro-organisms. Similarly, citrus, pineapples, etc.
do not get spoiled easily when the coverings are intact. A peeled orange may spoil
faster than one covered by the rind or skin.

5. Antimicrobial chemicals

Some foods contain natural antimicrobial chemicals which help to prevent spoilage.
For example, egg white is rich in lysozyme, an enzyme which degrades the
peptidoglucan layers of the cell wall of bacteria. Other examples are benzoic acid
found in cranberries, allicin in garlic, and peroxidase enzymes found in raw milk.
These enzymes together with Hydrogen peroxide and halide ions such as chloride
and iodide, make up very effective antimicrobial system. The interaction of
Hydrogen peroxide with peroxidase and chloride ions results in the formation of
chlorine and hypochlorite, the active ingredients in bleach.

EXTRINSIC FACTORS
Extrinsic factors are the environmental conditions such as temperature and storage
atmosphere. All these factors combine to determine which micro-organisms can grow
in a particular food or food product and the rate of growth.

The extent of microbial growth on food varies depending on the conditions under which
the food is stored. Microbes grow faster in warm, oxygen-rich environment. The
extrinsic factors include: storage temperature and storage atmosphere (atmospheric
condition).

Storage Temperature
Most micro-organisms will not grow below freezing point. At this temperature, water
becomes crystallized and inaccessible to micro-organisms. This inhibits their growth.
At low temperatures above freezing, many enzymatic actions are slowed down or do
not even take place. Few organisms known as psychrophilles can grow on refrigerated
foods. E.g., some members of the genus Pseudomonas.

Storage Atmosphere
Aerobic and anaerobic conditions (i.e presence or absence of Oxygen) affect the type of
microbial population that are able to grow on food in the absence of Oxygen while
obligate anaerobes will not grow in the presence of Oxygen.

Micro-organisms grow better at high humidity.

34
 BACTERIA
This is the largest grouping of prokaryotes together with the Cyanobacteria (blue
green). Bacteria are the oldest organisms on earth having existed for more than 3
thousand million years. They have been found in fossil. Bacteria are very small
unicellular microorganisms ubiquitous in nature. They show a great variation in shape
and size. Most are 0.2-1.5μm. in diameter but a few may be up to 5μm show a great
variation in shape and size. Most are 0.2-1.5μm. in diameter but a few may be up to
5μm. They have cell walls composed of peptidoglycan and reproduce by binary fission.
Bacteria vary in their morphological features. 

Many have a surrounding capsule or slime layer made of polysaccharides. Few bacteria
e.g Clostridium and Bacillus can form highly resistant endospores whilst some like
Azotobacter form a resting cell – the cyst. All bacteria have a cell wall made of amino
acids, lipids, Carbohydrates and few other substances. The gelly like substance is known as
capsule. The capsule is made up of polypeptides or polysaccharides. The function of the capsule
is protective or excretory. There is some relationship between the presence of the capsule and
pathogenicity. Those cocci which cause pneumonia are encapsulated, but those without
capsule do not cause disease.
They lack a compact nucleus. DNA occurs diffused in the cytoplasm. A nuclear region may be
present. Nucleoplasm is not organised into chromosomes; however, exchange of genetic
materials take place. Mutation is also known to occur. Bacteria can have pigments but not
arranged in plastids but diffused. Typical mitochondria are absent or poorly developed.
Vacuoles are absent, cytoplasm contain particles the size of ribosomes. Chromatophores are
present-Photosynthetic. Cell wall is rigid as a result of polysaccharides, muco complex n-acetyl-
glucosamine, n-acetyl-muranic acid both linked by covalent glycosidic bonds. Bacteria can be
motile or non-motile. Motile Bacteria may have one or more flagella which may be polar or bi-
polar (Arising at end) or they may be monotrichous or peritrichuous (All over the surface).

Generalised structure of Bacteria

 A. Morphological types of Bacteria

35
 Because of their small size, bacteria cannot be seen in details using ordinary optical
microscopy. The use of special staining techniques, phase contrast microscopy and
election microscope have shown bacterial to be of basically three (3) morphological
types:
1. Coccus (pleural: Cocci): Round - Cocci – or spheres which may occur singly
(Staphylococcus) or in pairs (diplococci), in groups of four - tetrads (tetracocci), or
in chains (Streptococci). The chains can be in 1 plane (Streptococcus, e.g.
Strpyozenes), 2 planes (Diplococcus eg. Streptococcus pneumonia) or 3 planes
forming a cuboid (cubical arrangements of eight or more ) in which case the structure
is referred to as Sarcinae. For example: Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus
pyogenes

2. Bacillus (pleural: Bacilli): Rod-like - straight rods –( e.g. E.coli, Bacillus anthracis)
Bacilli; 200-2,000 nm thick and 500-10,000 nm long. They generally occur
singly, but may occasionally be found in pairs (diplo-bacilli) or chains
(streptobacilli).    For example: Bacillus cereus, Clostridium tetani
3. Spirillum (pleural: Spirilla): Curved Rods or Spiral-shaped bacteria.   For example:
Spirillum, Vibrio, Spirochete species. If curved in the shape of a helix they are
referred to as SPIRALLA (spirillum) but if the curve appears comma-shaped
then they are VIBRIOS (e.g. Vibrio cholera)

Some bacteria have other shapes such as:

Coccobacilli: Elongated spherical or ovoid form.
Filamentous: Bacilli that occur in long chains or threads.
Fusiform: Bacilli with tapered ends.

Coccus (Round) Bascillus (Rod) Spirilus (Spiral) Arcula (Square)

Diplococcus Single
Streptococcus Diplococcus Spiral
Tetrad
Cuboidal Packets Streptobacillus (chain) Spirochete
(Sarcinae)
Staphylococcus Cocco-bacillus Vibrio

36
 Fig 2: Different bacterial morphology

 Ecological distribution of Bacteria.

Bacteria are found in everywhere and in habitat on Earth: bacteria are found absolutely
everywhere except for places that humans have sterilized. Even the most unlikely places
where temperatures may be extreme, or where there may be a high concentration of
toxic chemicals have bacteria - these are known as extremophiles (an extremophile is
any organism adapted to living in conditions of extreme temperature, pressure, or/and
chemical concentrations) - these bacteria can survive where no other organism can.
Bacteria can be found in : Soil, Radioactive waste, Water, Plants, Animals, Deep in the
earth's crust, Organic material, Arctic ice, Glaciers and Hot springs. Some live in or on
other organisms including plants and animals including humans. They can also be
found in The Stratosphere (between 6 to 30 miles up in the atmosphere) and Ocean
37
depths - they have been found deep in ocean canyons and trenches over 32,800 feet
(10,000 meters) deep. They live in total darkness by thermal vents at incredible
pressure. They make their own food by oxidizing sulfur that oozes from deep inside the
earth. Some bacteria have also been found in space crafts.

There are approximately 10 times as many bacterial cells as human cells in the human
body. A lot of these bacterial cells are found lining the digestive system. Some bacteria
live in the soil or on dead plant matter where they play an important role in the cycling
of nutrients. Some types cause food spoilage and crop damage but others are incredibly
useful in the production of fermented foods such as yoghurt and soy sauce. Relatively
few bacteria are parasites or pathogens that cause disease in animals and plants.

Reproduction in true bacteria is by binary fission i.e. a single cell division. This can occur every
15 -20 minutes. Each of the resulting daughter cells forms an aggregate or colony, if
grown on solid medium. Sexuality is visibly absent, but they can congregate e.g. E. coli.
Conditions affecting such growth include: rate of diffusion of available nutrients from
medium to and into colony, thickness of medium, proximity of colonies, pH,
temperature, humidity, and availability of Oxygen and Carbon dioxide. Exchange of
genetic material can also take place by transformation or transduction.

Some bacteria can form endospores. These are dormant structures, which are extremely
resistant to hostile physical and chemical conditions such as heat, UV radiation and
disinfectants. This makes destroying them very difficult. Many endospore-producing
bacteria are nasty pathogens, for example Bacillus anthracis is the cause of anthrax.

When conditions are favourable such as the right temperature and nutrients are
available, some bacteria like Escherichia coli can divide every 20 minutes. This means
that in just 7 hours one bacterium can generate 2,097,152 bacteria. After one more hour
the number of bacteria will have risen to a colossal 16,777,216. That’s why we can
quickly become ill when pathogenic microbes invade our bodies.

There are approximately ten times as many bacterial cells in the human flora as there
are human cells in the body, with the largest number of the human flora being in the gut
flora, and a large number on the skin. The vast majority of the bacteria in the body are
rendered harmless by the protective effects of the immune system, and some are
beneficial. However, several species of bacteria are pathogenic and cause infectious
diseases, including cholera, syphilis, anthrax, leprosy, and bubonic plague. The most
common fatal bacterial diseases are respiratory infections, with tuberculosis alone
killing about 2 million people per year, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa. Antibiotics are
used to treat bacterial infections. In industry, bacteria are important in sewage treatment
and the breakdown of oil spills, the production of cheese and yogurt through
fermentation, and the recovery of gold, palladium, copper and other metals in the
38
mining sector, as well as in biotechnology, and the manufacture of antibiotics and other
chemicals.

 Nutrition

Most bacteria are heterotrophic, living off other organisms. Most of these are saprobes,
bacteria that live off dead organic matter. The bacteria that cause disease are heterotrophic
parasites. There are also many non-disease-causing bacterial parasites, many of which
are helpful to their hosts. These include the "normal flora" of the human body.

Autotrophic bacteria manufacture their own food by the processes of photosynthesis

and chemosynthesis (see autotroph). The photosynthetic bacteria include the green and
purple bacteria and the cyanobacteria. Many of the thermophilic archaebacteria are
chemosynthetic autotrophs.

Nutritional Source of energy Source of carbon Examples

type
 Phototrophs Sunlight Organic compounds Cyanobacteria, Green
(photoheterotrophs) sulfur bacteria,
or carbon fixation Chloroflexi, or Purple
(photoautotrophs) bacteria 

 Lithotrophs Inorganic Organic compounds Thermodesulfobacteria,

compounds (lithoheterotrophs) Hydrogenophilaceae,
or carbon fixation or Nitrospirae 
(lithoautotrophs)
Organotrophs Organic Organic compounds Bacillus, Clostridium
compounds (chemoheterotrophs) or Enterobacteriaceae
or carbon fixation
(chemoautotrophs)  

39
  Role of bacteria in human disease

Overview of bacterial infections and main species involved.

Bacterial infections may be treated with antibiotics, which are classified as bacteriocidal if
they kill bacteria, or bacteriostatic if they just prevent bacterial growth. There are many
types of antibiotics and each class inhibits a process that is different in the pathogen from
that found in the host. An example of how antibiotics produce selective toxicity are
chloramphenicol and puromycin, which inhibit the bacterial ribosome, but not the
structurally different eukaryotic ribosome. Antibiotics are used both in treating human
disease and in intensive farming to promote animal growth, where they may be
contributing to the rapid development of antibiotic resistance in bacterial populations.
Infections can be prevented by antiseptic measures such as sterilizing the skin prior to
piercing it with the needle of a syringe, and by proper care of indwelling catheters.
Surgical and dental instruments are also sterilized to prevent contamination by bacteria.
Disinfectants such as bleach are used to kill bacteria or other pathogens on surfaces to
prevent contamination and further reduce the risk of infection.

40
  IDENTIFICATION OF BACTERIA -

Simple stains can be used to demonstrate the shapes, arrangement and sizes of
microorganisms to differentiate or distinguish bacterial cells from non-living structure,
and to show the possible presence of bacterial spores in certain cases.

Staining is an auxiliary technique used to enhance the clarity of the microscopic image.

Stains and dyes are widely used in the scientific field to highlight the structure of the
biological specimens, cells, tissues etc.

 Apart from simple staining, other staining techniques include Differential staining and
Gram Stain.
Differential stain. The preliminary grouping is normally based on their general shape
and the manner in which they react to certain dyes or staining techniques called
differential staining methods. This uses more than one type of dye preparation. This
technique divides nearly all bacteria into major groups.
The two most common and widely used differential staining techniques are Gram
staining and acid fast staining.

 GRAM’S STAIN

Most bacteria cannot be identified by using morphological characters. One method

which has been used in bacterial classification is by investigating the ability by bacteria
to retain aniline dyes after staining and subsequent washing.

The technique was discovered and developed by the Danish scientist and Physician
Hans Christian Joachim Gram in 1884.
 This technique enables all bacteria to be divided into two groups:-
(i) Gram positive – retain the dye after washing
(ii) Gram negative – decolourised on washing

Gram used a basic dye of the triphenyl methane group (e.g. crystal violet) at slightly
alkaline pH – followed by dipping in iodine dissolved in potassium iodide. Subsequent
washing with a neutral organic solvent (Acetone or ethanol) causes the crystal violet-
iodine complex to be eluded from the Gram-negative species. The difference in
behaviour may be due to differences in permeability of the cell wall of the two types.
(or the stain may become bound to wall components which are present only in the Gram
positive bacteria). Crystal violet –iodine is a mordant and Ethanol/Acetone is the
decolouriser or counter stain.

41
Gram-negative bacteria are decolorized by the alcohol, losing  the  color of  the
primary stain, purple. Gram-positive  bacteria  are  not  decolorized by alcohol and will
remain as purple. After  decolorization step, a counterstain is used to impart a pink color
to the decolorized gram-negative organisms.

Gram positive bacteria: Stain dark purple due to retaining the primary dye called Crystal
Violet in the cell wall. Example: Staphylococcus aureus . Gram negative bacteria: Stain
red or pink due to retaining the counter staining dye called Safranin.        Example:
Escherichia coli

There are those bacteria which do not react to staining. These are Gram variable and
Gram non-reactive. The gram non-reactive includes those micro-organisms that do not
stain or that stain poorly e.g. various spirochetes. Gram variable are those bacteria that
under ordinary condition may appear gram positive and at the time gram negative on
the same slide. This can be due to improper technique such as use of thick smears, or
old cultures or lapses in the procedure e.g. during decolourisation.
+ -
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GRAM AND GRAM BACTERIA
MATERIAL ORGANISMS
GRAM negative GRAM positive
Amino acids Numerous kinds Limited number
Aromatic Present Absent
s-containing Present Absent
Arycinine Present Absent
Proline Present Absent
Teichoic acid Absent Present
Hexosamines Low Higher
Lipids Higher Low or Absent

 ACTINOMYCETES

Order: Actinomycetales
Actinomycetees – Gram positive but they show mycelial growth habit just like fungi.
Therefore they used to be called higher bacteria e.g. Mycobacterium tubeculosis,
M.leprae, M. enteritides; Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Arthrobacter sp.
Actinomycetes differ from bacteria because of branching hyphae. (a). They have no
sheath, (b). -sheath without photosynthesis. (c). They range in diameter from 0.5 to 5
um and several millimeters in length. (d). Some contain septa, many are coenocytic.
(e). All are gram positive. (f). One or two species produce motile spores
(Actinoplanaccae). (g). Most are saprophytes, they are found in decomposing organic
42
matter in soil, along marine and fresh water. They do not produce endospore, however
some form conidia.
 They differ from true fungi:
1. In size, the hyphae (filaments) are much smaller, 1-5 mu
2. They are prokaryotes, no organization of nuclear material
3. The cell walls do not contain chitin
4. Sexual stages absent

Classification – There are Four Families

1. Fam. Streptomycetaceae
Genus: Streptomyces – produces antibiotics
2. Fam. Actinoplanaceae
They resemble fungi; they are found in soil and aquatic habitats
They are branched, sometimes with septate mycelium
Genera: Actinoplanes and Streptosporangium
3. Fam. Actinomycetaceae
They are mycelium formers
Genera: Nocardia = aerobic
Actinomyces = anaerobic
Some Nocardia sp. are saprophytes and some are parasites in man and animals
Actinomyces causes diseases in cattle; they are rarely found free in the environment
4. Fam. Mycobacteriaceae
Bacterium – like genera: - Mycobacterium found as soil saprophytes
2 pathogenic species are M. tuberculosis and M. Ieprae
They are different from bacteria because:
1. Curved and spindle – shaped
2. Looks granular or beaded – after staining
 MYCOPLASMAS
Mycoplasmas – These may not be true bacteria. They lack a true cell wall but some
resemble wall-less forms of true bacteria. They are Gram negative.

Characteristics of Mycoplasmas
 They lack a cell wall
 Bounded by a single triple-layered “unit” membrane
 Range in diameter from 175-250 nm
 They are coccoid or slightly oval to filamentous. Sometimes produce branched
mycelia-like structures (=myceliod)
43
  Reproduction is by budding or by binary transverse fission of coccoid and
filamentous cells.
 They are parasites of animals and plants (=phytoplamas). They are also
saprophytic
 They cause diseases of both plants and animals:
Animal diseases: respiratory, urogenital, arthritis, nervous disorders of animals
Plant diseases: - lethal yellowing of coconut palms, Pear decline, citrus stubborn, Corn
stunt
Classification
Class: Mollicutes
Order: Mycoplamatales
Family: Mycoplasmataceae
Genus: Mycoplasma
Family: Axcholeplasmataceae
Genus: Acholeplasma
Family: Spiroplasmataceae
Genus: Spiroplasma

CYANOBACTERIA
The Cyanobacteria belong to the Kingdom Protista. They are the Blue-green algae -
Cyanobacteria or Cyanophyta or Cyanophyconata. They are prokaryotes and have a cell
wall of cellulose and pectin, thus they resemble bacteria. Their cells are larger than other
prokaryotes and they contain chlorophyll a, ß-carotene and phycobidin pigments. These
are all algal characteristics but they have characteristic prokaryotic nucleus and lack
mitochondria. They also divide by binary fission and produce copious mucilage. They
are thus classed as bacteria. They are usually resistant to heat and occur in symbiotic
associations with higher plants: Anabaena in the ferns Azolla, liverworth Anthocerus and
Gymnosperm Cycas – some can fix atmospheric nitrogen in anaerobic condition and in
the absence of a combined nitrogen source (by heterocysts) e.g Anabaena
 Characteristics
-form long, multicellular chains or filaments
-grow singly or in masses of slime
-contains chlorophyll
-have functionally distinct, rigid cell walls
-contain blue-green pigment phycocyanin (blue) and phycoerythin (red)
-They are found in marine and fresh water, in soil, (damp mud) and are symbiont with
fungi – lichens
-some produce animal toxins, fix atmospheric N, thus they play important role in
maintaining soil fertility e.g. in rice paddies.
44
-they lack flagella.
- Reproduction is by transverse, binary cell fission or by non-motile spores or
fragmentation. Genetic recombination of some species suggest some form of sexuality

EUKARYOTES
These are organisms which have a true nucleus. The nucleus of each cell is enclosed
within a well-defined nuclear membrane, thus segregated from the cytoplasm.

Differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
1.no nuclear membrane 1. nuclear membrane present =true
nucleus

2. no mitosis and meiosis 2.nucleus exhibits complex

phenomena of mitosis and meiosis
3.no typical gametes 3. reproduction by typical gametes
4. no complex membrane enclosed and 4. presence of membraneous
other organelles organelles e.g. chloroplast
5. Cell wall of polysaccharide, amino- 5. cell wall of cellulose, mainly
acid, heteropolymer called chitin for fungi
mucocomplex, mucopolysaccharide or
mucopeptide. In gram negative
bacteria, these are combined with lipids
and lipo-proteins in several
configuration
6. no streaming of cytoplasm 6.cytoplasm exhibit active
streaming movement

Eukaryotic microbes include Protists (Protozoa and Slime moulds), Algae and Fungi
including Yeasts.

PROTOZOA AND SLIME MOULDS

 2. PROTOZOA
Kingdom: Protista
Phylum: Protozoa (animals) = non-green protista
Protozoans are simple microscopic acellular/unicellular animals, motile during at least
one stage of their existence. Their size ranges from a few µm to several mm.

45
Main subgroups are based on life cycle, characteristic and types of locomotory
organelle and feeding.

Classification:
A. Subphylum Sarcomastigophora
- move by flagella and/or pseudopodia e.g Trypanosoma, Mastigamoeba,
Leishmania, Trichonympha, Sarcodina- Amoeba.
C. Subphyllum Sporozoa
– all parasitic with complex life cycles completed in two hosts
e.g Plasmodium
Class I: Sarcodina – move with pseudopodia e.g. amoeba
Class II: Mastigophora – Move with flagella e.g. Euglena
Class III: Sporozoa – all are parasites in the bodies of other animals;
-Produce spores;
-move with pseudopodia in immature stages
-male gametes are flagellated e.g. Plasmodium (malaria)
D. Subphyllum Cnidospora
– also parasitic with complex spores. e.g Nosema- an intestinal parasite
of honey bee.
E. Sub-phylum: Cilophora – Have two distinctly different types of nuclei –
(i) Macronucleus – which controls vegetative processes and (ii) Micronucleus –
which is the reproductive nucleus e.g. Paramecium

Class: Ciliata – move with cilia e.g. Paramecium

F. Sub-|Phylum: Sporozoa – all parasitic with complex life cycles completed in two
hosts. E.g. Plasmodium

G. Sub-Phylum: Sporozoa – all parasitic with complex spores e.g. Nosema – an

intestinal parasite.
 THE SLIME MOULDS (MYCOMYCETES)
They are unicellular organisms, motile at one stage in life cycle but form stationary,
spore-bearing fruit bodies. Sometimes they are treated with Fungi.

 3. ALGAE
Algae are the green protists
-they are a typical, photosynthetic thallus plants
-they are multicellular, branching and are usually attached to solid objects by root like
hold fast

46
-they have no vascular or differentiated tissues; (no flower, seed, roots, stems, leaves)

Most true algae are not micro-organisms. Taxonomy is based on morphology as well as
the photosynthetic pigments that they possess. Main divisions include Green Algae
(Chlorophyta) e.g. Spirogyra, Brown Algae (Phacophyta); Red Algae (Rhodophyta).

 FUNGI

Fungi belong to the Kingdom MYCOTA. Fungi are relatively easy to classify because
classification depends on visible morphological characteristics. Main groups of the
Kingdom Mycota are.

Division Mastigomycotina; These form motile zoospores; many are aquatic but a few
terrestrial ones are plant parasites e.g. Phytophthora, Pythium, Peronospora.

Division Zygomycotina. – Sexual spore is a non-motile zygospore. They are

decomposers in soil e.g. Rhizopus, Mucor

Division Ascomycotina – form sexual spores in sac-like Ascus e.g yeasts (unicellular)
and other filaments ones like Sclerotinia

Division Basidiomycotina – sexual spores borne in basidium. They are mostly

decomposers .e.g. Sporobolomyces

Division Deuteromycotina – no sexual stage known. They are usually called imperfect
fungi e.g Pencillium, Cladosporium.

 MICROSCOPIC INVERTEBRATES

Microscopic invertebrates include; Coelenterates, Platyhelminthes (flat worms) ,

Nematodes (round worms), Aschelmithes (Rotifa), Annelids and Arthropods.

NOTE Q
The major groups of microorganisms—namely bacteria, archaea, fungi
(yeasts and molds), algae, protozoa, and viruses—are summarized below

47