Eccentric Reducers: Pumps Pipe Fittings

Journals & Books Damita Bhikkhu
Eccentric Reducers Related terms:
Eccentric reducers should be used near the pump, with the flat side up to keep the top of line Flanges, Centrifugal Pumps,
level. Nozzle, Reciprocating Pumps,
Centerline, Discharge Line, Pipe
From: Natural Gas Processing, 2014
Size, Suction Line, Suction Nozzle,
Suction Pipe
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Pumps Pipe Fittings

Rutger Botermans, Peter Smith, in Advanced Piping Design, 2008 Roy A. Parisher, Robert A. Rhea, in Pipe Drafting and Design (Third
Edition), 2012
Discharge Line Piping Fittings
• Due to discharge lines being larger than the discharge nozzle, Drawing the Reducers
Before drawing the reducer, the length of the fitting must be found
eccentric reducers are required in the line.
on the Welded Fittings–Flanges Dimensioning Chart (see Figure
• Reducers should be as close as possible to the nozzle; with top
3.47). The H dimension will provide the end-to-end length for either
suction-top discharge pumps, care must be taken to ensure that
the concentric or eccentric reducer.
the flats on eccentric reducers are orientated so that the lines do
not foul each other.
• A pressure gauge should be located in the discharge line,
upstream of the check and isolation valves.
• When a level switch for pump protection is installed in the
discharge line, upstream of the block valves, ensure good access Download full-size image
for maintenance of switch. Figure 3.47. Welded Fittings–Flanges Dimensioning Chart.
• To enable good access to valve handwheels and ease of NOTE: Always use the H dimension of the large end when determining
supporting, the discharge line should be turned flat after the the fitting length of any reducing fitting.
reducer, and the line angled away from the nozzle to enable the
Figure 3.48 represents the step-by-step procedures used to draw a
line to be supported from grade.
16″×14″ concentric reducer. Figure 3.49 shows the step-by-step
• Avoid supporting large lines from pipe-rack structures if possible, procedures that a 10″×8″ eccentric reducer, flat on bottom, is drawn
this enables minimum-size beam sections to be used and better with.
access for pump removal and maintenance.
View chapter Purchase book
Bulk piping items

Karan Sotoodeh, in A Practical Guide to Piping and Valves for the Oil
and Gas Industry, 2021
Reducers/swage
Reducers are used to reduce or expand the line size. There are two
types of reducers: concentric and eccentric (Fig. 14.26).
Download full-size image
Figure 3.48. 16″ × 14″ Concentric reducer. Manual step-by-step drafting procedures.
Fig. 14.26. Eccentric and concentric reducers.
In a concentric reducer, the reduction is concentric and the centerline

of the pipe remains aligned with the pipe. Fig. 14.27 shows a
concentric reducer.
Figure 3.49. 10″ × 8″ Eccentric reducer (FOB)—AutoCAD step-by-step drafting procedure.
Step 1. Using the H dimension found on the Welded Fittings–

Flanges Dimensioning Chart, draw a centerline 14″ long.
Fig. 14.27. Concentric reducer.
Step 2. Measure 8″ (one-half the 16″ large end size) on each side
The bottom of pipe is changing due to having a concentric reducer in of the centerline on one end of the centerline and 7″ (one-half
the line. In an eccentric reducer, there is eccentricity between the the 14″ small end size) on each side of the opposite end of the
centerline of the bigger end and the centerline of the smaller end. An centerline.
eccentric reducer has offset centerlines, as shown in Fig. 14.28. Step 3. Connect the opposing ends of the fitting by drawing lines
from endpoint to endpoint.
Step 4. Darken the sides and weld lines of the reducer then add
the connecting pipe.
Step 1. To represent the large diameter end of the reducer, draw a
vertical LINE 10” long (NPS), having a 0.53mm lineweight.
Step 2. Draw a horizontal LINE perpendicular and to the right
Fig. 14.28. Eccentric reducer.
measuring 7” (H dimension from Welded Fittings-Flanges chart),
The amount of offset in an eccentric reducer is defined as this which will represent the length of the reducer.
formula: Step 3. Create the small diameter end of the reducer by drawing
an 8” (NPS) vertical LINE up from the right end of the reducer.
Step 4. Complete the eccentric reducer by drawing a sloping
A concentric reducer is used in pipe racks to maintain a constant LINE back to the top of the 10” line, connecting the two vertical
bottom of pipe (BOP). Pipe supports within a pipe rack have the same ends. Add the reducer’s weld dots with the DONUT command.
elevation, so the piping system should have a consistent BOP to rest The DONUT will have an inside diameter of 0” and outside
on each support. diameter of 1.75”. TRIM the weld dots so that only one-half of the
An eccentric reducer is used upstream of pumps to increase the fluid dot is visible.
velocity and provide a net positive suction head. A reducer is also
installed upstream and downstream of pressure safety valves (PSVs) View chapter Purchase book
in flare lines. The other application of an eccentric reducer is to
increase the line size to 4″ for thermowell (temperature gauge)
installation. An eccentric reducer does not change the bottom of the
pipe and support height. Fig. 14.29 shows how to put the reducer FLUID MECHANICS PRINCIPLES
before the pump.
R. Rayner, in Pump Users Handbook (Fourth Edition), 1995
Energy Conservation
There are choices that can be made in the installation and pump
selection that can conserve energy. The selection of the most efficient
pumps and motors capable of doing the job is one area. Piping is
another area. Pipe sizing is normally a compromise between first cost
and operating costs but another area that is often overlooked is the
optimal recovery of the kinetic energy in the pump discharge. Many
times the discharge size of a pump is specified small, to allow the use
of lower cost valves at the discharge and then expanded up by means
of eccentric reducers.
The use of concentric reducers should be considered since they are
much more effective at converting the velocity pressure to static
pressure. The use of a conical 7° diffuser would result in a recovery of
approximately 90%14 whereas an eccentric reducer could have a
estimated best case recovery of 55%. If the velocity head at the
Download full-size image discharge flange is 3 m (10 ft.), then 2.7 m or 9 ft. would be recovered
Fig. 14.29. Eccentric reducer upstream of the pumps.
by the conical diffuser as opposed to the 1.65 m or 5.5 ft. recovery of
the eccentric reducer. This is a difference of 1.05 m or 3.5 ft. Some of
Elbows, like other fittings, can have butt weld, socket weld, or thread the unrecovered kinetic energy would be recovered later in the pipe,
connections. Applicable pressure ratings, dimensional standards, and just as in a sudden expansion. Taking this recovery as being 50%, we
material standards are as per the ASME B16.9 standard. This are now showing 1.75 ft. unrecovered, or an equivalent power loss of
standard covers all the wrought fittings with butt weld connections. almost 2%. Fig. 1.14 shows the result of a study by the U S
Socket and thread end elbows are covered by the ASME B16.11 Department of Energy, namely 240 billion kwh/yr potential savings in
standard. pump installations due to improvement in motor efficiency, electrical
Swages are functionally the same as reducers, which are used in distribution correction, motor drive/mechanical system matching e.g.
small sizes of screwed and socket connections (Fig. 14.30). The short adjustable speed drives, and process automation. While electrical
length of a reducer probably does not allow enough space to have a distribution may or may not be controllable by the user, the other
thread or socket on both ends. Swages are longer than reducers. three more significant factors of high efficiency motors, system
Swages, like reducers, are in both eccentric and concentric types. matching and process optimization are.
Swages can have three types endings—socket, thread, and beveled
end on both sides (Fig. 14.31). Swages are also called swage nipples.
FIGURE 1.14. Energy savings potential chart.

Fig. 14.30. Swage connection.

Pumps
Seán Moran, in Process Plant Layout (Second Edition), 2017
31.10 Piping
The design of pump suction piping is particularly important. It
Fig. 14.31. Forged and threaded swage connections.
should be arranged so as to minimize head loss (i.e., be as short and
straight as possible, with minimum valves and obstructions to flow).
When vessels are elevated, suction lines are preferably routed
overhead with top suction connections to pumps.
Any reduction in horizontal suction line size required at the pump
flange should be made with eccentric reducers with the bottom
Gas Gathering Systems
straight for pumps taking suction from below; and the top straight
David A. Simpson P.E., in Practical Onshore Gas Field Engineering, for pumps fed from above.
2017 All overhead pump suction lines should be arranged to drain from
6.3.5.2 Pigging equipment the equipment toward the pump without inverted pockets. Any
As we discussed in the last chapter, the only way to manage the risk changes in the direction of suction lines should be at least 600 mm
of internal corrosion in steel pipes is by removing any standing water. from the pumps to avoid unbalanced incoming flow.
It should have been clear in the last section that drip traps are only Any increase in size in non-vertical discharge lines should be
effective at removing the liquid that happens to arrive at the trap. achieved using eccentric reducers, arranged with bottom straight for
Liquid that accumulates away from drip traps is a serious corrosion delivery above pump, and top straight for delivery below. Discharge
risk and will often have detrimental impacts on your ability to control lines with flowmeters should preferably run vertically from the top of
operating pressure at well-sites. Finally, accumulated liquid can the pump to just above headroom height and then horizontally to the
become mobile for reasons and at times not of our choosing, and the piperack (but see Section 36.5). Positioning of flowmeters has to take
resulting slugs can do real harm. account of flow disturbance and the required number of pipeline
It is critical that we manage liquid accumulations as part of an diameters upstream and downstream from the meter of any
ongoing, carefully considered plan. The only way to manage these obstruction to flow.
liquid accumulations is to run a device through the line to displace Provision should be made to isolate the pump from the feed vessel
the liquid toward some piece of equipment that can capture it. This when it leaks or otherwise malfunctions so that it can be replaced
device is called a “pig.” There are many apocryphal stories about without draining the vessel. Isolation should be provided on the
where the name came from. It has been proposed that it is an discharge side in such a way that also allows safe access to any
acronym, and it has been proposed that the name comes from the nonreturn valves and instrumentation.
squealing sound it makes as it travels down the pipe. The acronyms
are sometimes humorous (such as “pipeline inspection gadget”), but View chapter Purchase book
incorrect. The persistent story is that early pigs were made of straw
wrapped in wire and the sound was distinctive. The sound of a pig
traveling down a pipe is rarely distinguishable from the background
flow sounds and when it is noticeable it doesn’t sound much like a Food Safety Management
“squeal.” The actual genesis of the name is that early pigs were
round, fat, and the end tapered toward something that looks slightly A.N Murray, in Encyclopedia of Food Safety, 2014
like a pig’s snout. That was the limit of thought that went into
Design of Product Contact Surfaces
naming this ubiquitous device.
Design of product contact surfaces needs to take the following into
Pigs are used for many specific tasks. Pigs to remove liquid are fairly account: surface texture, cleaning and inspection, disinfection,
simple and increasingly the industry is using “Turbo Pigs” (“Turbo pasteurization and sterilization, microbial ingress, draining, dead
Pig” is a registered trademark of Girard Industries) which are spaces, joints, coatings, internal angles, corners and grooves, seals,
reusable resilient plastic with a central core and a number of cups or gaskets, o-rings and joint rings, fasteners, process flow disruption
wipers. See the pigs toward the right-hand side and the small pig in caused by intrusions, shafts and bearings, sensor and sensor
front on the left-hand side of Fig. 6.13, but many people still prefer connections, other connections, and openings and covers.
the traditional “bullet” or porcine shape. If you need to clean the pipe
Surface texture: Cracks, pits, and folds are to be avoided and the
walls of solids accumulations, the pigs with brushes are available in
surfaces should be smooth.
both the Turbo style and the traditional porcine shape.
Cleaning and inspection: All equipment must be cleanable either in
or out of place and where possible the surfaces should be capable
of inspection after cleaning.
Disinfection, pasteurization, and sterilization: It should be possible
after cleaning to disinfect, pasteurize, or sterilize product contact
surfaces either in place or after disassembly.
Microbial ingress: Where necessary, equipment should be
designed to prevent ingress of microorganisms.
Draining: Pipelines and equipment should be completely
drainable. This generally requires the use of eccentric reducers in
horizontal pipe runs. It also necessitates that certain positive
displacement pumps be mounted with their inlets and outlets in
Figure 6.13. Range of pigs.
the vertical.
Courtesy of Girard Industries (www.girardindustries.com).
Dead spaces: Dead spaces in pipelines and equipment should be

Today’s pigs are available in the traditional porcine shape, with or avoided. In particular tee pieces for positioning of instruments
without tough polyethylene coatings, with or without wire brushes. should be kept as short as possible.
Turbo pigs are available with a series of disks, cups, or wipers that
Joints: Permanent metal-to-metal joints should be fully welded.
each do a specific job. You can buy spheres, or you can purchase a
Nonpermanent (dismountable) joints should be flush. Screw
mandrel that allows you to stack the equipment that makes sense to
threads should not be present in the product contact area as
a particular job. There are pigs with instrumentation to evaluate pipe
these cannot be easily cleaned.
condition (called smart pigs). Different goals point you to different
equipment. Coatings: Generally, coatings should be avoided in product
contact areas. Where coatings cannot be avoided, they should be
One lesson that must be relearned every couple of years is that
nonflaking and smooth.
spheres require that the fluid behind them be similar in density to
the fluid in front of them—they are a good choice to put between Internal angles, corners, and grooves: Sharp corners within
two different hydrocarbon liquids in a liquid pipeline, but are not machinery are difficult to clean. For this reason, all corners
effective with liquid on one side and gas on the other side. should be radiused. In general, grooves, where used, should be
wider than their depth.
Pig runs are initiated from “pig launchers” and terminate in “pig
receivers.” These devices need to: Seals, gaskets, o-rings, and joint rings: Elastomers have higher
coefficients of expansion than steels. This should be taken into
• accept the pigs that are required to be run,
account in design. Repeated heating and cooling can otherwise
• facilitate batch chemical treatment, result in sections of the elastomer breaking off in the product.
• allow for disposal of the liquids that come in with the pigs, Furthermore, product may be sucked in and trapped behind the
seal during cooling.
• operate quickly.
Fasteners: Fasteners such as screws, bolts, and rivets should be
Launchers fit into two categories: (1) gravity launch and (2) pressure
avoided within product areas. During disassembly, some external
launch. Gravity launchers operate by placing the pig in the device,
screw threads may come into contact with product. These should
sealing the chamber (called a “barrel”), and opening the chamber to
be designed to be cleanable.
the process pipeline and allowing the pig to fall down the inclined
line into the flow. These devices are not terribly effective and it can Intrusions: In certain instances intrusions such as springs cannot
take considerable time for the pig to actually fall into the flow. be avoided within the product contact area. If such intrusions
cannot be avoided, they should be cleanable.
Pressure launchers on the other hand require altering the flow path
in the pipeline to place the flow behind the pig. There is a class of Shafts and bearings: Shaft entry points require the use of
pressure launcher called a “pigging valve” that is very effective in mechanical seals. Where possible, there should be movement of
many situations, and they will be discussed under “trunnion ball fluid in the seal area. There should be an air gap between the
valves” later. product area and any lubricated bearings.
The launcher and receiver in Fig. 6.14 represent nearly 30 years of my Sensor and sensor connections: They should be installed in such a
evolution in designing pigging equipment. When I look at the way that there are no dead spaces or crevices.
equipment that I did on my first project I dearly want to “fix” it, but it Other connections: All permanent and nonpermanent pipework
works and I’m not going to apologize for designing this equipment connections to equipment should be designed to prevent ingress
based on designs in common use in the industry. As usual the of contamination.
“designs in common use” are the result of compromises between Openings and covers: Hinges that allow crevices for soil to
fabrication complexity, cost, and operability (with limited input from accumulate should be avoided.
the operators), and are not as good as they could be. I’ve built upward
of 20 launcher/receiver pairs to the exact design represented by Fig. View chapter Purchase book
6.14 and it has been several years since I was last tempted to tweak it.
Reciprocating pumps
Maurice Stewart, in Surface Production Operations, 2019
4.7.3 Process piping considerations

4.7.3.1 General piping considerations
Next to the selection of operating speeds, proper piping design is the
Figure 6.14. Pressure launcher and receiver.
most important consideration in pump installation design. Poor
One of the most important learnings has been that there is no valid piping is often the result of inattention to details which can lead to
reason for a launcher to be significantly different from a receiver. I • more than average down time
learned this lesson when our gas marketing department found a new • higher maintenance costs
market for our gas that required taking gas off the opposite end of
• loss of operating personnel confidence
the gathering system than we designed the system to provide. This
required all launchers to become receivers and vice versa. Some of Fig. 4.50 illustrates some of the following recommended installation
the auxiliary equipment was in awkward positions for the new guidelines for reciprocating pumps.
functionality and required adaptations in processes, but it worked
after a fashion. The current design would work well period.
We frequently have difficulty with terminology in communicating
procedures and instructions between peers. It is worthwhile to
describe the labeled items in Fig. 6.14.
Closure. The closure on a launcher or receiver should:
• Operate reasonably quickly.
• Have a pressure telltale as an integral part of the seal mechanism.
This means that you cannot open the closure while the
equipment is under pressure without there being a warning
sound.
• Be supported by hinges or davits that would prevent the closure
from becoming a projectile in an opened-underpressure
Fig. 4.50. Typical reciprocating pump installation.
situation.
• Be able to release pressure while still captured. 4.7.3.2 Suction piping
It is critical that the suction piping be sized to assure the NPSHA
For many years all closures were “Huber-type” (lower image in Fig.
exceeds the NPSHR by the pump. Often, this can be arranged by
6.15) which have ears on the outer circumference that are intended to
elevating the suction tank or by providing a low-head centrifugal
be hammered off and back on. These closures fail all of the criteria
charge pump to feed the reciprocating pump. If the NPSHA is too
given in the previous list except for the first one. I have removed a
Huber-type closure under pressure (the vent line plugged with low, valve breakage and pump maintenance costs will be excessive.
paraffin after blowing down for 30 seconds) and it was very exciting— The pump inlet size has no bearing on the required suction piping
luckily I was standing out of the line of fire and when it finally size. The available suction head and the suction requirement and
opened it swung away from me instead of breaking my body. losses must be considered and piping sized on this basis, regardless
of the pump size.
Both the suction and discharge piping should be
• short
• direct
• free of bends, if possible
• minimum number of elbows and fittings
• avoid piping high points where vapors can become trapped
• elevation and plan changes should be laid out using 45° ells
rather than 90° ells (if 90° ells are used, they should be long
radius type)
• suction pipe diameter changes should be made with eccentric
reducers, with flat side up (FSU) to eliminate gas pockets
• at least one nominal pipe size larger than the pump suction
Figure 6.15. Pig trap closures.

• to allow pump isolation, a full opening block valve should be
installed in the suction piping
The industry has largely transitioned away from hammer closures in
The suction piping should include a strainer and a pulsation
favor of Yoke-type closures which have a tapered ring (the “yoke” in
dampener, if required. The suction strainer should not be installed
Fig. 6.15) that hold the door tightly against the flange. The two halves
unless regular maintenance can be assured. A fluid starved condition,
of the yoke are locked together with the yoke lock which is held in
resulting from a plugged strainer, can cause more damage to the
place with a “telltale” nut on a drilled stud which noisily releases any
pump than solids ingestion.
trapped gas when loosened. As the jacking bolts move the yoke
halves apart, the door can come off the flange if there is still trapped The suction supply vessel outlet should be slightly higher than the
pressure, but it is still captured by the yoke so it can’t swing. When pump inlet so that gases accumulating in the system may flow back
the yoke is fully open the door can open. These closures satisfy all of to the vessel rather than through the pump. The supply vessel should
the criteria given in the previous list. have sufficient retention time for the evolution of “free” gas. The
suction and bypass lines should enter the supply vessel below the
Barrel. The barrel is the pipe between the closure and the eccentric
minimum fluid level. A vortex breaker should be installed on the
reducer and it should:
outlet of the supply vessel.
• Be one standard pipe size larger than the pipeline. Typically “the
Table 4.19 lists some suggested maximum flow velocities for sizing
next pipe size” for 16 in (400 DN) pipe is 20 in (500 DN) since it
suction and discharge piping for reciprocating pumps. The piping
can be difficult to find an 18×16 (450×400) eccentric reducer or an
should be large enough so that the velocity limits are not exceeded. A
18 in (450 DN) closure.
low flow velocity for the suction piping is particularly important.
• Be long enough. Barrel lengths have traditionally been fairly short Some companies use a maximum velocity of 1 ft/s (0.3 m/s)
(on the order of 5 ft 7 in (1700 mm) on a 20 in (500 DN) receiver) regardless of pump speed.
which limits the equipment that can be run. The minimum
length for a 6 in (150 DN) launcher barrel should be 6 ft (1.83 m). Table 4.19. Maximum suction and discharge pipe velocities for reciprocating pumps
For each pipe size above 6 in (150 DN) add 1 ft (0.3 m) (i.e., 8 in
Pump speed, rpm Suction velocity, ft/s (m/s) Discharge velocity, ft/s (m/s)
(200 DN) should be 7 ft (2.13 m), 20 in (500 DN) should be 12 ft
< 250 2 (0.6) 6(1.8)
(3.66 m), etc.).
250–330 1.5 (0.46) 4.5 (1.37)
Flange for extension spool. This flange on the barrel is an insurance > 330 1 (0.3) 3 (0.9)
policy against ever needing to run a very long pig. Regulations have
begun to require periodic pipeline inspections using smart pigs.
When two or more pumps are installed in parallel, each pump's
Smart pigs can be very long depending on how many evaluations are suction line between the tank and the pump should be piped
ongoing concurrently. Many operators are having to cut up
separately (rather than in common) to preclude mutually reinforced
launcher/receiver barrels to add piping to accommodate the long
pulsations. In most cases, however, this procedure is not practical,
pigs, and then in many cases the longer barrel is in the way of
and the suction lines are often manifold together. If manifold
normal traffic. Note in Fig. 6.14 that there is nothing connected together, the lines should be sized so that the velocity in the common
between the closure and this flange. Having this flange on the barrel
feed line is approximately equal to the velocities in the lateral lines
allows you to drop in a spool piece of any length without welding or
feeding the individual pumps. This avoids abrupt velocity changes
disconnecting any piping. and minimizes acceleration head effects. (The acceleration head
Eccentric reducer. Use an eccentric reducer (with the flat side down) requirement for multiple pumps on a common suction line is not the
between the barrel and the throat to facilitate shoving the pig into the sum of single pump requirements; it increases approximately by the
throat (with a concentric reducer or an eccentric reducer with the flat square of the number of pumps. For example, 3 pumps operating on
side up it can be very difficult to get a heavy pig to engage in the a common suction line require approximately nine times the
throat). acceleration head (HA) of a single pump.)
Throat. The throat is the same size as the pipeline. When loading a 4.7.3.3 Discharge piping
pig you try to engage the pig into the throat to seal the throat so that Just as fluid flows to a reciprocating pump in a pulsating flow pattern,
kicker gas will not bypass the pig. The throat should be at least twice it is discharged in the same manner. It has been shown that these
as long as the maintenance pigs that you plan to run. pressure surges travel through the fluid in a straight line and are
Pig signal. These devices (also called “pig indicator”) are used to reflected back toward the source by restrictions or bends in the
inform the operator that a pig has passed. They can be intrusive (i.e., system. Also, when two or more pumps are discharging into a
an arm reaches into pipe and a pig passing trips the arm) or common header, these pressure surges may be amplified, causing
nonintrusive (i.e., they have the ability to sense the pig passage from damage to the pumps and piping. When designing a discharge
the outside of the pipe). They can be unidirectional (less expensive, piping system for reciprocating pumps:
but will break if you run a pig through backward, rarely a good • Avoid sharp bends, reducers, valves with less than full opening,
investment) or bidirectional. Mechanical or electronic. This and so on, near the pump; these may reflect pressure surges back
technology is changing rapidly and prior to deciding on a device you toward the pump.
need to see what is currently available. A pig signal should be located • Manifolds in which two or more pumps are tied into a common
to indicate that the pig has passed the barrel-isolation valve. For system should be located as far from the pumps as practical to
launchers this is on the barred tee. For receivers it is in the throat.
allow dampening of surges. For most applications, 100 to 150 ft.
Since we need to plan for someone requiring a change in flow
(30 to 45 m) is adequate.
direction, it is prudent to either use a nonintrusive pig signal or to
• Discharge piping should be securely anchored as near the pump
use 4 pig signals for a launcher/receiver pair.
as practical to prevent system vibrations from acting directly on
Process valves. All of the process valves should be full-port, trunnion
the pump.
ball valves (see later for valve descriptions). The valves we are
• Concentric reducers may be used, but they should be placed as
concerned with are as follows:
near to the pump as practical.
• Barrel-isolation valve. A normally shut valve that is the same size
• Pressure safety valves (PSVs) should be installed in the discharge
as the pipeline.
piping near the pump and certainly upstream of the first block
• Side valve. A normally open valve that is the same size as the valve. Discharge/outlet piping should have a high enough
pipeline (this valve can be reduced port if there is a valid reason, pressure rating for potential future needs. Consideration must
but I don’t do it). also be given to discharge PSVs flange ratings. PSVs must be set
• Kicker/bypass valve. Both valves should be sized to provide less high enough to avoid inadvertent discharges.
than 0.13 psi/ft (2.9 kPa/m) at 100 psig (690 kPag) using Table 6.6. • Directional piping changes should be made with 90° long radius
The location for source/return gas has evolved over time. I have ells.
found that with the current location I can build the entire
• Pipe diameters should be based on the maximum velocities
launcher/receiver in a shop and ship it bolted together which has
recommended in Table 4.19. Common practice is to size
resulted in cost savings. The kicker/bypass line should tie into the
discharge pipe one nominal pipe size larger than the pump
barrel about one barrel diameter away from the flange for
discharge connection.
extension spool.
• To facilitate priming and starting the following should be
Table 6.6. Kicker line size installed: Recycle (bypass) piped back to suction vessel, check
valve, and block valve.
Pipeline size Kicker size Pipeline size Kicker size
• If a pulsation dampener is not included in the initial installation,
4 in (100 DN) 2 (50 DN) 16 (400 DN) 6 (150 DN)
6 in (150 DN) 3 (150 DN) 18 (450 DN) 6 (150 DN)

a flanged connection should be provided should pulsation
8 in (200 DN) 4 (100 DN) 20 (500 DN) 8 (200 DN) attenuation be required in the future.
10 in (250 DN) 4 (100 DN) 24 (600 DN) 8 (200 DN) 4.7.3.4 Piping hook-up considerations
12 in (300 DN) 6 (150 DN) 30 (750 DN) 10 (250 DN) Fig. 4.51 shows an example hook-up for two reciprocating pumps
14 in (350 DN) 6 (150 DN) 36 (900 DN) 10 (250 DN)
operating in parallel. Since the pump can be accidently started when
the discharge block valve is closed, a PSV is installed in the discharge
Barred tee. This tee needs to have pigging bars to make sure that you line to keep the pump from overpressuring the pipe and flanges. The
don’t lose control of the pig. PSV should be installed downstream of the pulsation dampener. It is
PSV. This safety valve is required by many jurisdictions, and it is a also possible to leave the suction valve closed while the discharge
really good idea. It is possible (though not a good practice) to isolate valve is opened. Discharge fluid could leak through the discharge FSV
the launcher/receiver barrel full of liquid. In that eventuality any and pump valves, pressuring up the suction piping, which is rated for
increase in temperature will overpressure the barrel. Even if the ASME 150 Class. Thus, in this installation, a PSV was installed in the
barrel is just isolated and drained, it doesn’t take much of a leaking pump suction piping. Some companies believe a suction PSV is
valve to put gas into the isolated barrel and in gas gathering systems unnecessary because of the low probability of multiple failures.
that gas will be saturated with water vapor. A launcher that is opened
once a quarter will always have some amount of liquid in it they are
occasionally full. A very small thermal relief will prevent this liquid
accumulation from damaging piping and/or valves.
Chemical injection port. I put a 1 in (25 DN) valve on the sweep on the
pipeline side of the barrel-isolation valve to put chemicals directly
into the line in front of a pig. My issues with the ineffectiveness of
most chemicals are based on the inability of a flowing gas stream to
keep them mobile and transport them through the system. A pig can
accomplish this task quite effectively and facilitating their use is
prudent. One chemical that I have had good success with is called a
“gel pig” which is a fluid polymer that can be pumped into a line and
then chased with a pig. The polymer tends to do a great job of
aggregating scale, sludge, and slime into its matrix and can
significantly improve the function of a line clogged with solids. The
chemical injection port makes this evolution much easier. I put a
chemical injection port on the receiver as well, but this valve is only
there in case the line needs to change directions (or you need to run
a pig backward to enhance cleaning). Fig. 4.51. Mechanical flow diagram of two reciprocating pumps in parallel.
Vents/drains. I put the barrel vent very close to the barrel-isolation An appendage dampener and cone strainer are installed in the
valve. This location was selected in response to several leaking barrel- suction line. An inline bladder/desurger and FSV are installed in the
isolation valves one after the other. When the barrel-isolation valve discharge line. The FSV protects against leakage from discharge when
has a small leak, the launcher is still usable, but when you seal the the pump is not running. It is preferable that this be a piston FSV to
throat with the pig the leaking gas will spit it out of the throat before keep it from chattering due to pressure pulsations. Nevertheless,
you have the closure shut, then opening the kicker valve will just swing FSVs are used successfully in some installations that follow the
bypass the pig. One inventive operator cut the handle off of a shovel design practices for minimizing pulsations. Drain valves are provided
and braced the handle between the pig and the closure, this allowed so that the pump can be maintained easily, and an oil PSL is provided
the pig to launch, but the stick had penetrated the pig and became to shut-in the motor.
the pig’s “tail” on the cleaning run. When it arrived, the tail prevented
API RP 14C requires a PSH be installed on the discharge so that the
the receiver barrel-isolation valve from closing and the line had to be
pump will shutdown before the discharge PSV opens. It also requires
blown down to remove the pig.
that a PSL sensor on the discharge be installed to shutdown the
There is also a vent on the spool between the “flange for extension pump in case of a large leak in the discharge piping. These two
spool” and the closure. That never gets used on the launcher. On the functions are carried out by one device.
receiver it is used to shift the pig out of the throat for retrieval (using
the other vent will stall the pig in the throat and it may not be View chapter Purchase book
possible to extract it without opening the barrel-isolation valve with
the closure open, a practice that should be discouraged).
I put a drain on both launchers and receivers. On receivers the drain
is piped to some disposal container that can hold the liquid from the Precooling and Surface Cooling of Mass
pig run. On launchers I generally build a small containment area to
Concrete
drain condensation. Some operators leave this drain open between
pig runs which adds to the surface corrosion inside the barrel and Zhu Bofang, in Thermal Stresses and Temperature Control of Mass
throat, but only minimally and has not been a problem. Concrete, 2014
Sweeps. Long pigs can have difficulty traversing a “long radius 45-
18.5 Cooling by Spraying Fog or Flowing Water over Top
degree elbow” which is the proper designation of the most common
of the Concrete Block
fitting used in gathering piping. By “long radius” ASME B16.7:
18.5.1 Spraying Fog over Top of the Concrete Block
Factory-Made Wrought Buttwelding Fittings means that the radius of
When pouring concrete in summer, it is better to form a foggy
the bend at the centerline of the pipe is 3 times the outside diameter
insulating layer over the top of the concrete block by spraying fog.
of the pipe. For launchers and receivers it is better to use a “hot
This could reduce the direct sunlight so as to lower the surface
bend” which is a length of pipe that has been heated and bent to a
temperature of the concrete block.
specific bend radius. The most common bend radius specified for
There are arc sprayer, straight tube sprayer, T-shaped sprayer, and
launchers and receivers is 6D, but I have seen 9D specified, the
axial flow fan sprayer. The former two can be used in large concrete
bigger the radius, the longer the pig that will traverse it. When smart
block, and the latter two are suitable for small concrete blocks. The
pigs first came into the industry it was common for smart pigs to
performances of these four kinds of sprayers are shown in Table 18.2.
require 42D bend radius, but that excluded virtually all pipelines from
using these tools. The technology has evolved and now most can pass
Table 18.2. Comparison of Performance of Four Kinds of Sprayers
a long-radius fitting, and all can pass a 6D sweep. When specifying
the fabrication of hot bends (also called “induction bends” or Spraying
Equipment Arc Sprayer Tube Sprayer T-Shaped Sprayer Axial Flow Fan Sprayer
“sweeps”), it is important to specify a minimum tangent length. The
Direct use of Pressure water, Pressure water, Pressure water, wind Water, electricity
bend starts with a length of pipe (e.g., a 12 in (300 DN) pipe would energy wind wind
have 60 in (152.4 mm) included a 6D 45-degree bend, the fabricator Performances The fog is dense The fogging The fogging range is The fogging range is
of spray and the effect of range is large, small, and the effect of small, and the effect of
will start with a pipe a bit longer if you don’t specify a tangent), no
fogging is good, while the effect fogging is common. fogging is common.
matter how careful the fabricator is there will be some amount of the fogging range of fogging is More sprayers should More sprayers should
is large common be placed in one block be placed in one block
ovality in the bent pipe, welding this out-of-round pipe to straight
Covering 5–20 10–20 4–7 6–15
pipe can be very difficult and will frequently cause the weld to fail range (m)
inspection. Adding pipe to the bend solves this. I always specify a Cooling effect 3–11 3–6 3–5 3–6
(°C)
minimum of 18 in (457 mm) tangents. It is common to get one
tangent, i.e., 15 in (381 mm) and the other 21 in (533 mm), but both
will be round pipe. In order to improve the effect of spraying, a fog-spray device was
successfully developed and used in the Three Gorges stage II Project.
View chapter Purchase book Pressure swirl atomizer atomizes the water into fine droplets, which
were then blown onto the surface of the concrete uniformly and
formed a fog layer. On one side, the fog droplets would evaporate by
absorbing heat; on the other side, the fog layer could reduce the
direct sunlight, thereby reducing temperature of the pouring surface.
Utilities II
Its working process is as follows.
Seán Moran, in Process Plant Layout (Second Edition), 2017 The pressure water gets into the combined atomizing nozzle through
the control valve, the pressure gauge and the filter, and then formed
15.9 Piping2
15.9.1 Main Steam Lines into micro droplets, of which the diameter ranges from 40 to
Steam lines should ideally be arranged to fall in the direction of flow, 100 μm. The control valve can adjust the water pressure within 0.3–
at not less than 100 mm per 10 m of pipe (1:100). This slope will 0.6 MPa, in order to control the atomizing. Oblique flow high-
ensure that gravity (and the flow of steam), will assist in moving the pressure blower generates high-pressure conveying flow, which
condensate towards drain points so that the condensate may be sends the droplets into the distance. The swinging system, consisting
safely and effectively removed (see Fig. 15.4). Any steam lines rising of a low-speed motor, worm gear reducer, eccentric wheel, swing
in the direction of flow should slope at not less than 250 mm per link, and a bracket, drives the fan to reciprocating swing of 3–4
10 m of pipe (1:40). times/minute within 0–90°. The elevation angle bracket installed
under the fan, according to the environmental condition, can
upgrade the fan within 0–20°.
The fog-spray device comprises atomizing system, conveying flow
system, and swinging system and the base, etc. The base is equipped
with a solid caster and can be pushed on the surface and change the
spray direction. The base bench was welded by angle steel, with steel
plate covered to the external, and can be removed for inspection and
maintenance of the swing system in the base box.
The effect of the fog-spray device used in the Three Gorges Project is
as follows. (1) The temperature of the concrete is lower than the
Figure 15.4. Typical steam main installation.
Courtesy: Spirax Sarco.

environment, after the spraying. The temperature can be cooled by
6–10°C within 9–12 m, and 2–3°C with 18.0 m from the nozzle. (2)
Steam lines should be fitted with drains at regular intervals of 30– The cooling effect of the fog-spray device without elevation angle, the
50 m and at any low points in the system. Where drainage has to be elevation angle is 0°, is better than that with some elevation angle. (3)
provided in straight lengths of pipe, a large bore pocket should be The spraying effect has something to do with the wind direction and
used to collect condensate. If strainers are to be fitted, then they wind speed, and when spraying along wind, the cooling effect is best,
should be fitted on their sides. and also the area of coverage is large. (4) In order to understand the
There are, however, many occasions when a steam main must run spraying effect on concrete, two 100 mL measuring cylinders are
across rising ground, or applications where the contours of the site respectively placed 6 and 9 m from the nozzle, and 1 h later the
make it impractical to lay the pipe with the 1:100 fall proposed cylinder is checked to see if there were any water drops. This would
earlier. In these situations, the condensate must be encouraged to not affect the quality of the concrete. (5) The experiments show that,
run downhill and against the steam flow. Good practice is to size the although the spraying effect and environmental temperature have
pipe on a low steam velocity of not more than 15 m s−1, to run the certain relations, the atomizing effect on cooling extent of the surface
line at a slope of no less than 1:40, and install the drain points at not temperature is basically the same. (6) The spraying effect is related to
more than 15 m intervals (see Fig. 15.5). The objective is to prevent the head pressure, the larger the water pressure, the better the
the condensate film on the bottom of the pipe increasing in atomizing cooling effect, but the atomizing effect changes a little
thickness to the point where droplets can be picked up by the steam with continued increase of the water pressure. The test results show
flow. that the atomizing effect is good, and the water consumption is small
when the water pressure is about 0.6 MPa.
18.5.2 Cooling by Flowing Water over Top of the Concrete Block
In the construction of Toktogul dam in the former Soviet Union, the
flowing water is adopted fully to cool the concrete. The flow of water
starts immediately after the final set of concrete and the clearance of
laitance of the surface, no more than 12 h after pouring the concrete.
The water comes from small holes drilled in the pipe and forms a
flow layer with thickness 2–8 mm on the surface of the concrete and
Figure 15.5. Reverse gradient on steam main.

the flow velocity is less than 0.8 m/s. It is not allowed to interrupt the
flowing of water when the temperature is higher than 20°C. The
15.9.2 Drain Points and Condensate Removal temperature of the flowing water in the pipe is no more than 18°C
Drain points must be designed to ensure that the condensate can and that over the top of the concrete is no more than 19°C. In the hot
reach the steam trap. Careful consideration must therefore be given months of July and August, the flowing water over the top of the
to the design and location of drain points. concrete is 13.5 L/s in each of the 1000 m2 areas; in June and
Consideration must also be given to the condensate remaining in a September, the flow can be reduced to 25%. The average flow for
steam main at shutdown, when steam flow ceases. Gravity will cause each 1000 m2 of 8 h in every day is 8 L/s in April, May, and October.
condensate to run along sloping pipework and collect at low points in The measured water temperature would increase 1°C–3°C in practice.
the system. Steam traps should therefore be fitted to these low To insure the effect of flowing water, the concrete should be poured
points. in thin layers. The layer thickness of the Toktogul dam is 0.5–1.0 m,
and due to the flowing water, the temperature heat rises only 3–5°C
The amount of condensate formed in a large steam main under
due to hydration heat in the hottest month every year. The cooling
start-up conditions is sufficient to require the provision of drain
water can be derived from the drilling holes or the drainage sump.
points at intervals of 30–50 m, as well as natural low points such as at
the bottom of rising pipework. The calculation of the cooling effect of flowing water over the surface
is simple: calculate the concrete lift according to the first kind of
In normal operation, steam may flow along the main at speeds of up
boundary condition and let the surface temperature equal to the
to 432 km h−1, entraining condensate. Fig. 15.6 shows a 15 mm drain
water temperature.
pipe connected directly to the bottom of a main. Although the
15 mm pipe has sufficient capacity, it is unlikely to capture much of
the condensate moving along the main at high speed, so this
arrangement will be ineffective.
Recommended publications
Pipe Drafting and Design (Third Edition)

Book • 2012
Advanced Piping Design

Book • 2008
Figure 15.6. Trap pocket too small.

Oil and Gas Pipelines and Piping Systems
Book • 2017
A more reliable solution for the removal of condensate is shown in

Fig. 15.7. The trap line should be at least 25–30 mm from the bottom Surface Production Operations
of the pocket for steam mains up to 100 mm, and at least 50 mm for Book • 2016
larger mains. This allows a space below for any dirt and scale to
settle. The bottom of the pocket may be fitted with a removable
flange or blowdown valve for cleaning purposes. Browse books and journals
Figure 15.7. Trap pocket properly sized.
Recommended drain pocket dimensions are shown in Table 15.1 and

in Fig. 15.8.
Table 15.1. Recommended Drain Pocket Dimensions
Mains Diameter—D Pocket Diameter—d1 Pocket Depth—d2
Up to 100 mm NB d1 = D Minimum d2 = 100 mm
125–200 mm NB d1 = 100 mm Minimum d2 = 150 mm
250 mm and above d1 ≥ D/2 Minimum d2 = D
Source: Spirax Sarco.
Figure 15.8. Recommended drain pocket dimensions.
Traps selected should be robust enough to avoid water hammer

damage and frost damage. Water hammer is a pressure surge caused
by slugs of liquid (often condensate) colliding at high velocity with
pipework fittings, plant, and equipment (Fig. 15.9). This has a
number of implications:
Figure 15.9. Formation of a “solid” slug of water.
• Because the liquid velocity in the surge is higher than normal, the
dissipation of kinetic energy is higher than would normally be
expected
• Water is dense and incompressible, so it has high momentum,
and the “cushioning” effect experienced when gases encounter
obstructions is absent
• The energy in the water is dissipated against the obstructions in
the piping system such as valves and fittings.
Indications of water hammer include banging noises and pipe
movement. In severe cases, water hammer may fracture pipeline
equipment with almost explosive effect, with consequent loss of live
steam at the fracture, leading to an extremely hazardous situation.
Good engineering design, installation, and maintenance will avoid
water hammer. Avoidance by design is far better practice than
attempting to contain it by choice of materials and pressure ratings
of equipment. Commonly, sources of water hammer occur at the low
points in the pipework (see Fig. 15.10).
Figure 15.10. Potential sources of water hammer.
Such areas are due to:

• Sagging in the line, perhaps due to failure of supports
• Incorrect use of concentric reducers (see Fig. 15.11)—always use
eccentric reducers with the flat at the bottom on steam lines
Figure 15.11. Eccentric and concentric pipe reducers.
• Incorrect strainer installation—these should be fitted with the

basket on the side
• Inadequate drainage of steam lines
• Incorrect operation—opening valves too quickly at start-up when
pipes are cold
15.9.3 Steam Branch Lines
Branch lines (Fig. 15.12) are normally much shorter than steam
mains. As a general rule, therefore, provided the branch line is not
more than 10 m in length, and the pressure in the main is adequate,
it is possible to size the pipe on a velocity of 25–40 m s−1, and not to
worry about the pressure drop.
Figure 15.12. Branch line.
Branch line connections taken from the top of the main carry the
driest steam (Fig. 15.27). If connections are taken from the side, or
even worse from the bottom (as in Fig. 15.13A), they can accept the
condensate and debris from the steam main. The result is very wet
and dirty steam reaching the equipment, which will affect
performance in both the short and long term.
Figure 15.13. Steam off-take: (A) incorrect and (B) correct.
The valve in Fig. 15.13B should be positioned as near to the off-take

as possible to minimize condensate lying in the branch line when the
plant is shut down for an extended period.
Low points will also occur in branch lines. The most common is a
drop leg close to an isolating valve or a control valve (Fig. 15.14).
Condensate can accumulate on the upstream side of the closed valve,
and then be propelled forward with the steam when the valve opens
again—consequently a drain point with a steam trap set is good
practice just prior to the strainer and control valve. There will usually
be another isolation valve close to the end user/equipment for
equipment isolation.
Figure 15.14. Diagram of a drop leg supplying a unit heater.
15.9.4 Steam Separators

Modern packaged steam boilers have a large evaporating capacity for
their size and have limited capacity to cope with rapidly changing
loads. In addition, other circumstances such as incorrect chemical
feed water treatment and/or TDS control, and/or transient peak loads
in other parts of the plant can cause priming and carryover of boiler
water into the steam mains. Separators, as shown by the cut section
in Fig. 15.15, may be installed to remove this water. Separators
should also be considered before any piece of steam using
equipment ensuring that dry steam is used.
Figure 15.15. Cut section through a separator.
As a general rule, providing the velocities in the pipework are within

reasonable limits, separators will be line sized. A separator will
remove both droplets of water from pipe walls and suspended mist
entrained in the steam itself. Water hammer can be eradicated by
fitting a separator in a steam main, which can often be less expensive
than increasing the pipe size and fabricating drain pockets.
A separator is recommended before control valves and flowmeters. It
is also wise to fit a separator where a steam main enters a building
from outside. This will ensure that any condensate produced in the
external distribution system is removed and the building always
receives dry steam. This is especially important where steam usage in
the building is monitored and charged for.
15.9.4.1 Steam Strainers
When new pipework is installed, it is not uncommon for fragments
of casting sand, packing, jointing, swarf, welding rods and even nuts
and bolts to be accidentally deposited inside the pipe. In the case of
older pipework, there will be rust and, in hard water districts, a
carbonate deposit.
Occasionally, pieces will break loose and pass along the pipework
with the steam to rest inside a piece of steam using equipment. This
may, e.g., prevent a valve from opening/closing correctly. Steam
using equipment may also suffer permanent damage through
wiredrawing—the cutting action of high velocity steam and water
passing through a partly open valve. Once wiredrawing has occurred,
the valve will never give a tight shut-off, even if the dirt is removed.
It is therefore best (but not universal) practice to fit a line-size strainer
in front of every steam trap, flowmeter, reducing valve and regulating
valve. The illustration shown in Fig. 15.16 shows a cut section
through a typical strainer.
Figure 15.16. Cut section through a Y-type strainer.
Steam flows from the inlet “A” through the perforated screen “B” to
the outlet “C.” While steam and water will pass readily through the
screen, dirt cannot. The cap “D” can be removed, allowing the screen
to be withdrawn and cleaned at regular intervals. A blowdown valve
can also be fitted to cap “D” to facilitate regular cleaning.
Strainers can, however, be a source of wet steam, as previously
mentioned. To avoid this situation, strainers should always be
installed in steam lines with their baskets to the side.
15.9.4.2 Steam Traps
Steam traps are the most effective and efficient method of draining
condensate from a steam distribution system. The steam traps
selected must suit the system in terms of pressure rating, capacity,
and suitability.
Pressure rating is easily dealt with; the maximum possible working
pressure at the steam trap will either be known or should be
established.
The capacity (quantity of condensate to be discharged) can be divided
into two categories; warmup load and running load. For warmup
load, in the first instance the pipework needs to be brought up to
operating temperature. The condensate load form this activity can be
determined by calculation, knowing the initial temperature, mass and
specific heat capacity of the pipework and fittings.
The initial pressure in the main will be little more than atmospheric
when the warmup process begins. However, the condensate loads
will still generally be well within the capacity of a DN15 “low capacity”
steam trap. Only in rare applications at very high pressures (above
70 barg) combined with large pipe sizes, will greater trap capacity be
needed.
For running load, once the steam main is up to operating
temperature, the rate of condensate production is mainly a function
of the pipe size and the quality and thickness of the insulation.
Steam trap types used to drain condensate from mains are shown in
Fig. 15.17. The thermostatic trap is included because it is ideal where
there is no choice but to discharge condensate into a flooded return
pipe.
Figure 15.17. Steam traps suitable for steam mains drainage.
The layout of condensate pipework is complex. Much depends on the

application pressure, the steam trap characteristics, the position of
the condensate return main relative to the plant, and the pressure in
the condensate return main. For this reason, it is best to start by
considering what has to be achieved, and to design a layout that will
ensure that basic good practice is met.
The prime objectives are that:
• Condensate must not be allowed to accumulate in the plant
unless the steam-using equipment is specifically designed to
operate in this way. As equipment is not usually designed in this
way, condensate accumulation generally inhibits performance,
and encourages corrosion.
• Condensate must not be allowed to accumulate in the steam
main, where it can be picked up by high velocity steam, leading to
erosion and water hammer in the pipework.
There are four types of condensate line from a layout designer’s point
of view. These four types are defined and illustrated in Fig. 15.18.
Figure 15.18. A steam main trap set discharging condensate into a common return line.
In a drain line, condensate and any incondensable gases flow from

the drain outlet of the plant to the steam trap. In a properly sized
drain line, the plant being drained and the body of the steam trap are
virtually at the same pressure and, because of this, condensate does
not flash in this line.
Gravity is relied upon to induce flow along the pipe. For this reason,
it makes sense for the trap to be situated below the outlet of the plant
being drained, and the trap discharge pipe to terminate below the
trap (an exception to this is tank-heating coils).
The type of steam trap used (thermostatic, thermodynamic, or
mechanical) can affect the piping layout. It is usually easier and
cheaper to select the correct trap for the job, than have the wrong
type of trap and fabricate a solution around it.
The drain line should be kept to a minimum length, ideally less than
2 m. Long drain lines from the plant to the steam trap can fill with
steam and prevent condensate reaching the trap. This effect is
termed steam locking. To minimize this risk, drain lines should be
kept short (see Fig. 15.19). In situations where long drain lines are
unavoidable, the steam locking problem may be overcome using float
traps with steam lock release devices. The problem of steam locking
should be tackled by fitting the correct length of pipe in the first
place, if possible.
Figure 15.19. Keep drain lines short.
The detailed arrangements for trapping steam-using plant and steam

mains drainage differ.
With steam-using plant, the pipe from the condensate connection
should fall vertically for about 10 pipe diameters to the steam trap.
Assuming a correctly sized ball float trap is installed, this will ensure
that surges of condensate do not accumulate in the bottom of the
plant with its attendant risks of corrosion and water hammer. It will
also provide a small amount of static head to help remove
condensate during start-up when the steam pressure might be very
low. The pipework should then run horizontally, with a fall in the
direction of flow to ensure that condensate flows freely (see Fig.
15.20).
Figure 15.20. Ideal arrangement when draining a steam plant.
With steam mains drainage, provided drain pockets are installed, the
drain line between the pocket and the steam trap may be horizontal.
If the drain pocket is not as deep as the recommendation, then the
steam trap should be fitted an equivalent distance below it (see Fig.
15.21).
Figure 15.21. Ideal arrangement when draining a steam main.
Discharge lines from traps carry condensate, incondensable gases,

and flash steam from the trap to the condensate return system (Fig.
15.22). Flash steam is formed as the condensate is discharged from
the high-pressure space before the steam trap to the lower pressure
space of the condensate return system.
Figure 15.22. Trap discharge lines pass condensate, flash and noncondensable gases.
These lines should fall in the direction of flow to maintain free flow of
condensate. On shorter lines, the fall should be discernible by sight.
On longer lines, the fall should be about 1:70, i.e., 100 mm every
7 m.
Discharging traps into flooded return lines is not recommended,
especially with blast action traps (thermodynamic or inverted bucket
types), which remove condensate at saturation temperature.
Good examples of flooded condensate mains are pumped return
lines and rising condensate lines. They often follow the same route as
steam lines, and it is tempting to simply connect mains drainage
steam trap discharge lines into them. However, the high volume of
flash steam released into long flooded lines will violently push the
water along the pipe, causing water hammer, noise and, in time,
mechanical failure of the pipe.
Where condensate from more than one trap flows to the same
collecting point such as a vented receiver, it is usual to run a
common line into which individual trap discharge lines are
connected. Provided the layouts as featured in Figs. 15.23–15.25 and
15.27 are observed, and the pipework is adequately sized, this is not a
problem.
Figure 15.23. A swept tee connection.
Figure 15.24. Float trap with a diffuser into a flooded line.
Figure 15.25. Balanced pressure thermostatic trap with cooling leg into a flooded line.
If blast discharge traps (thermodynamic or inverted bucket types) are

used, reaction forces and velocities can be high. Swept tees will help
to reduce mechanical stress and erosion at the point where the
discharge line joins the common return line (see Fig. 15.23).
If, for some reason, swept tees cannot be used, a float-thermostatic
trap with its continuous discharge action is a better option (Fig.
15.24). The flooded line will absorb the dissipated energy from the
(relatively small) continuous flow from the float-thermostatic trap
more easily.
If the pressure difference between the steam and condensate mains
is very high, then a diffuser will help to cushion the discharge,
reducing both erosion and noise.
Another alternative is to use a thermostatic trap that holds back
condensate until it cools below the steam saturation temperature to
reduce the amount of flash steam formed (Fig. 15.25). To avoid
waterlogging the steam main, the use of a generous collecting
pocket on the main, plus a cooling leg of 2–3 m of unlagged pipe to
the trap is essential. The cooling leg stores condensate while it is
cooling to the discharge temperature.
If there is any danger of waterlogging the steam main, thermostatic
traps should not be used.
Processes using temperature control provide an example where the
supply steam pressure is throttled across a control valve. The effect of
this is to reduce steam trap capacity to a point where the condensate
flow can stop completely, and the system is said to have stalled.
Stall occurs as a result of insufficient steam pressure to purge the
steam plant of condensate, and is more likely when the plant has a
high turndown from full-load to part load.
Not all temperature-controlled systems will stall, but the
backpressure caused by the condensate system could have an adverse
effect on the performance of the trap. This in turn, might impair the
heat transfer capability of the process (Fig. 15.26).
Figure 15.26. Discharge from steam traps on temperature controlled equipment into flooded lines.
Condensate drain lines should therefore be configured so that

condensate cannot flood the main into which they are draining, as
depicted in Fig. 15.27.
Figure 15.27. Condensate discharging freely via a falling common line.
Condensate from more than one temperature controlled process may

join a common line, as long as this line is designed to slope in the
direction of flow to a collection point, and sized to cater for the
cumulative effects of any flash steam from each of the branch lines at
full load.
The concept of connecting the discharges from traps at different
pressures is sometimes misunderstood. If the branch lines and the
common line are correctly sized, the pressures downstream of each
trap will be virtually the same. However, if these lines are undersized,
the flow of condensate and flash steam will be restricted, due to a
buildup of backpressure caused by an increased resistance to flow
within the pipe. Condensate flowing from traps draining the lower
pressure systems will tend to be the more restricted.
Each part of the discharge piping system should be sized to carry any
flash steam present at acceptable steam velocities. The discharge
from a high-pressure trap will not interfere with that from a low-
pressure trap if the discharge lines and common line are properly
sized and sloped in the direction of flow.
Flash steam may, at some point, be separated from the condensate
and used in a recovery system, or simply vented to atmosphere from
a suitable receiver (Fig. 15.28). The residual hot condensate from the
latter can be pumped on to a suitable collecting tank such as a boiler
feed tank. When the pump is served from a vented receiver, the
pumped return line will be fully flooded with condensate at
temperatures below 100°C, which means flash steam is less likely to
occur in the line.
Figure 15.28. Condensate recovery from a vented receiver.
Flow in a pumped return line is intermittent, as the pump starts and

stops according to its needs. The pump discharge rate will be higher
than the rate at which condensate enters the pump. It is, therefore,
the pump discharge rate which determines the size of the pump
discharge line, and not the rate at which condensate enters the
pump.
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Eccentric Reducers: Pumps Pipe Fittings

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Journals & Books Damita Bhikkhu

Eccentric Reducers Related terms:

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Pumps Pipe Fittings

for maintenance of switch. Figure 3.47. Welded Fittings–Flanges Dimensioning Chart.

View chapter Purchase book

Bulk piping items

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Fig. 14.26. Eccentric and concentric reducers.

In a concentric reducer, the reduction is concentric and the centerline

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Figure 3.49. 10″ × 8″ Eccentric reducer (FOB)—AutoCAD step-by-step drafting procedure.

Step 1. Using the H dimension found on the Welded Fittings–

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FIGURE 1.14. Energy savings potential chart.

Fig. 14.30. Swage connection.

Dead spaces: Dead spaces in pipelines and equipment should be

4.7.3 Process piping considerations

Figure 6.15. Pig trap closures.

6 in (150 DN) 3 (150 DN) 18 (450 DN) 6 (150 DN)

Courtesy: Spirax Sarco.

Courtesy: Spirax Sarco.

Pipe Drafting and Design (Third Edition)

Advanced Piping Design

Figure 15.6. Trap pocket too small.

A more reliable solution for the removal of condensate is shown in

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Figure 15.7. Trap pocket properly sized.

Courtesy: Spirax Sarco.

Recommended drain pocket dimensions are shown in Table 15.1 and

Table 15.1. Recommended Drain Pocket Dimensions

Mains Diameter—D Pocket Diameter—d1 Pocket Depth—d2

Up to 100 mm NB d1 = D Minimum d2 = 100 mm

125–200 mm NB d1 = 100 mm Minimum d2 = 150 mm

250 mm and above d1 ≥ D/2 Minimum d2 = D

Source: Spirax Sarco.

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Figure 15.8. Recommended drain pocket dimensions.

Courtesy: Spirax Sarco.

Traps selected should be robust enough to avoid water hammer

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Figure 15.9. Formation of a “solid” slug of water.

Courtesy: Spirax Sarco.

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Figure 15.10. Potential sources of water hammer.

Courtesy: Spirax Sarco.

Such areas are due to:

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Figure 15.11. Eccentric and concentric pipe reducers.

Courtesy: Spirax Sarco.

• Incorrect strainer installation—these should be ﬁtted with the

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Figure 15.12. Branch line.

Courtesy: Spirax Sarco.

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Figure 15.13. Steam oﬀ-take: (A) incorrect and (B) correct.