Incipient Motion

 Particle movement will occur when the instantaneous fluid

force on a particle is just larger than the instantaneous
resisting force related to the submerged particle weight and
the friction coefficient
 The driving forces are strongly related to the local near-bed
velocities.
 Incipient motion is important in the study of
 sediment transport,

 channel degradation, and

 stable channel design.

The forces acting on
the grain are shown
considering steady
flow over bed
composed of
cohesionless grains.

The driving force is the flow drag force on the grain

where the friction velocity u* is the flow velocity close to the bed. α is a
coefficient, used to modify u* so that αu* forms the characteristic flow
velocity past the grain.
The stabilizing force can be modeled as the friction force acting on the
grain.
  If u*, c, critical friction velocity, denotes the situation where
the grain is about to move, then the drag force is equal to
the friction force,

which can be re-arranged into

u*2
Shields parameter is then defined as * 
s  1 g d
We say that sediment starts to move if

u *  u *,c critical friction velocity u *,c

 Or critical bottom shear stress

Or u*,2 c
 *   *,c critical Shields parameter  *,c 
s  1 g d
where

τb = the mean bed shear stress and r = fluid

density

S = bed slope, h = water depth

Shields experimental results, which relate τ*,c to the grain Reynolds

number defined as
 Shields diagram
Hydraulically smooth flow
u *d n
Re  2

• dn is much smaller than the
thickness of viscous sublayer.
•Grains are embedded in the
viscous sublayer and hence, τ*,c
is independent of the grain
diameter.
•By experiments it is found that
τ*,c = 0.1/Re.

Hydraulically rough flow

Re ≥ 500
Hydraulically transitional flow
-Viscous sublayer does not
2 ≤ Re ≤ 500 exist;
-Grain size is the same order as the thickness of the - τ*,c = 0.06 (constant) is
viscous sublayer. independent of the fluid
-Minimum value of τ*,c = 0.032 at Re = 10. viscosity
Turbulent velocity distribution
Bed Load, Suspended Load, Wash Load and Total Load
Transport
 When the values of the bed shear velocity just exceeds the critical
value for initiation of motion, the bed material particles will be rolling
and/or sliding in continuous contact with the bed.
 For increasing values of the bed shear velocity the particles will be
moving along the bed by more or less regular jumps, which are
called saltations.
 the transport of particles by rolling, sliding and saltating is called bed load
transport,
 When the value of the bed shear velocity begins to exceed fall
velocity of the particles, the sediment particles can be lifted to a level
at which the upward turbulent forces will be of comparable or higher
order than the submerged weight of the particles and as a result the
particles may go into suspension.
 the suspended particles are transported as suspended load transport
Bed load: The sediment in almost continuous contact with the bed,
carried forward by rolling, sliding or hoping.

Wash load: That part of the suspended load which is composed of

particle sizes smaller than those found in appreciable
quantities in the bed material.
Bed Load Transport
 Bed load transport occurs when the bed shear stress, τ0 exceeds a
critical value (τ0)c.
 In dimensionless terms, the condition for bed-load motion is:
*  * c  Bed load transport
0
* 
where τ* is the Shields parameter (i.e.
rs 1gd
and (τ*)c is the critical Shields parameter for initiation of bed load transport.

 Bed load, as one part of the bed material load, is often quantitatively
small and hence does not represent a severe problem of sedimentation.
On the other hand, as the main factor of the bed formation process, it is
always of major importance.
Roughness of alluvial channels is to a great extent determined by the
movement of the bed load.
Bed Load Formulae
1. The discharge approach (bed load expressed in terms of
discharge)
2. Shear stress approach
3. The probabilistic approach
Shear Stress Approach
 Meyer-Peter and Mueller Formula
2 3
    
3 2

0.25 r 3 1   qb 3   G   h S  0.047 s   d
1 2 n
 s   nB 
where qb = dry weight of transported sediment (N/s/m width of channel)
nG = Manning’s grain roughness coef.
nB = Manning’s bed roughness coef.
h = depth of flow (m), S = energy slope,
d = dm = representative grain size of the bed material (m)
 The roughness coefficients nB, comprises of bottom roughness due
to the sediment and to form resistance.

 The grain roughness coefficient, nG is defined by nG =d901/6/26.

 The representative grain diameter, d, should best be determined by
dividing the grain size distribution curve into several fractions and
then computing the grain size by

dm 
 d p
100
where d = average size of grains in a size fraction
p = percentage of a given fraction in respect to the total

 MPM formula gives fair agreement with measured quantities for coarse
sediments, i.e. for gravel or cobble-bed streams
Shields Formula
 The semi-empirical formula derived by Shields for a level bed is

q  S   c 
q b  10
 s  s   d
where d = d50 , and S = bed slope.
In this formula τ and τc can be calculated from
 c  0.056r s  rgd 50
rgRS
 The critical shear stress can also be obtained from Shields diagram

 Suspended Load Transport

 In most natural rivers, sediments are mainly transported as
suspended load.
 The suspended load transport can be defined mathematically as
h
q sv   u c dz
a
h
q sw   s  u c dz
a

where
qsv and qsw are suspended load transport rates in terms of volume
and weight, respectively;
u and c are time averaged velocity and sediment concentration,
by volume at a distance z above the bed, respectively;
a is thickness of the bed load transport; and
h is the water depth.
 Rouse equation - gives the distribution of the suspended sediment
concentration over the vertical for various values of Z
Z
C hz a 
 
Ca  z h  a 


 where Z is known
k U*
as the Rouse constant
 k = von Karman constant
Total Load Transport
o approaches to the determination of total load:

(1) indirect method - computation of bed load and suspended load

separately and then adding them together to obtain total load, and

(2) direct method - determination of total load function directly without

dividing it into bed load and suspended load

Engelund and Hansen Method – approach 2

5
f   0.1  2

where f = total friction factor, computed from Darcy- Weisbach equation

for friction losses,
qT
Φ = dimensionless sediment discharge, given by  
s  1g d 503
where qT = bed material discharge per unit width and time, s = specific
gravity of sediments, and
 hS
 
 s  1 d 50 s  1d50
where θ = dimensionless form of the bed shear stress, τ
h = mean flow depth, S = hydraulic gradient.
 By analogy with Darcy-Weisbach equation for friction losses, the total
friction factor can be expressed as

2S
f 
Fr2
 where Fr = Froude number of the stream flow
1.4 Cross-sectional Index and Meandering Index
 Alluvial stream channels, due to the continuous process of erosion
and deposition, have ever-changing cross-sections. In order to
express these changes, a characteristic ratio, called cross-section
index, is often used.

 in which d =A/B - hydraulic depth; B - water-surface width

 Meandering index, M - The ratio
of the actual stream channel alignment
to the corresponding length of the
valley line
1.5 Development Process of a Stream
 Stream channel formation
o Streams exhibit a wide range of physical characteristics at different
phases of their formation and will react differently to management or
restoration efforts by resource managers.
o Stream managers or users must understand stream channel
formation to adequately address stream problems and restoration.
 Dynamic equilibrium
o All streams try to move towards a state of dynamic equilibrium.
o One way to describe this equilibrium is the amount of sediment
delivered to the channel from the watershed is in long-term balance
with the capacity of the stream to transport and discharge that
sediment.
o The streams dynamic equilibrium can be expressed with the “stream
power proportionality” equation developed by Lane
 According to Lane’s equation, the products of Q S and Qs D50 are
proportional to each other.

o For example,

 If slope is increased and streamflow remains the same, either the

sediment load or the size of the particles must also increase.

 If flow is increased (e.g., by an interbasin transfer) and the slope

stays the same, sediment load or sediment particle size has to

increase to maintain channel equilibrium.

 A stream seeking a new equilibrium tends to erode more

sediment and of larger particle size.
 Stable streams are in dynamic equilibrium and called graded
(poised).
 The slope of a graded stream, over a period of years, has delicately

adjusted to provide, with the available discharge and prevailing

channel characteristics, the velocity required for the transportation of
the sediment load supplied from the drainage basin.

 A graded stream can have depositional and erosional events but

overall the sediment transported and supplied to the stream is

balanced over long periods.

 Disturbance of the equilibrium leads to unstable streams that are

degrading (eroding) or aggrading (depositing).

 Degrading streams have a deficit of sediment supply, while

aggrading streams have an excess of sediment supply.
The channel evolution model

 Channel dimensions (width and depth of the channel) are very

important characteristics for describing streams.

 These characteristics are incorporated in a conceptual model called

the channel evolution model (CEM).

 This model builds upon the dynamic equilibrium theory and

describes the stages a stream goes through to reach a new dynamic
equilibrium following a disturbance.

 It also describes the stream bank erosion processes (downcutting,

headcutting, or lateral erosion) that are dominant during the different
stages.
The five stages of channel evolution model

Stage I (Stable)
The stream flow discharge of Q2
will spill in the floodplain and
deposit sediment and organic
matter.
 Q2 has a probability of occurring
every two years and associated
with bankfull discharge.
 h < hc. (critical height)
hc is that height above which the
banks have high potential of
collapsing by gravitational forces.
 Stage II (Incision)

This stage starts after disequilibrium conditions occur.

These conditions occur as a result of higher Q or S (slope), which lead
to an increase in Qs capacity in order to maintain the dynamic
equilibrium.
The increased Qs capacity causes downcutting of the stream bed.
Height of the stream banks increases to higher than critical (h>hc).
As a result the banks now can hold stream flow discharge of Q10.
A knick point (abrupt change in slope) can indicate the movement of
incision upstream and in the tributaries.
 Stage III (Widening)

The extensive increase in bank heights (h > hc) of the channel

leads to excessive stream bank instability.

The banks start collapsing and the stream starts widening.

These streams are extremely deep and wide.

Most of the sediment is still moving downstream

 Stage IV (Stabilizing)

Excessive sediment deposition from the stream banks in the

channel makes it impossible for the stream flow discharge to
remove all of it.
The stream bank height starts decreasing (typically equals the
critical height).
Vegetation starts growing on the sloughing material that is not
removed.
A new lower capacity stream channel is formed
 Stage V
(Stable with terraces)

A new channel develops and the new banks have heights shorter than

the critical bank height.

The new floodplain is connected with the stream.

Terraces are the remnants of the original floodplain

Channel evolution model
 Within each of the five stages of the Channel Evolution Model,
channel adjustment is dominated by one of the several processes.

 For example,
 in Stage II, downcutting yields the majority of the stream sediment;

 in Stage III lateral (stream bank) erosion is the primary mechanism of channel adjustment.

 The difference between these types of erosion has implications for determining the type of

restoration efforts.

 In Stage II success of restoration depends upon stopping stream downcutting by what is

called “bed stabilization.”

 Bed stabilization is usually done by installing grade control structures such as gabions or check dams.

 In Stage III, where lateral erosion dominates, restoration efforts should focus on the stream

banks.
1.6 Bed forms and alluvial roughness
 Different and changing forms result depending on the interaction
between the sediment and the flow of water.

 Bed forms and their relationship with flow regimes is essential as the
resistance to flow in alluvial channels is largely determined by bed
configuration.
 water exerts a shear stress on individual sediment particles, given as

τ = g RS
 If Manning equation for uniform flow is used, this shear stress can be
expressed as

in which n is the Manning roughness coefficient, R the hydraulic

radius and V the mean velocity.
Assuming that n and R are
constant; this is a simple
quadratic relation between τ and
V.
If roughness coefficient n
changes as a result of the shear
stresses on the loose bed, the
relationship generally assumes a
form similar to the one shown in
the Figure
 Bed forms

 Many types of bedforms can be observed in nature.

 When the bed form crest is perpendicular (transverse) to the main

flow direction, the bedforms are called transverse bedforms,
 such as ripples, dunes and anti-dunes

 Ripples have a length scale smaller than the water depth,

 Dunes have a length scale much larger than the water depth.

 Bedforms with their crest parallel to the flow are called

longitudinal bedforms such as ribbons and ridges.
 In laboratory flumes the sequence of bedforms with increasing
flow intensity is
Flat bed → Ripples →Dunes → High stage flat bed → Antidunes
Plane (flat) bed: is a plane bed surface
without elevations or depressions larger than
the largest grain of the bed material.
Ripples: are formed at relatively weak flow
intensity and are linked with fine materials,
with d50 less than 0.7 mm.
Dunes: The shape of dunes is very similar
to that of ripples, but it is much larger.
The size of dunes is mainly controlled by
flow depth.
Dunes are linked with coarse grains, with
d50 bigger than 0.6 mm.
With the increase of flow intensity, dunes
grow up, and the water depth at the crest of
dunes becomes smaller.
At a fairly high velocity at the crest, dunes
will be washed-out and the high stage flat
(plane) bed is formed.
Transition: generated by flow
conditions intermediate between those
producing dunes and plane bed.
In many cases, part of the bed is
covered with dunes while a plane bed
covers the remainder.
Antidunes: also called standing
waves. When Froude number exceeds
unity antidunes occur.
The wave height on the water surface
is the same order as the antidune
height.
The surface wave is unstable and can
grow and break in an upstream
direction, which moves the antidunes
upstream.
Chutes and Pools: occur at relatively
large slopes with high velocities and
sediment concentrations.
 Ripples and dunes travel downstream by erosion at the upstream
face (stoss side) and deposition at the downstream face (lee side).
 Antidunes travel upstream by lee side erosion and stoss side
deposition (see Figure).
Bed form migration in lower and
upper regimes
Bars

Bars: bed forms having lengths of the same

order as the channel width, or greater, and
heights comparable to the mean depth of the
generating flow.
Bars have generally elongated shapes, usually
reaching lengths equal to channel width or
more.

Point bars are formed on the convex side of channel bends or meandering alluvial streams.
Alternate bars are characteristic feature of crossings, i.e. straight stretches between successive
meanders.
Tributary bars are formed at confluence of tributaries with the main stream, and they extend
downstream. Tributary bars, developed during high flows may appear as detached small islands
during low water.
Alluvial cones, fans and stream delta

Alluvial fans

Alluvial deltas
Alluvial cones
 Alluvial Cones and Fans
 At locations in which an alluvial stream suddenly changes its slope from
relatively steep to mild, as for instance when leaving mountainous area
and entering alluvial plain, or where a steep tributary meets a flat
stream, an alluvial fan may develop.
 Chronology of development
 Stage (a) - A relatively unobstructed or recently regulated stream channel carries the water
safely within its banks;
 Stage (b) - Beginning of sediment deposition, part of the available cross section is blocked;
 Stage (c) - Sediment deposition continues, stream channel fills up and the water starts to
overflow the banks, flooding part of the adjacent area, the flood-plain;
 Stage (d) - The water which has overflown the banks moves with a very low velocity over the
flood plain and fine sediment settles down on both sides of the stream-bed.
 Stage (e) - At this stage the channel bed is higher than the surrounding area, and this situation
is justly known as an "elevated stream-bed".
 This elevated area is called the alluvial cone. When the water flowing over the cone
fans out in the form of branching gullies, it is known by the name of alluvial fan (see
Figure )
Stream Delta
When a stream finally reaches the sea, or any other expanse of water, it loses most of its
tractive power and deposits all of its sediments, including the finest silt and clay fractions.
The deposited sediment generally takes the form similar to an alluvial fan, but its
formation is much more complex, because of additional parameters that are of
considerable influence, such as sea waves and breakers, offshore currents and tidal
motion.
Stream mouths may generally be of three main types:
1) estuaries,
2) lagoons, and
3) Deltas
Delta is a highly dynamic natural phenomenon, since it is actually the result of a
continuous contest and interaction between the stream and the sea or other water
expanse.
  For a confluence, the continuity of equation
for water (Q) and sediment (QS) hold.
Q0 = Q 1 + Q 2
QS0 = QS1 + QS2

A few typical cases for qualitative analysis:

It is assumed that the bottom elevation of the tributary at the confluence is roughly the
same as that of the main stream (case 1, 2, & 3).
Liquid discharge, sediment discharge, mean grain size and the hydraulic gradient in the
main stream are Q1, Qs1, ds1, and S1, respectively; in the tributary they are Q2, Qs2, ds2,
and S2
Both streams carry the maximum sediment discharge according to their respective
sediment transport capacity (STC) under the given flow conditions.
 Case 1: The flood wave in both streams occurs roughly at the
same time
Water stage in the main stream is usually higher than in
the tributary,
 Hence back-water curve will develop in the
tributary
As a result, hydraulic gradient in the tributary, u/s
of the confluence, will decrease, causing sediment
deposition close to the stream-mouth.
D/s of confluence liquid discharge in the main
stream will increase (Q1 to (Q1 + Q2)), Therefore, there will be
The sediment discharge decrease from QS1 to deposition, because STC will not
somewhat less than (Qs1 + QS2), because a
be sufficiently high.
relatively small part of QS2 will already have been
deposited
Case 2: During the flood wave in the tributary, there is low water in the
main stream

Water level in the tributary will be higher than in the main stream, and
 Hence a drawdown curve will have to form in the tributary upstream of the confluence.
Due to flow velocities higher than for normal flow, STC of the tributary will be high enough to
carry the entire sediment load, QS2.
So the tributary is likely to stay clean
In the downstream main channel the combined discharge (Q1 + Q2) may well be too low to carry
the total sediment load (Qs1 + QS2),
Hence a considerable part of it is likely to be deposited downstream of the confluence, causing
large sand bars.
Case 3: Low water in the tributary during the passage of a flood wave
in the main stream

Back-water curve extend much farther upstream into the tributary.

In spite of the reduced flow velocities due to back-water, sediment load in the tributary will
be relatively low, and the tributary is likely to be capable of handling it.
Hence little deposition is expected to take place in the tributary.
There is relatively modest addition of sediment from the tributary.
High flow velocities in the main stream are likely to raise its STC just enough to carry the
additional load without much difficulty,
Hence probably little or no deposition in the main channel either
 Case 4: water level in the tributary is higher than in the main
stream and the bed elevation of the tributary at the confluence
is higher than in the main stream

There will be a drawdown curve in the

tributary upstream of the confluence,
accompanied by high velocities,
Severe erosion is to be expected along
the bed of the tributary.
After some time, a part of channel bed
may collapse, shifting the drop from 1 to The eroded material will ultimately
2; this process, generally known as be carried into the main stream,
back-erosion, may repeat itself several settling downstream of the
times (points 3, 4, etc.), and thus confluence until entrained by high
endanger the stability of the channel. water during flood waves
Meandering and Braided Stream Channels
 Alluvial streams generally flow in a succession of clockwise and anti-
clockwise bends, interconnected by relatively short straight reaches
called crossings.
 Such geometrical
alignment is
generally known as a
meandering river

A watercourse is generally
called a meandering stream
when the ratio between its
actual length and the length of
the valley is 1.5 or more (the
ratio is rarely more than about
2.5).
 A general characteristic of all meandering watercourses is the migration of the
bends downstream and under certain circumstances even laterally.
 The crossings are relatively shallow compared to deep parts of the bends that precede
and follow them.
 A considerable part of the bed material eroded from the concave bank of the bend is
deposited in the crossings by the spiral cross currents
 At lower discharges, sand bars also may be formed in the crossings.
 The main erosion process is to be expected at the concave side of the flow channel.
 Braided stream. The characteristic features of such a configuration are a wide channel,
unstable and poorly defined banks and shallow water.
 The watercourse consists of a number of entwined channels divided by islands, which meet,
cross and separate again.
 Main causes:
1) Supply of more sediment than warranted
by its STC, hence part of the load is
deposited,
2) Steep longitudinal slopes that tend to
produce a wide and shallow channel in
It is generally assumed that a braided
which bars readily form, become stabilized
by armouring and vegetation and form channel has a steep slope, a large bed load
islands, and
in comparison with the suspended load, and
3) Easily erodible banks, allowing the
widening of the stream channel at high usually small amounts of silt and clay
flows.
particles in both bed and banks.
 Bed Roughness
 Resistance to flow with a movable boundary consists of two parts.
 The roughness that is directly related to grain size is called GRAIN
ROUGHNESS.
 The roughness that is due to the existence of bedforms and that changes with
changes of bedforms is called FORM ROUGHNESS.
 If Manning’s roughness coefficient is used, the total coefficient n
n  n   n 
 The value of n’ is proportional to the sediment particle size to the sixth power
 Strickler defined Manning’s n as
1
d 6
n
21.1
1

 Meyer-Peter and Mueller d 906

n
26
 Similar to the division of total roughness into grain roughness and form roughness, the shear
stress or drag force acting along an alluvial bed can be divided into two parts

      SR   R 