1.

3 Layout of DC microgrid
Figure 1.1 shows the layout of a microgrid with a DC bus configuration. The microgrid
has energy sources such as PV array and wind turbine interfaced with the DC bus with
the help of DC-DC converter which ensure proper stepping of DC voltage to match the
parameters. The DC bus is also interfaced with the Grid Supply with the help of three
phase rectifier circuit converting the AC power to DC power. The grid supply ensures that
the power is available throughout without any fail. In case of extra power, it gets injected
back to the utility grid through the DC-AC converter that acts as an inverter.
Due to the irregular generation of energy from renewable sources, storage elements are
required in these setups to ensure smooth flow of power. These batteries charge and
discharge depending upon their requirement so as to balance the load demands
throughout. In case of a grid failure, these act as Auxiliary Power Unit supplying light
loads.

Fig 1.1 A DC microgrid architecture.

The entire setup can be used to supply small loads such as for domestic purposes. The
grid can be operated in the Grid connected mode or the Islanded mode. As the name
suggests, in the Grid connected mode, the utility grid is synchronized and energy flow
takes place between the microgrid and the utility grid. In case of any fault in the utility
grid or any shutdown, the microgrid gets isolated from the utility grid and it operates
individually supplying the loads. In this case, heavy loads are to be disconnected from the
grid as the renewable sources along with the battery supply minimal power. This
becomes one of the demerits of the microgrid setup.
 Chapter 2
PV ENERGY INTERFACE

2.1 Introduction
The sun is a significant source of renewable energy. The conversion of light into electricity
using photovoltaic (PV) semiconducting materials is known as photovoltaic (PV). Solar
panels, each of which contains a number of solar cells, are used in a photovoltaic system
to generate electricity. It's a rapidly expanding technology, with global installed capacity
doubling every two years. PV systems range in size from modest rooftop or building-
integrated installations for residential and commercial buildings to massive utility-scale
solar power plants. Ground-mounted, rooftop-mounted, and wall-mounted PV
installations are all viable options. When it comes to thin-film solar panels which are the
most widely used for PV systems, crystalline silicon is the most common material
employed. In the past few years, PV technology has got a great boost in terms of reduced
installation cost per watt as well as its energy payback time.
Concentrated solar power facilities were first established commercially in the 1980s. The
number of grid-connected solar PV systems has climbed into the millions, and utility-
scale solar power stations with hundreds of megawatts are being erected as the cost of
solar electricity has decreased. Solar PV is rapidly becoming a low-cost, low-carbon
technology for harvesting renewable solar energy. Many of these plants are connected
with agriculture, and some use tracking devices to create more electricity than fixed-
mounted systems by following the sun's daily course across the sky. During the
functioning of the power plants, there are no fuel costs or emissions.
PV systems have the significant disadvantage that the power output works best with
direct sunlight, therefore if a tracking system is not employed, around 10-25 percent of
the potentially extractable power is lost. The power output is also reduced by dust,
clouds, and other obstructions in the environment. Furthermore, the majority of the
power generated by a photovoltaic generating system is concentrated during the hours
of maximum insolation, which do not always coincide to the peaks in demand in human
activity cycles. Unless current society consumption habits and electrical networks adapt
to this scenario, electricity will need to be stored or replaced with other power sources,
most commonly hydrocarbons.
PV systems have been utilised in specialised applications for many years, and stand-alone
and grid-connected PV systems have been used in since the 1990s. In any event,
technological advancements and increasing production scale have decreased the cost,
improved the reliability, and raised the efficiency of photovoltaic systems.
In this chapter a solar PV module is simulated using MATLAB-Simulink and its properties
are studied. The voltage generated by the array of PV cells is fed to a boost converter and
the output voltage is made 300V for connection with DC micro-grid.

6
2.2 Working of a PV Cell
PV cell is the basic unit of PV system. A typical photovoltaic cell is basically a silicon based
PN junction. On a thicker n-type semiconductor, a very thin layer of p-type semiconductor
is formed. When photons from the sun strike the cell, they excite the electrons, causing
them to break loose from their atomic shells. Positive charges are directed to the p area
by the electric field at the PN junction, while electrons are directed to the n area by the
electric field. The electrons are collected by a metal grid on the cell's surface, while the
positive charges are collected by a metal back-plate. This creates a potential difference
between the metal grid and the back plate from which the terminals of the PV cell are
drawn. When a load is connected between the two terminals, electric current flows
through it and hence energy is transferred to it.

The rate of production of electric carriers is determined by the incident light flux and the
semiconductor's absorption capacity. The absorption capacity of a cell is mostly
determined by the semiconductor band gap and the reflectance of the cell surface. The
goal of solar cells is to absorb as much light as possible and hence they are interconnected
in series and parallel combination to increase the voltage and current. In order to produce
electrical energy, a path resistance which is represented as series resistance (Rs) and
leakage current represented as parallel resistance (Rp) are added in each cell to produce
desired voltages and currents. The value of series resistance is very low, but the value of
parallel resistance is very high.

2.3 Modelling of a PV cell

The equivalent single diode model circuit of a PV cell is shown in Fig. 1. The current
source Iph represents the photocurrent generated by PV cell. Rsh and Rs are the intrinsic
shunt and series resistances of the cell, respectively. The diode represents recombination
in the bulk and in the emitter region of the cell. Another diode can be added in parallel to
represent the recombination in space charge region but generally avoided. The
resistances Rs and Rsh are parasitic resistances. Usually, the value of Rsh is very large
and that of Rs is very small, so Rs can be neglected in some cases as per necessity. In
practical, number of PV cells are grouped together to form a PV module, which are further
connected in series and parallel connections to make a PV array. So, in a PV system these
arrays are used to generate electricity. The equivalent circuit of a PV array is shown in fig
2.1. Analysis of the equivalent circuit gives us various formulae which are used to model
a PV array.
Module photo-current Iph is given by,
𝐼𝑟
𝐼𝑝ℎ = [ 𝐼𝑠𝑐 + 𝐾𝑖 (𝑇 − 298)] × (2.1)
1000

7
Where, Iph: photo-current (A); Isc: short circuit current (A); Ki: short-circuit current of
cell at 25 °C and 1000 W/m2; T: operating temperature (K); Ir: solar irradiation (W/m2).
The reverse saturation current Irs is given by,
𝐼𝑠𝑐
𝐼𝑟𝑠 = (2.2)
𝑉𝑜𝑐
[exp (𝑞. 𝐾. 𝑛. 𝑇) − 1]

Where, q: electron charge; Voc: open circuit voltage (V); n: the ideality factor of the diode;
k: Boltzmann’s constant.

Fig 2.1 Diode model of solar module.

The module saturation current I0 varies with the cell temperature, which is given by:

𝑇 3 𝑞. 𝐸𝑔 1 1
𝐼𝑜 = 𝐼𝑟𝑠 [ ] × exp [ ( − )] (2.3)
𝑇𝑟 𝑛. 𝑘 𝑇 𝑇𝑟

Where, Tr: nominal temperature = 298.15 K; Eg: band gap energy of the
semiconductor = 1.1 eV;
The diode current ID,
𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅𝑠
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑜 [exp ( ) − 1] (2.4)
𝑛. 𝑉𝑡
𝑘𝑇
Where, 𝑉𝑡 = 𝑞
is the thermal voltage.

The shunt current Ish is,

𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅𝑠
𝐼𝑠ℎ = (2.5)
𝑅𝑠ℎ
So, the current output of PV module is:

8
 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ − 𝐼𝐷 − 𝐼𝑠ℎ (2.6)

2.4 Maximum Power Point Tracking

Maximum Power Point Tracking, or MPPT, is a charge controller technique that extracts
the maximum possible power from PV modules by operating them at the most efficient
voltage (maximum power point). Weather conditions have an impact on solar power
generation. Solar cells have a nonlinear V-I characteristic that changes with irradiance,
temperature, and load impedance, where irradiation and temperature are dynamic. As a
result, the location of the maximum power point is constantly changing. It is required to
develop an efficient maximum power point tracking (MPPT) technology that will track
the MPP under all environmental conditions and force the PV system to function at that
MPP point. In the P-V curve shown in figure 2.2, the slope is zero at MPP, negative on right
side of it and positive on left side of it.

Fig 2.2 P-V characteristic of a solar module.

There are several MPPT algorithms. The most common of them is perturb and
observation (P&O) algorithm. This algorithm uses simple feedback methods and small
measurements. The P&O algorithm periodically measures the PV voltage, computes
power, compares it with the PV power calculated in previous perturbation cycle and gives
perturbations to duty cycle by incrementing or decrementing it.
Here a small perturbation is introduced to the system which causes the power of the solar
unit to vary. The perturbation is continued in the same direction if there is an increase in
the power. After the peak power reaches to the MPP, the change of power with variation
of voltage is zero and at the next instant it decreases with a slight increment in voltage
and hence after that the perturbation reverses.
The power of the PV panel can be represented mathematically as 𝑃𝑝𝑣 = 𝑉𝑝𝑣 × 𝐼𝑝𝑣 . At
𝛥𝑃
maximum power point (MPP), = 0.
𝛥𝑉

To obtain this slope value, first the value of ΔV and ΔP should be calculated. That is given
as 𝛥𝑉𝑝𝑣 = 𝑉𝑝𝑣(𝑛) − 𝑉𝑝𝑣(𝑛 − 1) and 𝛥𝑃𝑝𝑣 = 𝑃𝑝𝑣(𝑛) − 𝑃𝑝𝑣(𝑛 − 1).

9
 Chapter 3
WIND ENERGY INTERFACE

3.1 Introduction
Wind energy is the cleanest renewable source of energy. Wind energy systems have
received a lot of attention in recent years because they are cost-effective, ecologically
friendly, and safe renewable energy sources. Every day sun radiation is to blame. Its
supply is plentiful, unlike solar power, which is limited during bad weather and at night.
The cost of electricity generated by a wind power plant is lower than that of other forms
of generation. The basic unit of this energy conversion process is the wind turbine. One
of the key advantages of these energy sources is that they may be utilised for small-scale
power generation, making them easy to implement in remote places where grid
connection is not viable.
Solar energy is the parent reason for generation of wind flows. Wind is the outcome of
atmospheric air movement, which happens when hot air from the tropics flows towards
the poles and colder air from the poles flows towards the tropics. Local winds are caused
by a variation in air pressure caused by a temperature differential between the sea and
the land. As the land heats up swiftly in the morning, the wind blows from the sea towards
the land. During the night, however, the motion is reversed since water cools more slowly
than landmass.
However, wind power production process has so many challenges like the structure of
turbine for better efficiency, operation at maximum power point, control of the power
quality and cost of the overall system etc. The turbines can run in both fixed and variable
speed modes; however, the latter is more popular due to benefits such as enhanced
energy capture and efficiency over fixed speed turbines. Depending on the situation, a
wind power system can be employed as a stand-alone or grid-tied system. For turbine
power generation, various types of generator topologies can be used. The power
electronic converters serve as an efficient interface between the grid and the wind energy
system.

3.2 System Configuration

The basic operation is that the turbine rotates due to available atmospheric wind flow
and turbine shaft is connected to a generator which converts this mechanical energy into
electrical energy. Wind turbine consists of a set of rotor blades rotating around a hub with
a gearbox setup for speed control. Based on the axis of rotation wind turbines are
classified into two types: Horizontal axis type and Vertical axis type. Though the
installation cost of horizontal axis type is higher it is widely used in commercial wind
generation systems because of its superior efficiency. Further wind turbines can be of
two types based on the operation speed: Fixed speed type and variable speed type.

14
Variable speed type turbines are used mostly due to their high energy conversion
efficiency and better power quality.
Depending upon the required application, either asynchronous or synchronous
generator can be used. The doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) and permanent
magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) are two popular variants for variable speed,
constant frequency power generation. Due to their more effective performance,
improved dependability, gearless operation, and larger speed control range, permanent
magnet synchronous generators (PMSG) have recently attracted a lot of interest in wind-
energy applications.
The output voltage and current of the generator are alternating in nature. So, a three-
phase bridge rectifier is used to convert this output voltage to a DC voltage. As renewable
energy sources are intermittent a MPPT controller is required to track the maximum
power along with a DC-DC converter which can be of any non-isolated type (buck, boost
or buck boost). A bidirectional converter is required for grid synchronisation, with
switching controlled to maintain the frequency constant and voltage maintained by
regulating the DC-DC converter output's DC voltage.

Fig 3.1 Wind energy system architecture.

3.3 Modelling of Wind Turbine

The kinetic energy E of an object with mass m and velocity v under constant acceleration
is defined as,
1
𝐸= ∗ 𝑚𝑣 2 (3.1)
2

The fact that the solid's mass is constant is the basis for this kinetic energy expression.
When we treat wind (moving air) as a fluid, however, both density and velocity can
change, therefore there is no fixed mass. As a result, using equation 3.1, the kinetic energy
(in joules) in air of mass m travelling at velocity Vw can be computed. The rate of change
of kinetic energy in the wind determines the power P, i.e.
𝑑𝐸 dm
𝑃= = 1/2 ∗ ( ) ∗ Vw 2 (3.2)
𝑑𝑡 dt

15
The mass flow rate dm/dt is given by dm/dt = ρAVw where A is the area through which
the wind is flowing and ρ is the density of air. Now with this inference equation (2.2) can
be written as

1
𝑃= ∗ ρ ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑣𝑤3 (3.3)
2

The difference between the upstream and downstream wind powers is the actual
𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑤 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑠 in watts.
1
𝑃= ∗ ρ ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑣𝑤 (𝑣𝑢2 − 𝑣𝑑2 ) (3.4)
2

where 𝑉𝑢 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 at the rotor blades' entrance in m/s and
𝑉𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 at the rotor blades' exit in m/s. The blade tip
speed ratio is determined by these two velocities, as we will see later. Now, the mass flow
rate is,

ρ ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑣𝑤 = ρ ∗ A(𝑣𝑢 + 𝑣𝑑 ) (3.5)

Vw is the mean of the velocities at the entry and exit of rotor blades of turbine. With this
expression, equation (2.4) gives rise to,
1 1
𝑃𝑤 = ∗ ρ ∗ A ∗ (𝑣𝑢2 − 𝑣𝑑2 ) ∗ (𝑣𝑢 + 𝑣𝑑 ) (3.6)
2 2

𝑣 2 𝑣 𝑣 3
1 (1 − ( 𝑑 ) + ( 𝑑 ) − ( 𝑑 ) )
𝑣𝑢 𝑣𝑢 𝑣𝑢
𝑃𝑤 = [ρ ∗ A ∗ (𝑣𝑢3 ) ∗ { }] (3.7 )
2 2

𝑣 2 𝑣 𝑣 3
(1−( 𝑑 ) +( 𝑑 )− ( 𝑑 ) )
𝑣𝑢 𝑣𝑢 𝑣𝑢
𝐶𝑝 = 2
(3.8)

1
𝑃𝑤 = [ρ ∗ A ∗ (𝑣𝑢3 ) ∗ 𝐶𝑝 (3.9)
2

16
The fraction of upstream wind power captured by the rotor blades is given by Cp in
equation (2.8). This quantity is also known as the rotor's power coefficient or rotor
efficiency. The power coefficient isn't a fixed quantity. It fluctuates depending on the wind
turbine's tip speed ratio.
Let λ denote the ratio of downstream wind speed Vd to upstream wind speed Vu of the
turbine, i.e.
𝑣𝑑
λ= (3.10)
𝑣𝑢

𝐵𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑝 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

λ= (3.11)
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

The wind turbine's tip speed ratio is denoted by λ. The blade tip speed in metres per
second can be determined using the turbine's rotational speed and the length of the
turbine's blades, i.e.
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒(𝑤) ∗ 𝑅
λ= (3.12)
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

Most of the wind will pass through the holes between the blades if the rotor of a wind
turbine moves too slowly, resulting in little power extraction. If the rotor rotates too
quickly, the whirling blades function as a solid wall, impeding the wind flow and lowering
the power extraction. In order to collect as much power as possible from the wind stream,
the turbines must be constructed to run at their ideal wind tip speed ratio (TSR).
Theoretically, the higher the TSR, the more efficient the generator will operate. However,
there are certain drawbacks. Due to the impact of dust or sand particles in the air, high
TSR promotes erosion of the blades' leading edges. This would necessitate the
employment of a specific erosion-resistant coating material, which could raise energy
costs. Increased TSR causes noise, vibration, and poor rotor efficiency owing to drag and
tip losses. Excessive rotor speeds can potentially cause turbine failure. Other components
in a whole turbine system that obstruct complete energy conversion include the gearbox,
bearings, number and shape of blades, and so on. Only 10 to 30% of the energy generated
by the wind is transformed into useful electricity.
Another flow input quantity for the rotor system is air density. It is influenced by air
pressure as well as temperature. When air pressure rises, so does the temperature, and
vice versa. This is in accordance with the equation of state.

𝑃 = ρRT (3.13)

where R stands for the gas constant. With rising altitude, both temperature and pressure
drop. As a result, site selection is critical, as elevation has a significant impact on the
amount of power generated as a result of air density variations. At atmospheric pressure,
Patm = 14.7psi, temperature is T = 60F and density is ρ = 1.225kg/m3. The variation of

17
temperature and pressure with elevation affects the air density giving rise to the
following relation,

𝑃 = ρ0 e(−0.297 /3048)Hm (3.14)

where Hm is site elevation in meters. At high elevations the air density corrections can be
important.
In the case of power regulation, the power coefficient Cp is the most essential parameter.
Cp as a function of the tip speed ratio and the blade pitch angle θ in degrees is given as

1 1
−𝐶 ( )
𝐶𝑝 (λ, θ) = 𝐶1 (𝐶2 − 𝐶3 βθ − 𝐶4 θx − 𝐶5 ) 𝑒 6 β (3.15)
β

The values of the coefficients C1-C6 and x vary depending on the kind of turbine.

1 1 0.035
= − (3.16)
β λ + 0.08θ 1 + θ3

where θ is the blades’ pitch angle in degrees.

 Chapter 4
BATTERY STORAGE SYSTEM

4.1 Introduction
Microgrids should have enough generation to meet the load demands. Microgrids
generally use renewable sources for power generation. Power generated by solar and
wind sources is unpredictable. The energy generated by these renewable sources varies
with time, day, season and some random factors. Ungovernable renewable power
generation leads to fluctuating power injection and may cause instability in micro-grids.
To balance the power generation and demand energy storage systems (ESS) are used. ESS
accept and return electric power although they may store energy in different form.
Electrical energy is stored when generation is more than demand and stored energy can
be used when demand is higher than generation. Energy storage provides more flexibility
and balance to the micro-grid, giving a backup to intermittent renewable energy.
Battery storage system is a type of ESS. Here, rechargeable batteries convert chemical
energy to electrical energy and vice-versa. Battery Energy Storage System are quick in
response and flexible to use for either short time power oscillations or long period power
interruptions. Based on cell chemistry different batteries are invented like Nickel-
Cadmium (NiCd), Lead acid, Lithium ion, Nickel-Metal Hybrid (NiMH) etc. In the present
work sealed Lead acid batteries are used.
The battery used in a Micro-Grid setup must charge and discharge based on the
conditions of load and demand. Thus, a bidirectional flow of power will take place so as
to make this possible. Thus, a bidirectional DC-DC converter is used to couple the battery
with the Micro-Grid DC link. Further control algorithms are needed to control this
converter so that charging or discharging occur only after meeting the necessary
conditions.

4.2 Modelling Parameters

State of charge (SOC %) can be expressed as percentage of current capacity of battery
with respect to its maximum current capacity. Based on this percentage, the extent to
which the battery is charged or discharged can be known. To use a battery, its
determination of its SOC at different states is a must that would decide whether the
battery should be charged or discharged for the most efficient use. Thus, these also help
to prevent overcharging and over discharging and thus help in enhancing the battery life.

Current battery capacity in Ah

SOC (%) = × 100
Maximum capacity of battery in Ah
Depth of Discharge is the analogous of the State of Charge. It is the percentage of current
capacity exhausted at a given state to the maximum capacity of the battery. This helps in
determining how much more the battery can be discharged.

24
Temperature of the battery defines its dynamic response at a given state. Batteries
function best at room temperature. Operating a battery at elevated temperatures
improves performance but prolonged exposure has an adverse effect on its life. At an
average, all batteries achiever optimum service life if used nearly at 200 C. Thus, the
batteries are to be kept in a way so as to cool them down throughout the service day.
Ampere-Hour specifications provides a measurement of the battery capacity. It indicates
the amount of energy that can be stores in that battery. A battery of 1Ah is capable of
supplying 1A over a time period of 1 hour. For a purpose, batteries are usually decided
based on their Ah rating.

4.3 Battery Interface Converter

A bidirectional DC-DC converter is used so as to couple the battery with the Micro-Grid
DC link. While charging, the voltage of the DC bus must appear across the terminals of the
battery so as to charge it. The voltage of the DC link is much more than the voltage of the
battery. Thus, it must be stepped down to a voltage slightly more than the voltage rating
of the battery so as to charge it. Thus, while charging, buck characteristics of the
bidirectional converter is used. While discharging, the battery should supply voltage to
the DC bus, thus the voltage across the terminals of the battery must be stepped up to the
DC bus voltage. Thus, the boost characteristics of the bidirectional converter is used.
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) are used for the switching purpose to
implement the bidirectional controller. During charging the batteries (buck mode), upper
switch (Db1) is controlled and bottom switch (Db2) is kept off, so that anti parallel diode
acts as passive switch. Similarly, during discharging the batteries (boost mode), bottom
switch (Db2) is controlled and upper switch (Db1) is kept off leaving its anti-parallel
diode in the circuit. The converter shown in Fig. 4.1 have an inductor L with some internal
resistance. To attenuate switching current ripple from inductor to Battery capacitor Cb is
used. Similarly, capacitor Cd is used for switching ripple attenuation at grid side.

Fig 4.1 Battery interface converter.

25
4.3.1 Charging Mode
In this mode constant current (CC) charging method is used, where charging current is
maintained constant throughout the charging process, independent of battery state of
charge. CC method used in used in cyclic usage applications. Since the energy
management system in micro-grid application is cyclic in nature Constant Current (CC)
charging is used in this work.

In CC charging, battery voltage slowly increases w.r.t time and as the battery approaches
near full charge, over voltage appears at battery terminals. So, to control the charging
current, average current control scheme is used. In the control method the current
reference is decided according to seal-in charging current specified in battery datasheet.
The error between reference and actual inductor currents is given to designed current
controller which produces desired duty cycle d. The duty cycle is then given to Pulse
Width Modulator which generate switching signal to drive switch Db1. Check Fig 4.2.

Fig 4.2 Charging mode control scheme.

4.3.1 Discharging Mode

While supplying power to microgrid, the converter should provide regulated voltage
irrespective of other sources and loads. So, for the Boost mode control, main objective is
to control output voltage. To increase the bandwidth of control and limit the inductor
current (over current discharge reduces battery life) two loop average current control
technique has been used. Check Fig 4.3.

The control technique has two control loops:

1. Inner loop: Current control loop (fast loop).

2. Outer loop: Voltage control loop (slow loop).

26
The reference voltage set by microgrid operator is given to outer loop. The error between
reference voltage and actual voltage is fed to a voltage controller which generates the
reference current to inner loop. Like in buck mode control scheme current controller
generates duty ratio and given to PWM block.

Fig 4.3 Discharging mode control scheme

Parameters
inal Voltage
Rated Capacity
50 %
Battery response time 1 s Initial SOC
Nominal discharging current 20 A
Internal resistance 0.0048 Ω
Table 4.1 Lead Acid battery specifications.

In charging mode SOC increased throughout and the current was constant around a
particul). There is a small ripple in the steady state current due to the presence of
inductor, but it is below 5A as shown in fig 4.5. (From the data sheet of sealed lead
acid batteries, it has been mentioned that for optimum life of battery, AC ripple
current should not 0.05 C i.e., for a 100 Ah battery, peak to peak ripple current should
not exceed 5A.) The battery voltage is also inly w.r.t time as expected.

27