• Capacitor with Dielectric

Most capacitors have a dielectric (insulating solid or liquid material) in the space between the conductors.
This has several advantages:

• Physical separation of the conductors.

• Prevention of dielectric breakdown.
• Enhancement of capacitance.

The dielectric is polarized by the electric field between the capacitor plates.
Parallel-Plate Capacitor with Dielectric (1)
The polarization produces a bound charge on the surface of the dielectric.

+q f −q f +q f −q b +q b −qf
+ − + −
+ − + − + −
+ − + −
+ − + − + −
+ − + −
+ − + − + −
+ − + −
+ − + − + −
+ − + −
+
+
E0 −
−
+ −
+
E + −
−
+ − + − + −
+ − + −
+ − + − + −
+ − + −
+ − + − + −

The bound surface charge has the effect of reducing the electric field between the plates from ~E0 to ~E.

• A: area of plates • ±qb : bound charge on surface of dielectric

• d: separation between plates • ~E0 : electric field in vacuum
• ±qf : free charge on plate • ~E: electric field in dielectric
Parallel-Plate Capacitor with Dielectric (2)
Use Gauss’ law to determine the electric fields ~E0 and ~E.

+q f −q f +q f −q b +q b −qf
+ − + −
+ − + − + −
+ − + −
+ − + − + −
+ − + −
+ − + − + −
+ − + −
+ − + − + −
+ − + −
+
+
E0 −
−
+ −
+
E + −
−
+ − + − + −
+ − + −
+ − + − + −
+ − + −
+ − + − + −

qf qf
• Field in vacuum: E0 A = ⇒ E0 =
e0 e0 A
qf − qb qf − qb
• Field in dielectric: EA = ⇒ E= < E0
e0 e0 A
V0
• Voltage: V0 = E0 d (vacuum), V = Ed = < V0 (dielectric)
κ
E0 qf
Dielectric constant: κ ≡ = > 1. Permittivity of dielectric: e = κe0 .
E qf − qb
Dielectric Materials

• Dielectrics increase the capacitance: C/C0 = κ.

• The capacitor is discharged spontaneously across the dielectric if the electric field exceeds the value
quoted as dielectric strength.
Impact of Dielectric (1)

What happens when a dielectric is placed into a capacitor

with the charge on the capacitor kept constant?

vacuum dielectric

charge Q0 Q = Q0
E0
electric field E0 E= < E0
κ
V0
voltage V0 V= < V0
κ
Q0 Q
capacitance C0 = C= = κC0 > C0
V0 V
Q2 Q 2 U
potential energy U0 = 0 U= = 0 < U0
2C0 2C κ
(0)
(0) 1 1 2 u (0)
energy density uE = e0 E20 uE = eE = E < uE
2 2 κ
Impact of Dielectric (2)

What happens when a dielectric is placed into a capacitor

with the voltage across the capacitor kept constant?

vacuum dielectric

voltage V0 V = V0
electric field E0 E = E0
Q0 Q
capacitance C0 = C= = κC0 > C0
V0 V
charge Q0 Q = κQ0 > Q0
1 1
potential energy U0 = C0 V02 U = CV 2 = κU0 > U0
2 2
(0) 1 1 (0) (0)
energy density uE = e0 E20 uE = eE2 = κuE > uE
2 2
Stacked Dielectrics

Consider a parallel-plate capacitor with area A of each plate and spacing d.

e0 A
• Capacitance without dielectric: C0 = .
d

• Dielectrics stacked in parallel: C = C1 + C2

A/2 A/2
with C1 = κ1 e0 , C2 = κ 2 e 0 .
d d
1
⇒ C= ( κ 1 + κ 2 ) C0 .
2

1 1 1
• Dielectrics stacked in series: = +
C C1 C2
A A
with C1 = κ1 e0 , C2 = κ 2 e 0
d/2 d/2
2κ1 κ2
⇒ C= C0 .
κ1 + κ2
Lateral Force on Dielectric
Consider two charged capacitors with dielectrics only halfway between the plates.

In configuration (a) any lateral motion of the dielectric takes place

at constant voltage across the plates.

In configuration (b) any lateral motion of the dielectric takes place

at constant charge on the plates.

Determine in each case the direction (left/zero/right) of the lateral force experienced by the dielectric.

(a) (b)
Geiger Counter

Radioactive atomic nuclei produce high-energy particles of three different kinds:

α β γ

• α-particles are 4 He nuclei.

000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111 amplifier
• β-particles are electrons or 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111 loudspeaker
000000
111111
000000
111111
positrons. 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
• γ-particles are high-energy 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
photons. 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
low−pressure 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
inert gas 000000
111111
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111111
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111111
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111111
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111111
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111111

• Free electrons produced by ionizing radiation are strongly accelerated toward the central wire.
• Collisions with gas atoms produce further free electrons, which are accelerated in the same direction.
• An avalanche of electrons reaching the wire produces a current pulse in the circuit.
Capacitor Circuit (4)

Connect the three capacitors in such a way that the equivalent capacitance is Ceq = 2µF. Draw the circuit
diagram.

1µF 3 µF 5 µF

2µ F
• Electric Current

Equilibrium:
~E = 0 inside conductor. Mobile charge carriers undergo random motion.

Nonequilibrium:
~E 6= 0 inside conductor. Mobile charge carriers undergo random motion and drift. Positive charge carriers drift
from high toward low electric potential and negative charge carriers from low toward high electric potential.

Electric current:
−
• Net charge flowing through given cross-sectional E +
area per unit time.
dQ I
• I= .
dt
• SI unit: 1C/s = 1A (one Ampère)
+ V −
Current and Current Density
Consider drift of Na+ and Cl− ions in a plastic pipe filled with salt water.

• v1 > 0, v2 < 0: drift velocities [m/s]

• q1 > 0, q2 < 0: charge on ions [C]
• n1 , n2 : number of charge carriers per unit volume [ m−3 ]

+
Na v1
v2 Cl −
−
A + q2
q1 E

• Net charge flowing through area A in time dt: dQ = n1 q1 v1 Adt + n2 q2 v2 Adt [C]
dQ
• Electric current through area A: I ≡ = A(n1 q1 v1 + n2 q2 v2 ) [A]
dt
• Current density: ~J = n1 q1 v~1 + n2 q2 v~2 [A/m2 ]
Z
• Current equals flux of current density: I = ~J · d~A [A]
Current Direction

positive charge carriers negative charge carriers

positive current I flowing toward left in both cases

negative current I flowing toward right in both cases

Resistance and Resistivity

• Resistor: device (material object with two terminals)

• Resistance: attribute of device
• Resistivity: attribute of conducting material

A voltage V provided by some source is applied to the terminals of a resistor and a current I is observed
flowing through the resistor.

V
• Resistance: R = [1Ω=1V/A] (1 Ohm)
I

The current density ~J in a resistor depends on the local electric field ~E and on the resistivity ρ of the resistor
material.
 
E 1V/m
• Resistivity: ρ = = 1Ωm
J 1A/m2
1
• Conductivity: σ = [1(Ωm)−1 ]
ρ
• Vector relations: ~E = ρ~J, ~J = σ~E
Resistivity of Materials

(ρ − ρ20 )/ρ20
• α=
tC − 20◦ C
• α: temperature coefficient
at 20◦ C in K−1
• ρ: resistivity near 20◦ C
• ρ20 : resistivity at 20◦ C
• tC : temperature in ◦ C
Ohm’s Law

V = RI with R = const

satisfied violated

tsl452
Calculating the Resistance of a Wire

Uniform cross section Variable cross section

• Length of wire: L • Cross-sectional profile: A(x)
• Area of cross section: A • Resistance of slice: dR =
ρdx
A(x)
• Resistivity of material: ρ Z L
dx
E • Resistance of wire: R = ρ
• Current density: J = [A/m2 ] 0 A(x)
ρ
• Current: I = JA [A]
dx
• Voltage: V = EL [V]
V ρL x
• Resistance: R ≡ = [Ω]
I A A
x L
Radial Current in Coaxial Cable

ρdr
dR = , A = 2πrL
A

Z b
ρ dr ρ b
R= = ln
2πL a r 2πL a
Electric Current Application (1)

A steady current I is flowing through a wire from left to right. The wire first doubles its diameter and then
splits into two wires of the original diameter. Both branches on the right carry the same current.

I3
I2
I1 2cm

2cm 4cm I4

2cm

Rank the current densities J1 , J2 , J3 = J4 in the three segments.

Electric Current Application (3)

Consider three wires made of the same material.

Wire 1 of length 2m and diameter 2mm has a resistance 18Ω.

(a) What resistance does wire 2 of length 4m and diameter 4mm have?
(b) How long is wire 3 of diameter 6mm with a resistance of 18Ω?
Electric Current Application (2)

Two wires are formed into

(a) an equilateral triangle,

(b) a regular pentagon.

A voltage between points 1 and 2 produces a current of 12mA along the shorter path.

(b)
(a)
12mA
1 2

12mA
1 2

What is the current along the longer path in each case?

Resistor: Material and Device Perspectives

• ~E: electric field a J b

• ~J: current density E
Material dA

• ρ: resistivity
• σ = 1/ρ: conductivity
+ −
• ~E = ρ~J, ~J = σ~E

R
a b
• V: voltage
Device
• I: electric current
I
• R: resistance
• V = RI
V
Z Z b
Current from current density: I = ~J · d~A Voltage from electric field: V = − ~E · d~s
a

tsl135
Power Dissipation in Resistor

Consider a resistor in the form of a uniform wire.

• Voltage between ends: V ≡ Va − Vb = E(xb − xa )

• Displaced charge: ∆q = I ∆t
R
∆q a b

E
I
xa xb

• Work done by electric field ~E on displaced charge ∆q: V = Va − Vb

WE = F(xb − xa ) = E ∆q (xb − xa ) = V∆q = VI∆t

WE V2
• Power dissipated in resistor: P = = VI = I2 R =
∆t R
• SI unit: 1V·1A = (1J/C)·(1C/s) = 1J/s = 1W (Watt)
Resistor Problem (1)

A heating element is made of a wire with a cross-sectional area A = 2.60 × 10−6 m2 and a resistivity
ρ = 5.00 × 10−7 Ωm.

(a) If the element dissipates 5000W when operating at a voltage V1 = 75.0V, what is its length L1 , its
resistance R1 , and the current I1 running through it?
(b) What must be the voltage V2 , the resistance R2 , and the length L2 of a heating element made of the same
wire if the same power should be generated with half the current?
Resistor Problem (2)

A 1250W radiant heater is constructed to operate at 115V.

(a) What will be the current in the heater?

(b) What is the resistance of the heating coil?
(c) How much thermal energy is generated in one hour by the heater?
Incandescent Light Bulb

• voltage drives electric current through

filament
• electric current heats up filament
• hot filament emits radiation
• radiation has significant intensity in
visible range around 4000 degrees
Fahrenheit.
• most energy is emitted in the form of heat
(infrared radiation)
• inert gas (e.g. argon) regulates heat
transport and prevents oxidation
• tungsten has high melting point
• Direct Current Circuit

Consider a wire with resistance R = ρ`/A connected to a battery.

• Resistor rule: In the direction of I across a resistor with resistance R, the electric potential drops:
∆V = −IR.
• EMF rule: From the (−) terminal to the (+) terminal in an ideal source of emf, the potential rises: ∆V = E .
• Loop rule: The algebraic sum of the changes in potential encountered in a complete traversal of any loop
in a circuit must be zero: ∑ ∆Vi = 0.

physical system circuit diagram electric potential

a b a b
Va
+ − ε −IR ε
emf I
Vb
I
R a b a
Battery with Internal Resistance

• Real batteries have an internal resistance r.

• The terminal voltage Vba ≡ Va − Vb is smaller than the emf E written on the label if a current flows
through the battery.
• Usage of the battery increases its internal resistance.
E
• Current from loop rule: E − Ir − IR = 0 ⇒ I =
R+r
Vba
• Current from terminal voltage: Vba = E − Ir = IR ⇒ I=
R

physical system circuit diagram electric potential

a b a b
ε −Ir
+ −
I
r ε Va
−IR
emf
Vb
I .

R a b a
Resistor Circuit (4)

Consider the resistor circuit shown.

(a) Find the direction of the positive current (cw/ccw).

(b) Find the magnitude of the current.
(c) Find the voltage Vab = Vb − Va .
(d) Find the voltage Vcd = Vd − Vc .

d c

12V

1Ω 1Ω

2Ω
b a
Resistor Circuit (6)
Assignment 1
Consider the resistor circuit shown.

(a) Choose a current direction and use the loop rule to determine the current.
(b) Name the direction of positive current (cw/ccw).
(c) Find Vab ≡ Vb − Va along two different paths.

b
1Ω 18V

6V 2Ω

1Ω
24V
12V 2Ω
a
Power in Resistor Circuit

b
Battery in use
• Terminal voltage: Vab = E − Ir = IR ε
• Power output of battery: P = Vab I = E I − I2 r
R
• Power generated in battery: E I r
• Power dissipated in battery: I2 r

• Power transferred to load: P = I2 R

a

b
Battery being charged:
• Terminal voltage: Vab = E + Ir ε
• Power supplied by charging device: P = Vab I charging
• Power input into battery: P = E I + I2 r r device
• Power stored in battery: E I
• Power dissipated in battery: I2 r
a
Resistor Circuit (7)
Assignment 2
Consider two 24V batteries with internal resistances (a) r = 4Ω, (b) r = 2Ω.

• Which setting of the switch (L/R) produces the larger power dissipation in the resistor on the side?

L R L R

24V 24V
4Ω 2Ω 4Ω 2Ω
4Ω 2Ω

(a) (b)
Impedance Matching

A battery providing an emf E with internal resistance r is connected to an external resistor of resistance R as
shown.

For what value of R does the battery deliver the maximum power to the external resistor?

E
• Electric current: E − Ir − IR = 0 ⇒ I=
R+r
E 2R E2 R/r
• Power delivered to external resistor: P = I2 R = 2
=
(R + r) r (R/r + 1)2
dP
• Condition for maximum power: =0 ⇒ R=r
dR

r ε

R
Resistor Circuit (5)

Consider the resistor circuit shown.

(a) Choose a current direction and use the loop rule to determine the current.
(b) Name the direction of positive current (cw/ccw).
(c) Find the potential difference Vab = Vb − Va .
(d) Find the voltage Vcd = Vd − Vc .

d a

2Ω 12V

3Ω 7Ω

4Ω 4V
b c
Symbols Used in Cicuit Diagrams

R
resistor A ammeter (connect in series)

C
capacitor V voltmeter (connect in parallel)

L
inductor diode

ε
emf source E C transistor

B
Resistors Connected in Series

Find the equivalent resistance of two resistors connected in series.

• Current through resistors: I1 = I2 = I

• Voltage across resistors: V1 + V2 = V
V V V
• Equivalent resistance: R ≡ = 1 + 2
I I1 I2
• ⇒ R = R1 + R2

V2
V1
V0
x
R1 R2
V0 V0 + V
I I
Resistors Connected in Parallel

Find the equivalent resistance of two resistors connected in parallel.

• Current through resistors: I1 + I2 = I

• Voltage across resistors: V1 = V2 = V
1 I I I
• Equivalent resistance: ≡ = 1 + 2 V1 = V
R V V1 V2 V0
1 1 1 x
• ⇒ = +
R R1 R2 R1
I1
V0 V0 + V
I2
R2

V0 V2 = V
x
Resistor Circuit (1)

Consider the two resistor circuits shown.

(a) Find the resistance R1 .

(b) Find the emf E1 .
(c) Find the resistance R2 .
(d) Find the emf E2 .

1Ω 2Ω 6Ω
1A
2A 1Ω
R1 2A R2
1A

ε1 ε2
Resistor Circuit (2)

Consider the two resistor circuits shown.

(a) Find the resistance R1 .

(b) Find the current I2 .
(c) Find the current I3 .
(d) Find the resistance R4 .

1Ω R1 3Ω
I3
3A R4
I2 6Ω 3A 2Ω

12V 12V
Resistor Circuit (8)

Consider the circuit of resistors shown.

Assignment 3
• Find the equivalent resistance Req .
• Find the currents I1 , . . . , I5 through each resistor and the voltages V1 , . . . , V5 across each resistor.
• Find the total power P dissipated in the circuit.

R 1 = 6Ω
R3 = 4Ω
R 2 = 12Ω

R 4 = 3Ω R 5 = 5Ω

ε = 12V