Squamata:

Suborder Serpentes
Introduction

suborder Serpentes (i.e., the snakes)

suborder Lacertilia (i.e., the lizards)
suborder Amphisbaenia (the worm-lizards)
More recent division of squamata:
Suborder Iguania (containing the Agamids, Iguanids, Chameleons and New world lizards)
Suborder Scleroglossa
infraorders Anguimorpha (Monitor lizards, Heloderma lizards, slow worms etc.)
Amphisbaenia (worm lizards)
Gekkota (the geckos)
Scincomorpha (skinks, whiptail lizards and European Lacertid lizards)
suborder Serpentes (the snakes)
Suborder serpentes
SNAKES
Like the bird, has no diaphragm but a coelomic, or common, body cavity
Musculoskeletal system
true snakes have no limbs
some remnants of limbs- boid family (pythons and boa constrictors)
possess vestigial pelvic remnants, having claw-like spurs either side of the vent representing the
hind limbs
Skull- a small cranial cavity containing the brain and a large nasal cavity
Maxilla- 4 rows of teeth, two on either side
mandible- two rows of teeth
The teeth:
non-poisonous species such as the colubrid family (containing the kingsnakes and rat
snakes) and the boid family- simple, caudally curved, peg-like teeth
poisonous species:
Rattlesnakes- have hinged, rostrally situated fangs which swing forward as they strike
 Intraoral view of a young Burmese python showing the
four upper and two lower rows of teeth, as well as the
glottal tube and tracheal entrance, rostral to which is the
tongue sheath.
Head:
adaptations that allow it to swallow large prey
the two halves of lower jaw are loosely held together rostrally and the mandibular symphysis
can separate
no temporomandibular joint but has a quadrate bone, which articulates between a mandible
and the skull and allows the mandibles to be moved rostrally and laterally, ‘dislocating’.
maxilla also hinges only loosely with the rostral aspect of the cranium, so allowing the nose of
the snake to be raised, increasing the oral aperture
Skull:
articulates with the atlas vertebra via a simple joint containing only one occipital condyle,
rather than the mammalian two
coccygeal vertebrae (those caudal to the vent) are the only vertebrae with no ribs attached
have paired, ventral, haemal processes between which the coccygeal artery and vein run- used
for venipuncture (one third the distance from the vent to the tail tip on the ventral aspect)
Scutes:
or ventral scales or gastropeges, overlie the muscular casing of the snake’s torso
this muscle is segmental and supplied by intervertebral nerves- responsible for alternate
contraction and relaxation for locomotion
the caudal edge of each ventral scute providing friction
Autotomy- glass snake, shed their tail if roughly handled or caught by a predator but regrow
Respiratory system
Upper respiratory system
Nostrils: paired and open into the roof of the mouth
do not have a hard palate
glottis opens into the trachea supported by C-shaped cartilages
Lower respiratory system
the right lung is the major lung, the left having regressed to a vestigial structure replaced by a
vascularised air sac and so can take part in gaseous exchange
trachea bifurcates at the level of the heart
lungs occupy the first half of the middle third of the body of the snake
no diaphragm so inspiration is due to the outward movement of the ribs and intercostal
muscles aided by elastic tissue present within the lung structure, which allows the lungs to
expand and recoil
Expiration- contraction of abdominal and intercostal muscles, and the elastic recoil of the
lungs themselves
A ‘tracheal lung- an outpouching of the lining of the trachea from the open part of the C-
shaped cartilages- aid respiration when main lungs are being compressed during the
swallowing of large prey
Diagram of a male snake (ventral aspect).
Digestive system
Oral cavity:
tongue is bifid (split into a forked end) and is used to catch odours on its moist surface
vomeronasal organ- on the roof of the tongue connected to the olfactory region of the
brain; primitive but effective pheromone and scent detector
salivary glands
oropharynx passes on into the oesophagus
Stomach, associated organs and intestine:
Stomach- tubular organ; with glands that secrete both hydrochloric acid and pepsin
(mammals having two separate cells) and separate mucus secreting glands
duodenum, jejunum and ileum
fused splenopancreas.
large intestine empties into the coprodeum portion of the cloaca- common emptying
chamber for the digestive, urinary and reproductive systems
Urinary system
paired elongated kidneys, situated in the distal half of the caudal third of the
snake’s body, attached to the dorsal body wall
ureter travels across the ventral surface of the kidney to empty into the urodeum
of the cloaca, caudal to the proctodeum
no urinary bladder in snakes
caudal portions of the kidneys in male snakes are the ‘sexual segments’, enlarging
during the breeding season as they provide seminal fluid
Postmortem showing the elongated lobular right and left
kidneys of a rainbow boa constrictorEpicrates
( cenchria )
Renal physiology
Uricotelic- like birds their primary nitrogenous waste product is not urea but uric
acid (insoluble allowing conservation of water)
Importance: no loops of Henle in their kidneys- cannot create hypertonic urine
urine in the urodeum can be refluxed back into the terminal portion of the gut where
more water reabsorption can occur- also to conserve water
Lead to gout when excretion of uric acid is reduced- like in dehydration and renal
blockage
Heart
three-chambered- two atria and a common ventricle; within the pericardial sac
lies in the caudal half of the proximal third of the snake’s body, is mobile, to allow
the passage of large food items through the oesophagus above it
two cranial venae cavae and one caudal vena cava entering via the sinus venosus
(a narrow tube leading to the right atrium from which it is separated by the sino-
atrial valve)
Blood vessels
paired aortas- exit from each of the two sides of the single ventricle of the heart
and then fuse into a single abdominal aorta
- pulmonary artery that leads to the lung(s) also arises from the ventricle
renal portal system
blood supply from the caudal portion: coccygeal artery splits into two and can enter
the renal circulation or may bypass it via a series of valves
hepatic portal system from the intestine to the liver
- ventral abdominal vein lies in the midline, just beneath the ventral abdominal
musculature, and must be avoided when performing surgery
Two external jugular veins run just medial to the ventral cervical ribs- place
catheters for intravenous fluid administration via a surgical cut-down procedure
ventral tail vein- for venipuncture for blood collection
Lymphatic system
no specific separate lymph nodes
with discrete accumulations of lymph tissue within most of the major organs,
particularly the liver and intestines
Spleen
Lymphatic vessels- have muscular swellings known as ‘lymph hearts’ which aid in
the return of the straw-coloured lymphatic fluid back to the true heart
Reproductive system
Male
paired testes- lie intracoloemically cranial to each kidney, and caudal to the
pancreatic tissue, with the right testis slightly cranial to the left, and are oval in
shape
enlarge during the breeding season
with vas deferens leading down to the urodeum portion of the cloaca, where seminal
fluids from the reproductive sexual segment of the kidneys are added
paired penises, known as hemipenes, in its tail; like two inverted sacs either side of
the midline and lie ventral to two other small invaginations in the tail which form the
anal glands
everts when engorged with blood- finger-like protrusion through the vent
covered in spines and barbs, and they each have a dorsal groove into which the sperm
drops from the cloaca, and so is guided into the female’s cloaca
Female
paired ovaries, cranial to the kidneys, with the right ovary cranial to the left
two coiled oviducts
vagina empties into the urodeum section of the cloaca
females are stimulated to reproduce in the spring, when the weather warms and
the daylight length increases; tropical boas (such as the boa constrictor) and the
Burmese pythonPython
( molurus )- breeding season when the temperature drops
oviparous (i.e., they lay eggs), others are viviparous (i.e., they bear live young)
Sex determination and identification
chromosomally dependent for sex determination like mammals in contrast with the
Chelonia, Crocodylia and some lizards, in which sex may be temperature
dependent
Sex identification- by surgical probing:
A fine, sterile, blunt-ended probe is inserted through the vent and advanced just to
one side of the midline in a caudal direction
If male, then the probe will pass into one of the inverted hemipenes to a depth of
8–16 subcaudal scales.
In female, there are anal glands in this region, and so the probe may be inserted
only to a depth of 2–6 subcaudal scales.
In some species, such as the boid family, the males possess a paracloacal spur-
remnant of the pelvic limb and may be found on either side of body, ventrally, at the
level of the cloaca.
In very young snakes- evert the hemipenes manually, a technique known as
‘popping’
Skin
outer epidermal layer is a series of folds forming scales, which cover the whole surface of
the snake
different sizes of scale- smaller, less raised ones covering the head and larger and more
raised scales over the main portion of the body
scales with ridges on their surface to add greater grip; smooth scales
sea snakes- very loose fitting with few elastic fibres
little or no skin glands
outer layer, or stratum corneum- heavily keratinised
Ventral scute or gastropeges- ventral surface- single row of scales which span the width
of the snake
The vent of a rat snake showing the division of the ventral
scales from single scutes cranial to the vent to paired
scales caudally.
Ecdysis

regular shedding of the entire skin

Chelonia and Crocodylia shed individual scutes, and the lizards shed in patches
Stimulus: time of year, health status and age of the snake and controlled by the
thyroid gland
Process:
First, the new layer of skin is formed deep to the old one. Once it is complete, the
snake secretes a proteinaceous lymph fluid between the new layer of skin and the
old one. At this time the snake will become dull in colour, and often exhibits blueing
of the eyes. The fluid forces the outer layer of old skin to separate away from the
new, and often contains enzymes to help in this process. Once separation has been
achieved the fluid is reabsorbed and the snake’s eyes may be seen returning to
normal. A few days later the snake will shed the old skin. It starts the process by
rubbing the corners of its mouth on some abrasive surface. The shedding proceeds
with the head skin first and the snake then rolls the old skin back until the tail is the
last to emerge.
Special cutaneous adaptations in snakes
lateral spurs of the Boidae- larger spurs in the male
do not have mobile eyelids but fused together and transparent, forming the so-
called ‘spectacle’
special sense organs on the head
Boidae have labial pits – a series of depressions running along the dorsal border of
the upper jaw- rudimentary heat sensors
pit vipers, the heat sensing organs are bilateral, forward-facing pits midway
between the nares and the eyes – supplied by the trigeminal nerves
No external eardrum or middle ear but can hear airborne sounds and can of course
detect ground tremors
Snake Diseases
Nutritional Deficiencies:
1. Failure to Voluntarily Feed (Anorexia):
circumstances and situations during which snakes normally will not feed:
Recent acquisition of a snake.
Snake in pre-shed condition.
Latter stages of pregnancy.
Older, larger snakes feed less often than younger, smaller ones.
Obese snakes occasionally engage in self-imposed fasts.
Newborn or newly hatched snakes may not feed until after they've first shed 10-14 days
after birth.
Hyperactivity associated with the breeding season or the imposition of captivity on
newly acquired high-strung species.
Hibernation or attempts to hibernate.
Illness
 temperatures between 75 to 85 F- normal activity and optimum digestive capacity
Subnormal temperatures- sluggishness and incomplete digestion (food spoilage)- lead to
vomiting
refuse to feed due to lack of adequate visual security
Offering incorrect prey
feeding at different times of the day
2. Regurgitation: 
handling a snake too soon after it is fed; regurgitated- food is undigested and odorless
inadequate and incomplete digestion caused by relatively cool environmental
temperatures- regurgitated food appears digested and is malodorous
stress in easily excitable species, parasitism, intestinal obstruction and serious internal
disease
Snake Injury Diseases
1. Trauma
2. Burns: 
3. Rat/Mouse Attack: 
4. Rostral Abrasions: 
repeated attempts to escape- push and rub their noses against the walls of their
enclosure
Prevention: adequate visual security (hiding places) and other additions to the
enclosure (artificial plants, branches)
5. Abscesses
bacterial infection in snakes
Snake Parasitic Diseases
Parasitic Diseases: 
1. Amebiasis: 
Signs: listlessness, inappetence, and foul-smelling feces containing mucus and
blood
2. Trichomoniasis: 
Protozoan- Trichomonas
ingestion of mice and rats
3. Snake Mite Infestation: 
congregate around their eyes
4. Snake Tick Infestation: 
found just inside the mouth, nostrils or vent
Snake Infection Diseases
1. Mouth Rot (Infectious or Ulcerative Stomatitis): 
2. Blister disease: 
damp, filthy environments.
Sign pink to red appearance of the bottom-most scales, become swollen and
infected by bacteria and fungi
3. Septicemia: 
4. Respiratory infections: 
5. Eye Infections: 
Viral infections 
Fungal Infections: 
Snake Diseases/General
1. Constipation: 
common problem among captive snakes
Causes: suboptimal environmental temperature, illness, dehydration, injuries,
parasitism, and cloacoliths
Treatment: allowed to soak in very warm (not scalding hot) water for 20-30 minutes
daily for 1-2 days
2. Cloacoliths:
 long standing dehydration-- drying out of urinary excretions--- formation of uric acid "
stones" within the cloaca ('cloacoloths')--- lead to constipation)
3. Prolapses: 
Straining during egg laying, related to uric acid stones, parasitic infections or other
intestinal disease
4. Abnormal shedding: 
piece-meal shed and/or retained eye caps
Causes: serious internal disease, inadequate relative humidity, and previous injury
(including surgery) to the skin and scales, external parasitism, lack of adequate
objects against which to rub at the beginning of the shed, and thyroid gland
problems
5. Retained eye caps: abnormal shed
outermost cellular layers of the corneas (the transparent portions of the eyes)
The retained caps must first be softened by repeated application of a suitable eye
ointment
6. Cancer: 
7. Organ Failure:
Squamata

Suborder Lacertilia
squamate reptiles
Paraphyletic- excludes snakes and Amphisbaenia
quadrupedal, run with a strong side-to-side motion; others are legless, and have long
snake-like bodies
territorial, the males fighting off other males and signalling, often with brightly colours,
to attract mates and to intimidate rivals
carnivorous, sit-and-wait predators; smaller species eat insects; Komodo eats
mammals as big as water buffalo
antipredator adaptations: venom, camouflage, reflex bleeding, and the ability
to sacrifice and regrow their tails
Anatomy
Largest and smallest
adult length: few centimeters for chameleons such as Brookesia micra  and geckos such
as Sphaerodactylus ariasae [2] to nearly 3 m (10 ft) in the case of the largest
living varanid lizard, the Komodo dragon
Distinguishing features
rounded torsos, elevated heads on short necks, four limbs and long tails
skin: covered in overlapping scales made of keratin; tough and leathery, and is shed
(sloughed) as the animal grows- slough their skin in several pieces; protection from the
environment and reduces water loss through evaporation
Dentition: reflect their wide range of diets- carnivorous, insectivorous, omnivorous,
herbivorous, nectivorous, and molluscivorous
Tongue- can be extended outside the mouth, and is often long
Adhesive pads:  modified the scales under their toes to form adhesive pads, composed
of millions of tiny setae (hair-like structures) which fit closely to the substrate to adhere
using van der Waals forces;
toes of chameleons are divided into two opposed groups on each foot (zygodactyly),
enabling them to perch on branches as birds do
Physiology
Locomotion
alternating movement of the right and left limbs with substantial body bending to prevent
significant respiration during movement, limiting their endurance, in a mechanism
called Carrier's constraint
Senses
sight, touch, olfaction and hearing like other vertebrates
have a specialised olfactory system, the vomeronasal organ, used to detect pheromones
Venom
 Gila monster and the Mexican beaded lizard, several species of monitor lizards, including
the Komodo dragon,
oral glands
 Lace monitor venom- causes swift loss of consciousness and extensive bleeding through
its pharmacological effects, both lowering blood pressure and preventing blood clotting.
Respiration
unidirectional airflow system, which involves the air moving in a loop through the lungs
when breathing
 Musculoskeletal system
four limbs, an axial skeleton
Skull: more rigid than its snake counterpar t but less mobile jaws
Teeth: four rows of teeth, one to each jaw; peg-like in shape; continually replaced;
no fang teeth in lizards; beaded lizardHeloderma
( horribilis ) and the Gila monster
Heloderma
( suspectum ) have hollow teeth which allow the venom from sublingual
venom glands to ooze
skull articulates with the atlantal cervical vertebra via a single occipital condyle
thoracic vertebrae and lumbar vertebrae generally have paired ribs on either side
coccygeal vertebrae possess ventral haemal arches, between which it is possible
to access the ventral tail vein for venipuncture
the tail has fracture planes- from mid to caudal portions of the tail- autotomy- when
regrows, replaced by a cartilaginous rod of tissue and the rows of scales over the
new tail surface are often haphazardly arranged
Regrowth of the tail is possible in many species of lizard,
but the scales which regrow are arranged haphazardly,
and the vertebrae lost are replaced by a rod of cartilage.
Respiratory system
Upper respiratory system
paired nostrils rostral on the maxilla
to the side, or inside the nares is a pair (one on each side) of salt-secreting glands-
excrete excess sodium as sodium chloride to help conserve water seen as a white
crystalline deposit around the nostrils
no hard palate
entrance to the trachea is guarded by a rudimentary larynx
Geckonidae- possess vocal folds
the trachea is supported by incomplete cartilaginous C-shaped rings
Diagram of male green iguana (ventral aspect).
Lower respiratory system
two lungs
overinflate their lungs in an attempt to make themselves look bigger, when threatened
no diaphragm
inspiration is due to the mechanical contraction of the intercostal muscles causing an
upwards and outwards movement of the rib cage and elastic tissues within the lungs
Expiration is by contraction of the abdominal and intercostal muscles, and by the
elastic recoil of the lung tissue
Digestive system
Oral cavity
large, fleshy tongue which is frequently mobile
Chameleons- the tongue lies coiled in the lower jaw and can be projected out at a flying
insect or other potential prey item
With vomeronasal organ
Stomach, associated organs and intestine
The stomach is a simple sac-like structure; glands
The large intestine empties into the coprodeum

Urinary system
The kidneys are paired and often bean-shaped organs; caudal portion of the kidneys known
as the ‘sexual segment’; kidneys empty into the ureters which empty into the urodeum
portion of the cloaca
have a bladder but not connected directly to the ureters; joined to the cloaca, and so urine
has to enter the cloaca, before entering the bladder
Cardiovascular system
Heart
with paired atria and a single common ventricle
Blood vessels
ventral tail vein- site for venepuncture for blood sample
cephalic vein- on the cranial aspect of the antebrachium- IV

Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system is similar to that of snakes, with no discrete lymph nodes.
Reproductive system
Male
paired testes; cranial to the respective kidneys I
Hemipenes- base of the tail structure, either side of midline; at rest they are inverted sacs in the
tail base and engorged/everted during copulation
Female
same anatomy as that described for the snake

Egg-producing physiology
similar to that of the avian patient
Chameleonidae, are ovoviviparous
Viviparous
Oviparous- mostly
Some are parthenogenic- produce entire females
Eggs- soft shelled and more leathery than those of their avian cousins
Sexual maturity- 2–3 years
Sex determination and identification
dependent on chromosomes; some are temperature dependent
Reproduction and lifecycle
internal fertilisation and copulation; the male inserting one of his hemipenes into the
female's cloaca
oviparous (egg laying)- female deposits the eggs in a protective structure like a nest or
crevice or simply on the ground
leathery shells to allow for the exchange of water, although more arid-living species have
calcified shells to retain water
female usually abandons the eggs after laying them
 viviparity (live birth)
Sex determination- temperature-dependent: low temperature incubation produces more
females while higher temperatures produce more males
 Eversion of a hemipene in a male leopard gecko to
remove a hemipenal plug (accumulation of dried secretion)
 Diseases
Metabolic Bone Disease (MBD or Avitaminosis): 
softening of the bone, loss of teeth, repetitive bone fractures, paralysis, convulsions,
digestive problems, skin changes (such as loss of color, spots, cracks), shedding
problems, eye problems (including clouding and swelling) and various other infections of
the skin and internal organs
Vitamin Excess (Hypervitaminosis): 
Excessive Vitamin D- calcification of the arteries and uncontrollable bone and cartilage
growth
Excessive Vitamin A- uncontrollable bleeding in the internal organs
Digestive Problems: 
Improper diet can lead to diarrhea
Injuries to the tongue and upper jaw where the taste and olfactory organ (Jacobson's
organ) is located make the animal incapable of finding its own food
Gastritis and Enteritis:
symptoms include vomiting of half-digested food and soft (diarrhea-like), foul-smelling
feces, combined with a yellowish white mucus
Shedding Problems:
dislodge the old skin with warm baths (not over 80 degrees F) and by using pure Aloe
Vera gel on the affected areas
Lizard Infections
Colds and Respiratory Infections: 
Mouth Rot (Stomatitis): 
Fungal Infections: 
Lizard Parasitic Diseases
Worm Diseases:
Mites and Ticks:
"blood mites" (Ophionyssus)- reddish-brown in color
Additional notes
Lizards are scaly-skinned reptiles
Have legs, movable eyelids, and external ear openings.
limb degeneration- glass lizards (Ophisaurus )
Movable eyelids- lost in some geckos, skinks, and night lizards
External ear openings- lost in genera Holbrookia  and Cophosaurus .
shape and size:
from 2 cm (0.8 inch) in geckos to 3 metres (10 feet) in monitor lizards (family
Varanidae)
Weight-from less than 0.5 gram (0.02 ounce) to more than 150 kg (330 pounds)
wide array of ornamentation—extensible throat fans and frills, throat spines, horns
or casques on the head, and tail crests
Clockwise from top left: veiled chameleon
(Chamaeleo calyptratus), rock monitor
(Varanus albigularis), common blue-
tongued skink (Tiliqua scincoides), Italian
wall lizard (Podarcis sicula), giant leaf-
tailed gecko (Uroplatus fimbriatus), and
legless lizard (Anelytropsis papillosus)
are not disease vectors
Salmonella  bacteria, Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis )- zoonotic
biological research value:
varied modes of reproduction and their ability to regulate body temperatures-
 thermoregulation), ability to regenerate broken tails
Reproduction
Life cycle
lay eggs
Clutch- varies with the size, age, and condition of the mother
 anoles (Anolis )- single egg; geckos, skinks- one or two eggs;  iguanas may lay 50 or
more eggs at one time
leathery-shelled and porous
Embryonic development and sex determination
Viviparity, or the birthing of live young- skinks; gestation period- 8–12 months
oviparity
Parthenogenesis
parthenogenetic species- Lacerta , whiptail lizards (Aspidoscelis ),Teiidae and
Gymnophthalmidae (spectacled lizards or microteiids), Gekkonidae.
arose through the hybridization of two bisexual species- number
of chromosomes usually double or triple- results from the mating of a sexually
reproducing species with one that is parthenogenetic
offspring are called allotriploid because they represent a backcross that produces
three sets of chromosomes
Parental care
minimal following egg deposition
five-lined skink (Eumeces fasciatus )- remain with their eggs throughout
the incubation time (about six weeks); they leave the clutch infrequently to feed

Gekkonidae- communal egg layers, with many females depositing their eggs at the
same site
Maturation
Juvenile lizards differ from the adult in body colour or pattern and in certain body
proportions
Ecology
Thermoregulation
 ectothermic; “preferred temperatures,” - 28 to 38 °C (82 to 100 °F)
thermoregulation: behavioral means
diurnal lizard emerges early in the morning and suns itself, orienting the body to
maximize exposure to the sun, until the preferred temperature is achieved
physiological processes are temperature-dependent, and physiological function
influences behaviour
Water loss and other variables
Water is less of a problem to lizards than is temperature regulation
All reptiles excrete uric acid and thus do not need great amounts of liquid to rid
themselves of nitrogenous wastes.
insectivorous lizards take in a large amount of water in the prey and herbivorous
lizards have salt glands for the active excretion of mineral salts
low metabolic rates relative
 harvest water from the dew that collects on their skin in early morning
Behaviour
Feeding habits
active during daylight hours- acute binocular vision is used
Gekkonidae- most active from dusk to dawn, highly vocal and communicate
by sound
most other lizards are mute
spend considerable time obtaining food, usually insects. Iguanian lizards—iguanas,
anoles, agamas, chameleons
perch motionless and wait for prey- ‘sit and wait’
detect their prey using visual cues;
capture with their tongue in a process known as lingual prehension
Defensive strategies
chuckwallas (Sauromalus ) remain close to rock piles and puff up their bodies to
make their extrication difficult
spiny-tailed lizards- sharp, formidable tail
African armadillo lizard (Cordylus cataphractus ) holds its tail in its mouth with its
forefeet and presents a totally spiny form to an attacker
frilled lizard (Chlamydosaurus kingii )- extends a throat frill that frames its neck and
head to intimidate intruders on its territory
tails of many lizards break off (autotomize)
Form And Function
Skull and jaws
Skull- primitive diapsid condition; no quadrate bone giving greater flexibility to
the jaw
Skulls are kinetic (upper jaw can move in relation to the rest of the cranium-
increases the gape of the jaws and probably assists in pulling struggling prey into
the mouth
Dentition
sharp, tricuspid teeth adapted for grabbing and holding
 embryo, an egg tooth develops on the premaxilla bone and projects forward from
the snout
Locomotion and limb adaptations
quadrupedal and have a powerful limb musculature
tendency toward elongation of the body w/ reduction of limb length or a complete
loss of limbs often accompanies such elongation
modifications of the toes:
 desert geckos, the iguanid Uma , and the lacertid Acanthodactylus - fringes on the
toes that provide increased surface area- will not sink in the sand
Arboreal geckos and anoles (Anolis )- lamellae (fine plates) on the undersides of the
toes w/ brushlike setae-  enhance the clinging ability of the lizards
true chameleons (family Chamaeleonidae)- digits on each foot are divided into two
groups by webs of skin, three of the toes face away from the body, whereas two
face toward the body; prehensile tails w/c aids in grasping branches.
some can run bipedally
some can glide through the air and make soft landings;  flying lizards (Draco ), a
group of agamids from Southeast Asia; “wings” are extensible lateral folds of skin
that are supported by elongate ribs
some can glide through the air and make soft landings;  flying lizards (Draco ), a
group of agamids from Southeast Asia; “wings” are extensible lateral folds of skin
that are supported by elongate ribs
Scales and colour change
covered in scales
smooth and overlapping, form a mosaic of flat plates, or have keels or tubercles
some lizards, osteoderms, which are bony plates that develop in the dermis,
underlie head and body scales
Squamates and Rhynchocephalia= Lepidosauria