Materials Paper 1400 Page 39

7 Concrete
Concrete is a mixture of cement and water forming a paste that binds
aggregates together, to which admixtures may have been added.

7.1 Cement
Several cements are available, each displaying different properties.

1 Portland cements
These are made by burning together limestone and clay or similar materials
to form a clinker which is rich in calcium silicates. The clinker is ground to a
fine powder with a small amount of gypsum to control the rate of setting.

z Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is the most widely used of all

cements (about 90% of UK production). Its constituent materials are
proportioned to ensure medium strength development and heat
evolution.
z Rapid hardening Portland cement (RHPC) is similar in composition
to OPC, but is more finely ground so that the cement gains strength
more quickly. More early heat is evolved, but the 28-day strength is
almost the same as for OPC.
z Sulphate-resisting Portland cement (SRPC) is produced by adding
iron-oxide which reduces the tricalcium aluminate and results in a
cement capable of resisting reasonable levels of sulphates in soils.
Sulphate resistance is reduced, however, if pulverised fuel ash (PFA)
or ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) is incorporated in
the concrete.
z Portland blastfurnace cement (PBFC) is made from a mixture of
OPC clinker and about 40–50% selected granulated blast furnace slag.
PBFC evolves less heat and gains strength more slowly than OPC. It is
therefore a useful material when very large sections of concrete are
being produced, or in low temperatures.
z Portland pulverised fuel ash cement (PPFAC) is a mixture of OPC
and between 15% and 35% PFA. The presence of the PFA offers some
resistance to sulphate attack and to the effects of alkali–silica reaction.
Strength development is rather slower than OPC.
z Masonry cement consists of OPC to which has been added inert
mineral powder and an air-entraining agent. Mortars made with this
cement have good adhesion and plasticity. They should not be used
for concrete.
z Pulverised fuel ash (PFA) is a waste product produced when
pulverised coal is burned in power station furnaces. The fine ash is
extracted from the flue gases by electrostatic precipitators. The ash has
pozzolanic properties, in that it reacts chemically with the lime
produced during the hydration of cement, producing a cementitious
material. Considerable economies can be achieved by replacing part of
the cement in concrete with PFA (up to 60% may be possible).
However, the properties of the concrete will be affected and early
strength is reduced. After about three months, however, strength may
be greater than with just OPC. The use of PFA generally increases
resistance to sulphate attack and alkali–aggregate reaction.
 Materials Paper 1400 Page 40

z Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) is a by-product of

the steel industry. It is made by quenching blast furnace slag and then
grinding to a fine powder. It can be used in much the same way as
PFA, but in smaller quantities. The early strength of concrete made
with GGBFS is considerably lower than that with OPC, but the 28-day
strength is about the same.

2 High alumina cement (HAC)

This differs in manufacture, chemical composition and characteristics from
Portland cements. It was originally manufactured for its ability to resist
chemical attack by sulphates and weak acids.

Concrete made with HAC develops very high early strength, allowing it to be
brought into early use. For this reason it was previously used in structural
concrete.

However, the strength of the concrete may be substantially reduced by a

chemical conversion (a crystal change), accompanied by loss of strength and
porosity. The cement is then attacked by chemicals, for example by the
calcium sulphates in plasters, where concrete is covered by a plaster finish.
For these reasons, HAC should not be used in structural concrete.

The 1985 Building Regulations allow the use of HAC only at high
temperatures in refractory concrete or mortars. Used with crushed fire brick
aggregate, it resists temperatures of 1,300ºC and, with refractory white
cement, 1,800ºC.

3 Supersulphated cement
Supersulphated cement is composed essentially of granulated blast furnace
slag, calcium sulphate and a small percentage of Portland cement or lime. Its
main advantage is its resistance to chemical attack by sulphate-bearing
waters and weak acids, but unlike HAC it is not subject to chemical
conversion.

Early strength development is slow, especially in cold weather, which may

reduce its final strength. The rate of heat evolution is also low, and
supersulphated cement is therefore suitable for mass concrete structures and
for work in hot climates.

Supersulphated cement deteriorates rapidly if stored under damp conditions.

Pay particular attention to good concrete practice – the use of clean water and
aggregates, thorough compaction, and the provision of moist curing to
continue for at least three days after initial placing. Supersulphated cement
should never be mixed with any other cements.

Health and safety

Cement powder is harmless in normal use, but alkalis are released when it is
damp. The powder should therefore not be breathed, and cement, mixed wet
concrete or mortar should not come into contact with the skin. If skin contact
is made, the area should be washed within one hour, using soap and water.
 Materials Paper 1400 Page 41

7.2 Compressive strength

Alternative methods of carrying out the test are given in the Standard –
Method 1 using mortar cubes and Method 2 using concrete cubes. The
average for three cubes should be:

z For ordinary Portland cement:

Method 1: Three days – not less than 15 N/mm²

Seven days – an increase on the compressive strength at
three days and not less than 23.1 N/mm².

Method 2: Three days – not less than 8.1 N/mm²

Seven days – an increase on the compressive strength at
three days and not less than 13.8 N/mm².

z For rapid-hardening Portland cement:

Method 1: Three days – as above but 20.6 N/mm²

Seven days – as above but 27.6 N/mm²

Method 2: Three days – as above but 11.6 N/mm²

Seven days – as above but 17.2 N/mm²

Setting time
Initial setting time is determined by a Vicat apparatus (Figure 7):

z the mould is filled with a neat cement paste of standard consistency;

z the needle is lowered gently until just in contact with the surface and
then released, when it sinks into the paste;
z the process is repeated until it no longer penetrates to a depth less 5
mm from the bottom of the mould. This reading is obtained from the
graduated scale on the Vicat apparatus;
 Materials Paper 1400 Page 42

FIGURE 7 Vicat apparatus

z the initial setting time is the time taken from adding the mixing water
until the needle stops not less than 5 mm from the bottom of the
mould;
z the initial setting time should not be less than 45 minutes for ordinary
and rapid-hardening Portland cements.

The practical significance of this test is that it ensures a reasonable length of

time for mixing, transporting, placing, compacting and applying a surface
finish to the material incorporating the cement.

The final setting time is determined by an annular attachment:

z the test is made by repeatedly bringing the needle gently to the surface
of the block and releasing it;
z the final set is said to have occurred when the needle makes an
impression but the annular cutting edge does not;
z the final setting time is the time taken from adding the water until the
final set is observed;
z the final setting time must be not more than 10 hours for ordinary and
rapid-hardening Portland cements.

The practical significance of this test is that it ensures that the material
incorporating the cement will provide a working surface within a reasonable
length of time.
 Materials Paper 1400 Page 43

Soundness
z A standard split brass cylinder about 25 mm diameter with needle
points attached to it is filled with wet neat cement (Figure 8).
z The mould is submerged in water for 24 hours and the distance
between the pointers measured.
z The mould is then submerged in boiling water for one hour and the
distance measured again.
z The difference represents the expansion of the cement and should not
be more than 10 mm.

FIGURE 8 Le Chatelier apparatus

7.3 Admixtures for ordinary Portland cements

There are many products available that are designed to modify the properties
of concrete. All are very costly, and many have doubtful value and may have
side effects on the finished concrete or mortar (for example, most admixtures
reduce overall strength). Refer to BS EN 934:2001 for reference to concrete
admixtures.

Generally admixtures come under five headings.

1 Workability aids
These enable less water to be used during mixing:

z water-reducing, set-retarding agents;

z fine powders – pulverised fuel ash (PFA), chalk and lime. These are
used as lubricants, improving cohesiveness by filling pores in OPC.
However, there is often a tendency to greater shrinkage and cracking;
z surface active agents – plasticisers or wetting agents. These improve
workability by reducing the surface tension of water and enabling
surfaces to be wetted more easily;
z super plasticisers. These provide greater plastic qualities than normal
plasticisers, reducing the effort in placing and finishing concrete;
z air-entraining agents. The workability and frost-resistance of the
concrete are increased by introducing air bubbles into it. However, the
loss of water:cement ratio, can reduce the strength of concretes and
mortars by some 15%.
 Materials Paper 1400 Page 44

2 Accelerators
These can increase the rate of setting and strength development. However:

z they should only be used in cold weather;

z a number of accelerators can have side effects on concrete and
mortars;
z they should not be used in concretes with steel reinforcement or
mortars in contact with steel wall ties, because of the likelihood of
corrosion.

3 Damp-proofing and permeability admixtures

A damp-proofing admixture prevents water movement by capillary action. A
permeability-reducing admixture prevents the passage of water under
pressure.

No admixture, however, entirely prevents the passage of water vapour. The

description given to waterproofing admixtures is very often wrongly applied.
A good quality concrete mix, combined with the correct use of neoprene
gaskets, water stops and bars or complete tanking, often provides greater
waterproofing qualities than any admixture.

4 Retarders
These are designed to retard the setting of concrete without affecting its
workability or strength. They are used in the production of large quantities of
concrete, where delays in the laying or placing of the concrete may occur.
Retarding admixtures are generally based on sugars, starches, zinc oxide, etc.

5 Polymers
Various types of polymer admixture are available, which are designed
specifically to strengthen or reduce permeability or increase the durability of
the final concrete element.

7.4 Aggregates
‘Aggregates’ are the gravels, sands, crushed rocks etc. which are mixed with
the cement and water to make concrete. Aggregates make up the bulk of the
concrete mix, and their selection is therefore most important to the
performance of the concrete.

Fine aggregate is material which will pass through a 5 mm sieve. Coarse

aggregate will be retained on a 5 mm sieve.

Typically aggregate size is governed by the type of work to be done.

z For reinforced concrete, the maximum aggregate size must allow the
concrete to be easily placed between the reinforcement. A nominal
size of 20 mm is usually specified for this type of work.
z In foundations and mass concrete work, a maximum of 40 mm can
often be used.
z For highly reinforced or narrow sections, a 10 mm maximum size may
be necessary.
 Materials Paper 1400 Page 45

Quality of aggregates
Aggregates should be clean and free from organic impurities, and the
quantity of fine material (i.e. less than 300 mm) should be limited to less than
10% by volume. The aggregates should be hard and durable, free from
materials which may decay or decompose, and not frost susceptible. Grading
(i.e. the proportions of different sizes of particles which make up the
aggregate) should allow a dense, well-compacted concrete to be achieved.

The grading of the aggregate is found by passing it successively through

different sized sieves. Continuously graded aggregates should contain
particles ranging in size from the smallest to the largest, but in gap-graded
aggregate some of the intermediate sizes are left out.

7.5 Water
Water for concrete must be equal in quality to a good drinking water. Peat,
moorland or sea water must not be used in ordinary circumstances without a
laboratory test. If circumstances do require the use of these difficult types of
water, seek special advice.

Water:cement ratio
The strength of concrete is affected greatly by the ratio of water to cement in
the mix. Excess water evaporates after the setting of the cement, leaving
pores in the concrete, and weakening the material. The amount of water in
concrete should therefore be strictly controlled.

The usual practice is to keep the water content as low as possible consistent
with workability – that is, ease of placing and compaction. The final use for
the material is also taken into account. No great strength or density is
required for concrete over-site, and a wet concrete is permissible. However,
high strength is required for reinforced concrete and no more than sufficient
water to enable adequate placing and compaction must be used.

The water:cement ratio (obtained by dividing the weight of water in a mix by

the weight of cement) is affected by the shape, size and grading of the
aggregates used, and also by the amount of cement in the mix. A ratio of 0.60
tends to give a wet mix and a weak concrete, while a ratio of 0.40 gives a
strong concrete but one which is harsh and difficult to place. In such cases,
mechanical methods of compaction and vibration may be necessary.

7.6 Concrete mixes

In the simplest specifications for small jobs, concrete is specified only by the
volumetric proportions of cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate, e.g.
1:2:4. To safeguard against the standard being too low, either a water:cement
ratio or a minimum compressive strength may be stated.
 Materials Paper 1400 Page 46

BS EN 206-1:2000, Concrete. Specification, performance, production and

conformity. This standard applies to concrete for structures cast in situ,
precast structures and structural precast products for buildings and civil
engineering structures. It specifies requirements for the constituent materials
of concrete, properties of fresh and hardened concrete and verification of
these properties, limitations for concrete composition, specification of
concrete, delivery of fresh concrete, and production control procedures,
conformity criteria and evaluation of conformity.

BS 8500-1:2006 is intended for use by specifiers of concrete. The specifier

has five approaches to the specification of concrete:

1. designated concrete
2. designed concrete
3. prescribed concrete
4. standardised prescribed concrete
5. proprietary concrete.

The BS also gives advice on exposure classes, aggregate classes, and

intended working life.

The volumes relate to ‘dry’ materials and must be adjusted for bulking if the
materials are damp. It is more accurate to batch materials by weight, as the
difference in weight for a given water content will not be so great as the
difference in volume.

The properties of the concrete in both the fresh and the hardened state must
be considered (Table 5).

TABLE 5 Properties of fresh and hardened concrete

State Properties Design factors for medium

strength concrete

Fresh Workability and Water:cement ratio. Type, size and grading of

cohesiveness aggregate. Richness of mix. (Proportion of
cement.)
Hardened Strength and durability Water:cement ratio. Compaction.

The water:cement ratio is the most important factor for medium strength
concretes.

z The first step is to choose a ratio which will give the required strength.
Figure 9 illustrates the effect on strength of different ratios.
z Next it is necessary to select the proportions of fine and coarse
aggregates and the richness of the mix to give the required workability
and cohesiveness for the conditions of mixing and placing.
z Cubes are made from trial mixes and tested for crushing strength. The
proportions are adjusted until a satisfactory mix is obtained.
 Materials Paper 1400 Page 47

FIGURE 9 Relation between compressive strength of medium-

strength concrete and total water:cement ratio at various ages
using ordinary Portland cement

The standard deviation of the cube crushing strength from the Codes
measures the variability of strength of all the concrete produced in a given
period. The standard deviation is affected by the method of batching and the
quality of supervision – the better the supervision, the lower the standard
deviation. As a general rule, the average strength of the test cubes should
equal the minimum strength specified plus twice the standard deviation.

7.7 Tests
The usual tests for measuring the workability of concrete are:

z the slump test;

z the compacting test;
z the Vebe consistometer.

Table 6 gives a rough comparison between compacting factor, slump, and

Vebe degrees.
 Materials Paper 1400 Page 48

TABLE 6 Workability for different purposes

Purposes Compacting Slump Vebe

factor mm (in) degrees

Very high-strength concrete for prestressed

concrete sections compacted by heavy
vibration 0.70–0.78 0 over 20

High-strength concrete sections, paving

and mass concrete compacted by vibration 0.78–0.85 0–25 7–20

Normally reinforced concrete sections

compacted by vibration. Hand-compacted
concrete in normally reinforced slabs, beams,
columns and walls 0.92–0.95 50–100 1–3

Heavily reinforced concrete sections

compacted without vibration. Work where
compaction is particularly difficult.
Cast-in-situ piling over 0.95 100–150 0–1

1 The slump test

The slump test has been in use for many years.

z A vertical metal cone 300 mm high, 200 mm diameter at the base and
102 mm diameter at the top, and open at both ends, is put vertically on
a flat metal surface and filled in four equal layers with the concrete to
be tested.
z Each layer is compacted with a standard rammer.
z When the cone is filled to its top, it is removed from the concrete,
which then slumps downwards.
z The amount of vertical displacement of the top surface of the concrete
is known as the slump. A dry mix gives a slump of less than 25 mm
while a wet mix may give a slump of 75 mm or more.

2 The compacting test

This test is more precise than the slump test. It is particularly useful for low
workability mixes which might not slump and for which, therefore, the slump
test would not be suitable. The test is mainly intended for use in a laboratory,
but it can also be used on site.

The apparatus (Figure 10) consists of an upper hopper A, a lower hopper B

(each in the shape of an inverted frustum of a cone) and, below these, a
cylinder C. The dimensions and construction of the apparatus are specified in
BS 1881. The lower ends of the two hoppers are closed by hinged trapdoors
fitted with quick-release catches.

The procedure of the test is:

z Cover the bottom cylinder and close the two hopper traps.
z Fill hopper A level with concrete and open hopper A trapdoor – the
concrete falls into hopper B.
 Materials Paper 1400 Page 49

z Immediately after the concrete has come to rest in hopper B, uncover

the cylinder and open hopper B trapdoor – the concrete falls into the
cylinder.
z Strike off the excess concrete above the level of the cylinder and wipe
clean the outside of the cylinder.
z The weight of concrete in the cylinder is determined to the nearest 10
g – this is the weight of partly compacted concrete.
z Refill the cylinder from the same sample of concrete in 50 mm layers,
each layer being compacted by heavy ramming or vibration to ensure
full compaction.
z Strike off the top surface of the concrete above the level of the
cylinder.
z The weight of the concrete contained is obtained as before.

This is the weight of fully compacted concrete. The compacting factor can
now be calculated:

Weight of partly compacted concrete

Compacting factor =
Weight of fully compacted concrete

FIGURE 10 Compacting factor apparatus used for performing

tests on concrete to conform to BS 1881
 Materials Paper 1400 Page 50

3 The Vebe consistometer

This test is particularly applicable where stiff concretes are used and
compaction is done mechanically. The test was originally intended for
laboratory use, but is now used on site, provided a suitable three-phase power
supply is available. (See Figure 11.)

The Vebe apparatus consists of a vibrating table on which is fastened a steel

drum. A pivoting arm fixed to the rear of the table carries a transparent plate
on one end and a hopper head on the other.

z First, do a slump test to form a cone of concrete inside the drum. Use
the hopper head to ensure that no concrete spills into the drum outside
the slump cone.
z With the concrete cone formed (usually giving a very small slump),
carefully lower the transparent plate on top of the concrete.
z Switch on the vibrator. Under the weight of the transparent plate, the
concrete reforms from a cone into a cylinder, the top of which is
completely in contact with the transparent plate.
z Use a stopwatch to record the time taken from switching on the
vibrator until the concrete is seen to be completely in contact with the
transparent plate. This time, in seconds, is known as Vebe degrees. It
is a measure of the workability of the concrete: the longer the time
required to reform the concrete, the lower the workability.

To test the strength of concrete in compression, 150 mm cubes are made in

steel moulds. After compacting, the cubes are allowed to set and then cure,
usually for seven days, and are then taken to a testing laboratory for crushing.

FIGURE 11 Vebe consistometer

 Materials Paper 1400 Page 51

7.8 Curing and segregation

The term ‘curing’ is applied to the evaporation of water in wet concrete
during the setting and hardening of the cement. If evaporation is too rapid,
loss of strength will probably result. Portland cement evolves heat during its
hydration, and deficiency of mixing water must be avoided. This is done by
covering the wet concrete with paper, sand, hessian or polythene for about a
week after placing, a process known as curing. Curing must be done more
carefully in hot, dry or frosty weather than in cool wet weather.

Materials
If freshly mixed concrete is dropped from a height of more than 1.50 m, or
subjected to long hauls to or across the site, care must be taken to prevent
segregation. This is the separation of the concrete mix into its constituent
materials. Premixed concrete is now available and delivered to sites in
special lorries which are able to mix the concrete during transport, producing
on arrival a quality controlled and properly mixed concrete.

Concreting in cold weather

The speed of modern building is often such that work cannot cease in frosty
weather. In such cases it is the practice to mix up to 2% of dry solid calcium
chloride by weight of the cement before adding the water. The water is kept
at about 40°, and both the gravel and the sand are steam-warmed before
mixing. Blasts of icy air are kept away from the work by tarpaulins and the
work is covered up as soon as placing is finished. Suspended concrete in
metal formwork presents particular difficulties in very cold weather.

If such precautions are not taken during cold weather, so the mixture does
not fall below 5°C disastrous failures can arise, because the water used for
mixing freezes before the hydration of the cement can take place. Even after
the cement has set – if indeed it does set – the water in its minute pore spaces
can freeze, expand and burst the material.

Adding calcium chloride to the concrete speeds its hardening and probably
slightly improves its strength. It should not be used in quantities greater than
2% of the cement, otherwise the concrete sets too quickly and there is a
danger of corroding the reinforcement.

Attack by chemicals
Portland cement concrete may be attacked by:

z certain chemicals such as acids and soluble salts, especially sulphates;

z sea water;
z milk and brewery wastes;
z certain vegetable oils and other substances.

Where these kinds of attack are anticipated, it is the practice to use the
proprietary sulphate-resisting Portland cement with a dense aggregate in
place of Portland cement. High alumina cement can often be used. It is
considerably more expensive than ordinary or rapid-hardening Portland
cement, but it is chemically very inert. It also resists high temperatures,
which Portland cement will not do.
 Materials Paper 1400 Page 52

High alumina cement concrete requires special care in its curing because the
material emits considerable heat during its hydration. Unless it is kept damp
and at a temperature below about 25ºC during its setting and hardening,
serious damage to the concrete may result. For this reason it is inadvisable to
use high alumina cement in tropical climates except on the advice of the
manufacturers.

Refractory (heat-resisting) concrete

This is the name given to a concrete which has to withstand high
temperatures, such as in furnace linings, chimneys and similar situations.
Ordinary cement concrete will not withstand temperatures much more than
200–300ºC. In such cases:

z high alumina cement must be used;

z the coarse and fine aggregate must be of grog (broken bricks of a
refractory nature) to withstand the greater heat;
z siliceous aggregates such as granite, flint ballast or quartzite should
never be used. All these aggregates are greatly affected by heat and
the concrete would break down.

Lightweight aggregate
This is a form of concrete with low strength but high heat-insulating
properties. It is much used in flooring and roofing screeds and non-load-
bearing partition walls. Its use has increased greatly in recent years.

Ordinary concrete weighs about 2,150–2,500 kg/m³. Lightweight concrete

may weigh anything from 650–1,920 kg/m³. It may incorporate a lightweight
aggregate such as PFA, or involve the use of gas or air bubbles, or exclude
the fine aggregate as in ‘no-fines’ concrete. Its properties are:

z lightness in weight;
z good thermal insulation;
z sound absorption (but not sound insulation);
z key for plaster;
z high moisture movement and drying shrinkage;
z low strength.

Concrete with lightweight aggregate

The aggregates used may be:

z natural – such as pumice (an imported material and therefore

expensive), crushed brick, foamed blast furnace slag, clinker and
sawdust. (Of these, only slag and clinker are used to any great extent.);
z processed – such as expanded vermiculite (a form of mica), sintered
clay or pulverised fuel ash (PFA).

Aerated concrete
Bubbles of gas are produced in the wet mix by adding powdered aluminium
or a foaming agent, or by using excess water which leaves voids by
evaporation. Densities may vary between 400 and 1,440 kg/m³, with
compressive strengths of 0.7–3.5 N/mm².
 Materials Paper 1400 Page 53

No-fines concrete
As the name implies, fine aggregate or sand is excluded from the mix.
Usually all the aggregate should pass a 19 mm mesh, with not more than 5%
passing a 4.76 mm mesh sieve. This form of concrete is discussed in
Building Research Digest No. 237.

Waterproofing
Concrete is normally a porous material, and various patent additives to
decrease its porosity have been marketed. So far, however, no preparation
has been found to be efficient. External waterproofers such as paraffin wax
have been tried but are open to objections.

The best way to waterproof poor concrete is to give it several coats of

bitumen or to apply a coat or coats of mastic asphalt. The best way to
produce a lasting waterproof concrete is to give the design and mixing the
closest attention and supervision.
 Materials Paper 1400 Page 54

8 Fibre-reinforced composites
Just as steel reinforcement can be used to carry the tensile stresses in
concrete, so short lengths (usually about 25 mm long) of fibre can be used to
reinforce materials such as cement pastes and plastics. The advantage of the
technique is that very thin sections with good structural properties can be
produced.

The reinforcing fibres are added to the material either while it is being mixed
or as an incorporated matting.

8.1 Fibre-reinforced cement

Fibre-reinforced cement was originally produced by adding steel fibres to a
fine concrete mix. However, this resulted in the rusting of the fibres that were
exposed on the surface of the component. The use of stainless steel fibres
eliminated the rusting, but achieving a satisfactory ‘smooth’ surface was still
difficult. Experiments using glass fibres proved to be more successful, and
this material has largely replaced the use of steel.

Glass-reinforced cement (GRC) is now fairly widely used in the

manufacture of lightweight cladding units and architectural ‘feature’
components.

z GRC is a composite consisting of ordinary Portland cement, silica

sand and water mixed with alkali-resisting glass fibres.
z This composite is generally sprayed into moulds or formers and rolled
to ensure compaction.
z Typically, GRC units are produced to a thickness of 6–12 mm.
z It may be further reinforced by locally building up the thickness
around framing or ribs.
z The glass fibres must be of alkali-resistant glass, since ordinary glass
fibres are degraded by the alkaline cement matrix.
z The strength properties of GRC have been found to decline with time.
However, as yet no tests are available for accelerated ageing to fully
evaluate the problem.
z The presence of GRC ensures a satisfactory fire retardance value,
although this is also dependent on the design of the unit.

8.2 Glass-reinforced plastic

Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) is produced by layering the resin with glass
fibre matting (either woven or unwoven) into a mould. The resulting material
is very tough, with a fine smooth finish.

z GRP is produced using a wide variety of resins with different physical

properties, and with different fillers and pigments.
z GRP is widely used for cladding units, architectural mouldings, and
some structural components.
 Materials Paper 1400 Page 55

z GRP is normally produced 3–6 mm thick, though items such as baths

are typically 5–10 mm thick.
z Fire retardance is achieved using fire-retardant additives. These can
have an adverse effect on the weathering properties, but a
polyurethane surface coating can eliminate this problem.

It is likely that future developments will include the use of carbon fibres or
other reinforcements either to supplement or replace glass fibres.