International Journal of Refrigeration 29 (2006) 1119e1127

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijrefrig

A generalized moving-boundary model for transient

simulation of dry-expansion evaporators
under larger disturbances
Wei-Jiang Zhanga, Chun-Lu Zhanga,b,*
a
Institute of Refrigeration and Cryogenics, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai 200030, China
b
China R&D Center, Carrier Corporation, #29-06 King Tower, 28 Xinjinqiao Road, Pudong, Shanghai 201206, China
Received 19 July 2005; received in revised form 23 February 2006; accepted 1 March 2006
Available online 5 June 2006

Abstract
A generalized model based on the moving-boundary approach is developed to describe the transient behavior of dry-
expansion evaporators in the vapor-compression refrigeration system. To improve the robustness of the traditional moving-
boundary model under larger disturbances, the time-variant mean void fraction is employed instead of the constant. Numerical
integration is applied to get the mean properties in the two-phase region and the superheated region. The interface wall temper-
ature between the two-phase and the superheated regions is also evaluated by a new weighted mean. Qualitative case study
shows that the present model can well predict the transient behaviors of evaporators under larger disturbances and keep the
robustness whenever superheated region appears or disappears.
Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Evaporator; Direct expansion; Modeling; Transient; Two-phase flow

Evaporateur à détente directe: généralisation de la méthode

par limite variable par simulation transitoire
Mots clés : Évaporateur ; Détente directe ; Modélisation ; Régime transitoire ; Écoulement diphasique

1. Introduction transient behavior of the two-phase flow heat exchanger in

Transient modeling and analysis is an efficient approach
to the control-oriented design of products. The moving-
boundary approach is frequently used to describe the
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ86 21 5030 7806; fax: þ86 21
6350 9720.
E-mail address: chunlu.zhang@carrier.utc.com (C.-L. Zhang).
0140-7007/$35.00 Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2006.03.002
refrigeration [1e9]. It is usually regarded as the tradeoff be-
tween the lumped-parameter model [10,11] and the spatially
distributed-parameter model [12,13].
None of the models mentioned above except [6,7] allow
the superheated region in the evaporator appear or disappear.
Under larger disturbance, however, the outlet enthalpy may
cross the enthalpy of the saturated vapor which means the su-
perheated region may move in or out [9]. Pettit et al. [6,7] de-
veloped a kind of general and flexible model which is able to
1120 W.-J. Zhang, C.-L. Zhang / International Journal of Refrigeration 29 (2006) 1119e1127

Nomenclature
A Area (m2) r Specific density (kg m
3)
C Specific heat (J K
1 kg
1) g Void fraction
D Diameter (m) g Mean void fraction
F An integration defined by Eq. (40) (m s
1)
Subscripts and superscripts
I An integration defined by Eq. (41) (m Pa s
1)
1 Two-phase region
h Specific enthalpy (J kg
1)
2 superheated region
L Length (m)
a Ambient
m Mass flow rate (kg s
1)
f Liquid
N Section number of numerical integration
g Vapor
p Pressure (Pa)
i Inlet or inside
q Heat flow rate per length (W m
1)
int Interface of two-phase/superheated regions
Q Heat flow rate (W)
o Outlet or outside
T Temperature (K)
r Refrigerant
x Mass quality
w tube wall
z Spatial variable along tube length (m)
Greek letters
t Time (s)
a Heat transfer coefficient (W m
2 K
1)

describe the phenomenon. But it is noticed that sharp C There is no axis thermal heat conduction in the fluid
even sudden change occurs near the transition. It is not so flow.
obvious in their published figures just because the distur- C
There is no axis thermal heat conduction in the tube wall.
bances they adopted were the ramp functions rather than C Only the refrigerant-side dynamics is considered.
the step-inputs. The discontinuity in their model is mainly
caused by the modeling assumption that the mean void frac- Based on the above assumptions, the governing equa-
tion keeps constant. It will apparently weaken the robustness tions of the refrigerant flow are obtained.
of the model.
In this study, the main objective is to extend the capabil- vðrAh
pAÞ vðmhÞ
ity of the existing moving-boundary models to simulate the þ þ ar pDi ðTr
Tw Þ ¼ 0 ð1Þ
vt vz
transient behavior of the dry-expansion evaporator under
larger disturbances. In particular, we would like to guarantee
vðrAÞ vm
the model robustness during some transition periods. There- þ ¼0 ð2Þ
fore, we will pay more attention to the qualitative analysis of vt vz
the model. The above PDEs (Partial Differential Equations) will be
integrated over the two-phase region and the superheated
2. Model development region, respectively, to obtain the corresponding DAEs
(DifferentialeAlgebraic Equations). At present, more and
The evaporator model developed here may have two re- more equation solvers can deal with DAEs directly and
gions (the two-phase region and the superheated region) or efficiently.
just the two-phase region. The former is called the TP-V
model and the latter is called the TP model. The schematic
of the TP-V model is shown in Fig. 1. These two kinds of
cases may be switched during simulation. It means that the
superheated region may move out or in depending on the
disturbance.
A number of assumptions must be made to reduce the
complexity of conservation equations. The key assumptions
used in this study are as below.

C The fluid flow is one-dimensional.

C Pressure drop of the fluid flow is negligible. Fig. 1. Schematic of the evaporator model.
 W.-J. Zhang, C.-L. Zhang / International Journal of Refrigeration 29 (2006) 1119e1127 1121

2.1. TP-V model Then, we integrate the Eqs. (1) and (2) over the super-
heated region.
Both the two-phase and superheated regions exist in this
ðL
case. We consider the two-phase region first. The integration vðrhÞ dpr
A dz
AL2 ¼ mr;int hg
mr;o hr;o þ Qr;2 ð12Þ
of Eqs. (1) and (2) gives L1 vt dt
ð L1
vðrhÞ dpr ðL
A dz
AL1 ¼ mr;i hr;i
mr;int hg þ Qr;1 ð3Þ vr
0 vt dt A dz ¼ mr;int
mr;o ð13Þ
L1 vt
ð L1
vr
A dz ¼ mr;i
mr;int ð4Þ
0 vt Similarly, the Eqs. (12) and (13) can be rewritten by

Taking the void fraction into account, we have
  

v rr;2 hr;2 dpr  dL1
rh ¼ rf hf ð1
gÞ þ rg hg g ð5Þ AL2
1 þ A rg hg
rr;2 hr;2
vpr dt dt
 
v rr;2 hr;2 dhr;o
r ¼ rf ð1
gÞ þ rg g ð6Þ þ AL2 ¼ mr;int hg
mr;o hr;o þ Qr;2 ð14Þ
vhr;o dt

Eqs. (3) and (4) can be rewritten as

vrr;2 dpr  dL1 vrr;2 dhr;o

     AL2 þ A rg
rr;2 þ AL2
d rf hf d rg hg vpr dt dt vhr;o dt
AL1 ð1
gÞ þ g
dt dt ¼ mr;int
mr;o ð15Þ
ð L1  
  vg
þ A rg hg
rf hf dz Here the mean parameters of the
0 vt Ð L superheated region
are given
ÐL by rr;2 hr;2 ¼ ð1=L2 Þ L1 rhdz and rr;2 ¼
dpr

AL1 ¼ mr;i hr;i
mr;int hg þ Qr;1 ð7Þ ð1=L2 Þ L1 rdz.
dt


drf drg 2.2. TP model
AL1 ð1
gÞ þ g
dt dt
ð L1   If the superheated region does not exist, the TP
  vg
þ A rg
rf dz ¼ mr;i
mr;int ð8Þ model is used instead of the TP-V model. In the TP
0 vt
model, L2 equals 0 and L1 equals L all the time. The
equations of the two-phase region are similarly derived
The Leibniz’s rule is employed to integrate the partial from the governing equations but the former is a little
derivative of g in Eqs. (7) and (8) bit different.
ð L1   The governing equations for the two-phase region are
vg vg dpr dL1 given below. Since the two-phase region occupies the evap-
dz ¼ L1 þ ðg
1Þ ð9Þ
0 vt vpr dt dt orator and the state of outlet refrigerant flow is two-phase
rather than superheated, the main difference of two-phase
ÐL
Here g ¼ ð1=L1 Þ 0 1 gdz. region between the TP model and the TP-V model is the
Consequently, the energy and continuity equations of integration of the partial derivative of g. Different from
two-phase region can be finally expressed as the TP-V model, we have

  ðL   

   vg vg dpr 1 vg dhr;o
d rf hf d rg hg   vg dpr dz ¼ L þ ð16Þ
AL1 ð1
gÞ þ g þ rg hg
rf hf
1 0 vt vpr dt hg
hf vxr;int dt
dpr dpr vpr dt
  dL1
þ A rg hg
rf hf ðg
1Þ ¼ mr;i hr;i
mr;int hg þ Qr;1 ð10Þ Accordingly, we have
dt

    

 d rf hf d rg hg   vg dpr
drf drg   vg dpr AL ð1
gÞþ gþ rg hg
rf hf
1
AL1 ð1
gÞ þ g þ rg
rf dpr dpr vpr dt
dpr dpr vpr dt
  dL1 rg hg
rf hf vg dhr;o
þ A rg
rf ðg
1Þ ¼ mr;i
mr;int ð11Þ þ AL ¼ mr;i hr;i
mr;int hr;o þQr;1 ð17Þ
dt hg
hf vxr;int dt
1122 W.-J. Zhang, C.-L. Zhang / International Journal of Refrigeration 29 (2006) 1119e1127


drf drg   vg dpr Tw;int ¼ Tw;1 ð25Þ
AL ð1
gÞ þ g þ rg
rf
dpr dpr vpr dt
rg
rf vg dhr;o If we substitute Eq. (24) into Eq. (23), we will obtain
þ AL ¼ mr;i
mr;int ð18Þ
hg
hf vxr;int dt
dTw;2 qr;2 þ qa;2 Tw;1
Tw;2 dL2
¼
þ ð26Þ
dt rw Cw Aw L2 dt
While the equations describing the variables of the disap-
peared superheated region are reduced to a relatively simple If the superheated region disappears, L2 will approach
form. zero ahead of dL2 =dt. It means that we won’t get true values
of dTw;2 =dt and Tw,2 when L2 approaches zero. Therefore,
mr;int ¼ mr;o ð19Þ Eq. (25) is not a good estimation of the interface wall
temperature.
Some investigators [4e5] adopted another modified form
dL1
¼0 ð20Þ based on the sign of dL1 =dt to get more reasonable results.
dt 8
> dL1
< Tw;2 >0
In the TP model, the two-phase region occupies the dt
Tw;int ¼ dL ð27Þ
whole tube. Though the superheated region does not exist >
: Tw;1 1
0
any longer, the reduced and simplified equations are used dt
to describe its variables. These equations represent the
special conditions of the TP model. The interface is fixed It avoids the abnormal and unreasonable trends of Tw,2 when
at the outlet and the length of the superheated region equals L2 approaches 0. However, it also cannot keep the smooth
0 all the time. Eq. (19) means that the state parameters of transition between dL1 =dt > 0 and dL1 =dt  0. In addition,
the outlet and interface are the same because they are actu- it is not easy for the transition between the TP-V model and
ally at the same position. The length of the two-phase region the TP model.
does not change any longer and fixed at L as shown in Different from the above two methods, we developed
Eq. (20). a new weighted mean as below.

L2 L1
2.3. Tube wall model Tw;int ¼ Tw;1 þ Tw;2 ð28Þ
L L

The governing equation of the tube wall is the energy

Here, Tw,int is a weighted mean of Tw,1 and Tw,2, which are
equation.
more closer to the practical situation. It implies that if L1 in-
creases, the interface temperature is closer to Tw,2 because it
vTw
rw Cw Aw ¼
qr
qa ð21Þ was the superheated region over there. Vice versa. There-
vt fore, Eq. (28) has the same advantage of Eq. (27). Mean-
where the cross-sectional area of the tube wall is while it is a continuous and smooth function that can
guarantee the robust transition between the TP-V model
 
p D2o
D2i and the TP model.
Aw ¼ ð22Þ Substituting Eq. (28) into Eqs. (23) and (24), we gain the
4
symmetric and robust expressions of wall temperatures.
Integrating Eq. (20) over the two-phase and superheated
regions, we have  
dTw;1 Tw;1
Tw;2 dL1
rw Cw Aw þ ¼
qr;1
qa;1 ð29Þ
ð L1 dt L dt
vTw;1  
rw Cw Aw dz ¼
qr;1
qa;1 L1 ð23Þ
0 vt  
dTw;2 Tw;2
Tw;1 dL2
rw Cw Aw þ ¼
qr;2
qa;2 ð30Þ
ðL dt L dt
vTw;2  
rw Cw Aw dz ¼
qr;2
qa;2 L2 ð24Þ
L1 vt

The wall temperature at the interface of two regions
is another important factor for robust switch between
the TP and TP-V models. There are two approximants in
the open literature. Most of the investigators [1e3,6]
regarded the interface as part of the two-phase region.
Namely,
2.4. Mean properties
The mean parameters in the above models include g,
rr;2 hr;2 , and rr;2 . Generally, it is difficult to obtain the ana-
lytic expressions of these integrals. Therefore, numerical in-
tegration is a general approach and employed in this work.
 W.-J. Zhang, C.-L. Zhang / International Journal of Refrigeration 29 (2006) 1119e1127 1123

To take the numerical integral, we still need an additional

assumption of spatial distribution of some parameter. For
the numerical requirement, the arbitrarily continuous distribu-
tion is acceptable. For the physical purpose, however, the pa-
rameter distribution assumed should be reasonable.
The mass quality in the two-phase region and enthalpy in
the superheated region are close to the linear distribution un-
der the steady state [14]. If the transient process is not far
from the steady state, it will be still acceptable. For the
long transient process such as start-up or shutdown, it is still
an open issue. In this work, we assume the linear distribution
of the two-phase mass quality and the superheated gas
enthalpy. It will be easy to be replaced by other reasonable Fig. 2. Distribution assumption of refrigerant enthalpy.
assumptions if needed.
In the two-phase region, mass quality is assumed as
z continuously distributed along the whole length. The mean
xðzÞ ¼ xr;i þ ðxr;int
xr;i Þ ð31Þ properties are obtained through integration, which plays
L1
a key role to make the simulation results continuous and
Accordingly, the mean void fraction turns to smooth. ÐL
ð ð xr;int In detail, let’s focus on the integration 0 1 ðvg=vtÞdz to
1 L1 1 see the difference. In this work, it is written as
g¼ gdz ¼ gdx ð32Þ
L1 0 xr;int
xr;i xr;i 8
> vg dpr dL1
ð L1   >
< L1 þ ðg
1Þ L2 > 0
Calculating the mean void fraction by numerical integra- vg vpr dt
 dt 
dz ¼ vg dpr 1 vg dhr;o
tion yields vt >
>
0
: L1 þ L2 ¼ 0
vpr dt hg
hf vxr;int dt
1X N
ð36Þ
g¼ g ð33Þ
N k¼1 k
In the previous lumped-parameter moving-boundary
where gk is the local void fraction at the kth node. Dozens of models, the mean void fraction was used to constant. It im-
void fraction models have been developed under different plied that
experimental setup and conditions [18]. The main advantage ð L1   (
vg dL1
of numerical integration is any void fraction model can be
dz ¼ ðg
1Þ dt L2 > 0 ð37Þ
selected. Generally, the node number N ¼ 10 is enough for 0 vt 0 L2 ¼ 0
accuracy and won’t impact much on the CPU time.
Similarly, the mean parameters in the superheated region When the mean void fraction is fixed, Eq. (36) will re-
can be figured out. duce to Eq. (37). It is shown in Eq. (37) that the value of
the integration is discontinuous when L2 approaches zero.
1X N
It will lead to sudden change in the outlet enthalpy and the
rr;2 hr;2 ¼ r hk ð34Þ
N k¼1 k derivatives, which is undesirable and unreasonable, particu-
larly in control-oriented modeling and simulation. Rather,
Eq. (36) is continuous when L2 approaches zero because
1X N
we just used the integration method without omitting any
rr;2 ¼ r ð35Þ
N k¼1 k items. It can be seen in Section 4 as well.

2.5. Continuity between TP-V and TP models 3. Implementation

Although we used two models to describe two possible
cases in evaporator, the two models are smoothly continuous
in transition. It cannot be obtained from the previous models.
Fig. 2 shows the distribution of the refrigerant properties. In
the previous moving-boundary models, the refrigerant prop-
erties over the two regions were assumed to be individually
uniform. It broke the state parameters at the two-phase/vapor
interface. In this study, however, the state parameters are
Dymola 5.3 [15,16] is selected as the equation solver. It
allows equations to be written in casual manner and
supports event driven procedure. The solver is able to
integrate large scale DAEs efficiently. Besides, it supports
object-oriented programming which is important for model
reuse and extension. The modeling capability of Dymola
in HVAC and refrigeration field has been well tested
[4,17].
1124 W.-J. Zhang, C.-L. Zhang / International Journal of Refrigeration 29 (2006) 1119e1127

To perform the transient simulation, the first step is the

parameter initialization. Koury et al. [8] set the time step
to be infinite and simulate the model to obtain steady-state
results. In this study, the time-related derivatives in the
DAEs are set by zero directly so that the model can describe
the steady state of an evaporator.
In addition, the switch of the TP-V model and the TP
model is triggered by the length L2. When L2 > 0, the TP-
V model is activated. Rather, the TP model will be activated.
The tube wall model is available in the two cases.
Fig. 3. Input parameters: mass flow rate and enthalpy.
4. Simulation and discussion

Here we focus on the qualitative analysis of the model DASSL algorithm in Dymola is selected as the integration
because the model robustness under the larger disturbances algorithm.
is the first concern of this work. Since the accuracy of the The simulation results presented hereinafter will focus
model does mainly depend on the heat transfer coefficient/ on the demonstration of the evaporator moving back and
void fraction correlations selected, it won’t be considered forth between the TP-V case and the TP case. The inputs
in this paper. are shaped as shown in Fig. 3 to ensure the transition would
Pettit et al. [6,7] gave some numerical results under larger be triggered. Based on the same conditions mentioned
disturbance. However, the transient behavior is not so smooth above, the Pettit model and the present model are solved
because they fixed the mean void fraction and used the ques- for comparison.
tionable approximation of the interface wall temperature. As shown in Fig. 4, the outlet enthalpy crosses the satu-
When we add the step-inputs instead of the ramp inputs to ration vapor enthalpy which means the TP-V model is
the Pettit model, some sharp even sudden changes in para- switched to the TP model or the TP model turns to the TP-
meters are found near the transition. That weakened the ro- V model. The outlet enthalpy in the Pettit model changes
bustness of the model. In this section, the difference between sharply near the transition which can be clearly seen in
this model and the Pettit model is illustrated and analyzed. Fig. 5. Besides, see-saw effect occurs under the step-input
To compare with the literature results, we try to repro- of inlet enthalpy (t ¼ 5 s and t ¼ 55 s). This disadvantage
duce their simulation case [7]. Unfortunately, the calcula- can be explained by simple analysis on the governing equa-
tion conditions are not fully given. Therefore, we use tions. If the mean void fraction is constant, the energy equa-
a similar case here. The calculation conditions are specified tion of the TP model can be expressed as
as below:
    
d rf hf d rg hg dpr
AL ð1
gÞ þ g
1
dpr dpr dt
R22 working fluid
pr ¼ 4.98  105 Pa constant working pressure selected for the
¼ mr;i hr;i
mr;int hr;o þ Qr;1 ð38Þ
evaporator
Ta ¼ 287 K ambient temperature The pressure is also fixed in open loop simulation which
a1 ¼ 2500 W m
2 K
1 heat transfer coefficient in the two-phase means the energy equation can be simplified to the following
region form,
a2 ¼ 700 W m
2 K
1 heat transfer coefficient in the superheated
region
aa ¼ 350 W m
2 K
1 outside heat transfer coefficient
Di ¼ 0.01 m inner tube diameter
Do ¼ 0.011 m outer tube diameter
rw ¼ 8960 kg m
3 wall density
Cw ¼ 385 J K
1 kg
1 wall specific heat
L ¼ 18 m evaporator length

The heat transfer coefficients here are constant. How-

ever, they can be replaced by any correlations easily. Be-
sides, any model for void fraction can be easily employed.
Here, the Smith slip-ratio model [18] is used to calculate
the local void fraction. The refrigerant is R22 and its
properties are evaluated by REFPROP 6.01 [19]. The Fig. 4. The outlet enthalpy.
 W.-J. Zhang, C.-L. Zhang / International Journal of Refrigeration 29 (2006) 1119e1127 1125

Fig. 5. Enlarged view of Fig. 4 near the transition.

Fig. 7. Wall temperature.

mr;i hr;i
Qr;1

hr;o ¼ ð39Þ To analyze the transient characteristics near the transition
mr;int
event, the integration item I is defined as
Under the step-input of inlet enthalpy, Qr,1, mr,i and mr,int ðL ð L1 ðL
vðrhÞ vðrhÞ vðrhÞ
keep invariant at the time point when the disturbance is just I¼ dz ¼ dz þ dz ð41Þ
added in. So a step change occurs at the response curve of 0 vt 0 vt L1 vt

the outlet enthalpy. Furthermore, the outlet enthalpy changes

with the inlet enthalpy.
Fig. 6 is given to show how the length of the two-phase
region changes. L1 increases and the TP model is activated
when it reaches L. Fig. 7 shows the tube wall temperature.
Fig. 8 shows the mean void fraction. In Pettit model, the
mean void fraction is fixed and in this paper, the mean
void fraction varies with other properties, such as the inlet
enthalpy, the outlet enthalpy, and the pressure. Though the
mean void fraction varies in a small range (about 0.9e
0.98), other state parameters are very sensitive to it. Its
derivative is important for the robustness of solution.
Fig. 9 shows the integration item F defined in Eqs. (36)
and (37) near the transition. There is a sudden change of F
in Pettit model. Rather, it is continuous and smooth in the
present model.
ð L1  
vg
F¼ dz ð40Þ
0 vt
Figs. 10 and 11 show the integration item I. There is
a sudden change of I in Pettit model. Rather, it is continuous
and smooth in the present model. It explains the difference
near the transition between the Pettit model and the present
one. The outlet enthalpy can be written as
dpr
mr;i hr;i þ Qr
AI þ AL
hr;o ¼ dt ð42Þ
mr;o
All variables except I at the right side of Eq. (42) are con-
tinuous or constant at the transition point. So the sudden
change of I results in the sudden change of the outlet
enthalpy directly.
Above figures show the improvement in transient charac-
teristics of the present model compared to the previous ones.
More importantly, robustness is also improved in the mean-
time. In the Pettit model, the sudden change near the

Fig. 6. Length of the two-phase region. Fig. 8. Mean void fraction.

1126 W.-J. Zhang, C.-L. Zhang / International Journal of Refrigeration 29 (2006) 1119e1127
Fig. 9. Integration F near the transition.
transition event will be a potential factor leading to the insta-
bility of simulation. Reviewing simulation cases in a wide
range of operating conditions, we found that the simulation
program built in terms of the Pettit model might crash at the
transition event when the disturbance is large enough. So the
improvements in the present model directly enhance the ro-
bustness in simulation.
5. Conclusions
The paper develops a transient moving-boundary model
of dry-expansion evaporators against larger disturbances.
New features of the model mainly include time-dependent
mean void fraction in the two-phase region, numerical inte-
gration of the mean properties that guarantees any correla-
tion of the void fraction can be easily built in, and new
interface estimation of wall temperature. They are proved
necessary for modeling the transient characteristics of the
evaporator under the larger disturbances.
A qualitative simulation case is studied to verify the im-
provements of the new model with comparison to the Pettit
model. The results demonstrate the reasonably continuous
and smooth curves obtained from the present model. By
comparison, sharp even sudden changes of state parameters
during transition cannot be avoided with the Pettit model. In
Fig. 10. Integration I defined in Eq. (41).
Fig. 11. Enlarged view of Fig. 10 near the transition.
the meantime, robustness is also improved to make the
model more practical.
The new model can be expected as the possible approach
to the long transient process such as start-up or shutdown
when the proper treatment of parameter distribution is
available.
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