International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 165 (2021) 120668

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International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/hmt

Simulation and experimental study of induction heat treatment of

titanium disks
Aleksandr Fomin a,∗, Vladimir Koshuro a, Andrey Shchelkunov a, Alexander Aman b,
Marina Fomina a, Svetlana Kalganova a
a
Yuri Gagarin State Technical University of Saratov, 410054 Saratov, Russia
b
Otto Vollmann GmbH & Co. KG, 58285 Gevelsberg, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: During induction heat treatment (IHT) of titanium disks, the influence of the main electrotechnological
Received 8 September 2020 parameters, in particular the inductor current, on the temperature of their surfaces was established at an
Revised 13 October 2020
exposure within t = 5 min. In the course of numerical simulation, i.e. when solving the self-consistent
Accepted 25 October 2020
boundary value problem of electrodynamics and thermal conductivity for the "inductor – titanium disk"
Available online 7 November 2020
system, the influence of the inductor current in the range 2.7–4.5 kA on the average exposure temper-
Keywords: ature of the titanium disk was determined, which varied from 800–850°C to the melting temperature
induction heat treatment (about 1670°C) and above. In order to confirm numerical calculations, experimental studies on IHT in the
titanium same temperature range were performed. In addition to the inductor current IIND varying in the range
numerical simulation from 2.7 to 4.5 kA, the influence of the corresponding value of the electric power PE in the range from
inductor current 0.21 to 0.95 kW on the exposure temperature during IHT was considered. Changes in the surface mor-
oxide coating
phology of the titanium disks were studied over a wide temperature range. The initial oxide coating was
surface morphology
retained on the surfaces of the samples processed at a minimum exposure temperature of T = 800–850°C.
A thick scale of titanium dioxide was also preserved on the surfaces of semi-molten titanium disks. In
the IHT exposure range at temperatures from 10 0 0–1050°C to 150 0–1550°C, the scale was spontaneously
separated from the surfaces of titanium disks; however, a high-strength oxide sublayer was formed under
it.
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction ing of ferromagnetic materials, including the determination of the

To intensify the processes of modifying the composition, struc-
ture and properties of metals and alloys, various methods of pro-
cessing with a concentrated stream of energy are used, in particu-
lar pulse laser, electron beam, spark, arc and glow gaseous electri-
cal discharges. Heat treatment of metals, such as strengthening and
hardening, is quite effective when using electroheating, in particu-
lar processing in arc furnaces and resistance furnaces, direct resis-
tance heating, induction heating (or heating with high-frequency
current), high frequency and microwave heating [1].
Induction heating is one of the most effective methods of con-
verting electrical energy for heating and strengthening the surface
of metal products [1–5]. Many studies in this area focus on the
development of industrial equipment for induction heating, the
design of inductors taking into account the features of the prod-
uct geometry, the calculation of the parameters of induction heat-
∗
Corresponding author.
necessary heat costs and electrical parameters of the inductor, as
well as levitation melting [2–4]. Current studies concern the de-
velopment of equipment and the theory of high-frequency heat-
ing of various media, strengthening treatment of surfaces of ma-
chine parts, and numerical simulation [1,4–6]. Over the past two
or three decades, problems related to the heating simulation of
the steel products and the use of induction heating in forge pro-
duction [7–11], crucible-free melting [5], the use of magnetohydro-
dynamic phenomena in the melting of metals and alloys [12–14],
heat treatment of internal holes [15], simulation and optimization
of the process and design of induction heating installations, appli-
cation and control of parameters of heated products [16,17], de-
velopment of control algorithms for induction heating of cylindri-
cal steel products [18], heat treatment of welded joints for pipes
[19], etc., have been considered. A number of studies compare the
speed of a full cycle of heat treatment (normalizing, quenching and
tempering) in resistance furnaces and during induction heating for
heavy cylinders, changes in microstructure and thermal stress dis-
tribution over the product cross section [20]. Variants of induction

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2020.120668
0017-9310/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Fomin, V. Koshuro, A. Shchelkunov et al.
heating of spur gears made of 42CrMo steel have been developed
[21]. In this case, two generators are used, one of which operates
at a medium frequency (10 kHz) with a high current density (110
A/mm2 ), and the second one – at a high frequency (200 kHz) with
a reduced current density (60 A/mm2 ). This solution allows the
increase in the efficiency of stepwise processing of ferromagnetic
steel in the case of its transition to the paramagnetic state (in the
austenite phase). Subsequent quenching enables the creation of a
solid martensite layer (670–700 HV) of uniform thickness (about
1.5 mm) on an axisymmetric product with a complex shape of the
working parts.
Variants of the use of induction heating for complex physi-
cal processes, namely mass transfer and subsequent single crystal
growth, have been developed. Physical vapor deposition (PVD) and
synthesis of silicon carbide (SiC) in a container with the combined
"anisotropic insulation + porous graphite" structure located in a
quartz tube were proposed [22–25]. In this case, induction heating
is used to create an internal heat source in the technological (reac-
tion) chamber volume. These studies are associated with the devel-
opment of mathematical models of the PVD process and obtaining
detailed solutions to the problems of electrodynamics and ther-
mal conductivity using the finite-element analysis (FEM) method.
In the course of this simulation, the geometric parameters of the
inductor and the heated container are taken into account. Variable
factors are the geometric parameters of the single-crystal substrate
(thickness, diameter), the thickness of the sublimated SiC powder
layer, the thickness of porous graphite, the diameter and height of
the technological holes (recesses) for controlled cooling. In more
complex cases, high-tech processes for producing single-crystal in-
gots (the Czochralski method) and associated processes in the ele-
ments of a processing unit are considered [26].
Induction heating has found application in the technology of
strengthening treatment of steel and non-magnetic metals (tita-
nium, aluminum, etc.). However, the technological peculiarities of
this method allowing the surface treatment of metal products sug-
gest that induction heating has the potential for thermal activation
processes before plasma spraying of bioceramic coatings [27], high-
temperature treatment during the formation of oxide and oxide-
ceramic coatings [28], carbonitride coatings [29], superhard coat-
ings with functional gradient properties [30–32]. Also important is
the development of methods for the controlled modification of the
surface of metals, in particular titanium, which is associated with
the removal of contaminants and stable layers in vacuum, as well
as mass transfer of the target material to the surface of the prod-
uct. Thus, the aim of this work is to simulate and experimentally
study the process of high-temperature induction heating of tita-
nium, in particular to establish the dependences of the exposure
temperature on the inductor current and the corresponding value
of electric power.
2. Theory and calculation of the main characteristics of the
induction heating
Eddy currents (Foucault currents) arise in conductors (metallic
materials and semiconductors with a high concentration of charge
carriers) when an alternating magnetic field penetrates them. J.B.L.
Foucault found that when eddy currents occurred in a metal, the
latter heated up. Foucault currents appear under the influence of
an alternating field and are identical in physical nature to induced
currents in wires. Geometrically, these currents are closed rings
and they are also characterized by high amperage due to the low
resistance of the metal conductor. In most cases, Foucault currents
are undesirable. Special measures are taken against them reducing
heating losses, e.g. in transformer cores, which are made of thin
plates and separated by an electrical insulating layer.
2
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 165 (2021) 120668
The thermal effect of Foucault currents is used in induction
heating installations. In induction melting furnaces, a placed con-
ductive body is heated in a dielectric chamber with a "coil" (induc-
tor) fed by a powerful HF generator. The load (processed product)
is heated to the melting point and above. Induction heating has
also found application in vacuum technology, e.g. for degassing.
Typical geometries of the "inductor – product" system were dis-
cussed in the study by G.I. Babat as well as mathematical models
describing electrodynamics and heat transfer in steel designs of flat
(sheets, plates) and axisymmetric (disks, cylinders, rings, bushings)
kinds were proposed. Strengthening heat treatment of ferromag-
netic steel for quenching was studied in most detail [2]. The the-
ory of induction heating under consideration is based on the in-
teraction between an electromagnetic field (EMF) in the form of
a plane wave with a conductor and the release of Joule heat in it
due to eddy currents. Representation of EMF in the form of a plane
wave enables the simplification of the study of the induction heat-
ing process.
A system including a dielectric (air) space and a metallic con-
ductor is considered further below. The dividing surface is repre-
sented by a plane (the x and y axes lie at the interface), whereas
the z axis is perpendicular to this plane. In the air, where z < 0,
there is an EMF in the form of a plane wave propagating in the x
direction at a speed of c. The nature of EMF propagation is inde-
pendent of y coordinate. In the region z < 0 relative permittivity of
the conductor ε , relative magnetic permeability of the conductor μ
and specific electrical resistance ρ equal to (ε ; μ; ρ ) = (1; 1; ∞),
respectively.
Due to the small displacement current in the metal (z > 0), only
the quantities μ and ρ are taken into account. Thus, Maxwell’s
equations for the plane wave are presented in differential form:
∂ 2 Hy 4π μ ∂ Hy
= 2   , (1.1)
∂ z2 c ρ ∂t
∂ 2 E 4π μ ∂ Ex
= 2   , (1.2)
∂ z2 c ρ ∂t
where H = Нy – intensity of magnetic field (along the y axis), A/m;
E = Еx – intensity of electric field (along the x axis), V/m.
Near the metal surface the dependence of the field strength, i.e.
the maximum electric field strength Е0 , in time t varies according
to a harmonic law:
E = E0 · cos (wt ), (2)
where ω = 2π f – the angular frequency, rad/s.
In case of a metallic conductor, a plane wave is represented by
a damped wave [2]:
⎡ ⎤ ⎛ ⎞
z
E = E0 · exp ⎣−2π  ⎦ · cos ⎝wt − 2π z ⎠, (3.1)
ρ ρ
c μf c μf
⎡ ⎤ ⎛ ⎞
z z
H = H0 · exp ⎣−2π ⎦ · cos ⎝wt − 2π  − φ ⎠, (3.2)

ρ ρ
c μf c μf
where ϕ = 45° – the angle by which the phase of the magnetic
field lags behind the phase of the electric field inside the metal
(this is the condition under which Eqs. 1.1, 1.2 will be satisfied).
The plane wave attenuates in the z direction so that the first
factor (i.e. exponential factor) indicates a decrease in amplitude
and the second factor characterizes the phase change of the wave
as it penetrates deep into the metal. Thus, the phase will change
by 2π when the wave penetrates the distance λ1 :

ρ
λ1 = c . (4)
μf
A. Fomin, V. Koshuro, A. Shchelkunov et al. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 165 (2021) 120668

Table 1
Indicators characterizing the penetration of the plane electromagnetic wave deep into copper.

Depth of current Depth of magnetic flux

Current frequency f Wavelength in the air λ Phase velocity in copper ν Wavelength in copper λ1 penetration in copper z penetration in copper z/√2
Hz m m/s m mm mm

108 3 4200 0.04 0.007 0.005

106 300 420 0.42 0.07 0.047
105 3000 130 1.3 0.21 0.15
104 30000 42 4.2 0.67 0.47
2 × 103 150000 19 9.5 1.5 1.1
50 6000000 3 6000 9.5 6.7

Knowing the wave length λ1 in the metal, its phase velocity v Based on the expression (Eq. 3.1), the amount of heat QS re-
can be determined: leased on the metal surface is expressed in integral form.

ρ f   2 
ν = λ1 · f = c . (5) ∞
2π μf E2 ρ
μ QS =
E0
√ · exp − z ρ dz = 0 ·
c
,
The ratio of wave velocity in the air c (speed of light c ≈ 3•108 ρ 2 c ρ 4ρ 2π μf
0
m/s) to the velocity of wave ν in metal is the refraction index n: (11)

c μ
n= = . (6) Heat flux density or power density is determined through mag-
ν ρ f netic field intensity H0 and active power P [1].
The distance from the boundary surface (z > 0), at which the ρ√
wave amplitude decreases by a factor of е = 2.718, i.e. falls to 36.8 QS = H02 2 · P. (12)
z1
% of its initial value and the wave phase changes by 1 rad (≈ 57°),
For engineering calculations, it is more convenient to use the
is called the current penetration depth (or skin layer).
following expressions to determine active p and reactive q power
Numerically, the quantity z1 is determined by the expression:
 per unit surface [4]:
c ρ 
z1 = . (7) p = q = 2 × 10−3 · (Nl · I )2 · ρ μ f,
2π μf (13)

Ch. Steinmetz proposed to call the distance z1 the current pene- where Nl – number of turns per unit length l of the inductor; I –
tration depth: root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value of the inductor current, A.
 Since this power has an active and reactive part, the total spe-
ρ
z1 = 503 , [mm]. (8) cific power QS is the root mean square:
μf  √
In general, for various types of conductive materials, the skin QS = p2 + q2 = 2 · p. (14)
layer is determined according to the following expression: The system of equations (Eqs. 1.1, 1.2) is supplemented by
 boundary conditions, namely at the interface {x, y} ⊂ S the mag-
ρ
z1 = , (9) netic vector potential is A = 0 along the boundary (Dirichlet con-
μ μ0 π f
dition) [16,17].
where μ0 = 4π × 10−7 – the magnetic constant, H/m.
The EMF parameters in the air and copper, as well as the calcu-
AS = A0 , (15.1)
lated values of the wave penetration depth, were presented for Or gradient of the magnetic vector potential ∂ A/∂ n = ∂ A/∂ z (in
the characteristic frequencies (Table 1) [2]. this case z⊥S) is negligibly small along the boundary (Neumann
The calculation result according to the expression (Eq. 8) for the condition).
depth of the skin layer at the frequencies considered in the experi-
mental part (100±20 kHz) for various materials is characterized by
∂A ∂A
→ = 0. (15.2)
the following numerical values: ∂n ∂z
– in copper, for which the electrical resistivity ρ Cu = 1.8 × 10−6 The specific Joule heat source QV is determined as the real part
 × cm2 /cm = 1.8 × 10−8  × m, the value of 0.21 mm was of the vector product for current density and electric field strength
obtained. (complex conjugate value):
– in commercially pure titanium at room temperature (300 K), 1 1
the electrical resistivity is ρ Ti = 48.3 × 10−8  × m, the corre- QV = Re| j × E ∗ | = ρ| j|2 ,
2 2
sponding current penetration depth is 1.11 mm.
(16)
– in commercially pure titanium at a phase transition temper-
ature (1156 K), the maximum value of the specific electrical resis- The obtained value QV is used to solve the heat-transfer equa-
tance ρ Ti_max = 161.5 × 10−8  × m in the solid state is reached, tion written in differential form.
the current penetration depth increases to 2.02 mm. ∂T ∂ 2T
Thus, there is almost a double increase in the depth of current γC = κ 2 + QV , (17)
∂t ∂z
penetration when titanium is heated, which reduces the heating
where κ – thermal conductivity, W/m·K; γ – material density,
rate when a phase transition is achieved at a constant value of the
kg/m3 ; C – specific heat capacity, J/kg·K; ∇ – nabla operator.
consumed electric power.
In induction heating, boundary conditions are determined by
According to Ohm’s law, the current density j in each metal sec-
the processes of the heat losses due to convection and radiation.
tion is proportional to the electric field strength E:
E ∂T  
j= . (10) −κ = αCONV (T − T0 ) + ε kB T 4 − T04 , (18.1)
ρ ∂z
3
A. Fomin, V. Koshuro, A. Shchelkunov et al. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 165 (2021) 120668

Fig. 1. A scheme (a) (left half-plane, the square size of the coordinate grid of 2 mm) with a finite element grid (right half-plane, adaptive partitioning algorithm) and an
enlarged fragment (b) for the induction heat treatment of metal products: 1 – an inductor; 2 – a titanium sample (disk); 3 – ambient atmosphere (air); 4 – a quartz tube; 5
– the internal cavity of the inductor for water cooling.

where ∂ T/∂ n = ∂ T/∂ z (in this case z⊥S) is the temperature gradi- takes into account the complex elements of the geometry of the
ent in a direction normal to the surface at the point under con- entire "inductor – product" system. For numerical simulation, the
sideration; α CONV – convection surface heat transfer coefficient, specific Joule heat source QV is used, which depends on the cur-
W/m2 •K; kB ≈ 5.67 × 10−8 W/(m2 ·K4 ) – the Stefan-Boltzmann rent density j. In turn, the distribution of j in the product material
constant; ε – emissivity of the "grey body" (ε ≤ 1). is determined by the geometric parameters of the system and the
In the case of accompanying surface processes, heat loss qL , technological factors of electric heating, in particular the inductor
e.g. caused by accelerated cooling from a liquid or gas flow (dur- current IIND and frequency f.
ing quenching [17]) or surface modification (oxide coating growth
[30,31]), the boundary conditions are expressed as follows: 3. Numerical simulation of the induction heat treatment of
  titanium disk samples
∂T
−κ = αCONV (T − T0 ) + ε kB T 4 − T04 + qL . (18.2)
∂z 3.1. Geometry of the "inductor – titanium disk" system and physical
Gradient of the temperature ∂ T/∂ n = ∂ T/∂ z (in this case z⊥S) properties of its elements
is negligibly small along the boundary (Neumann condition).
∂T ∂T The technological tool of the system under consideration was
→ = 0. (19) a copper inductor, the number of turns of which was w = 3, its
∂n ∂z
The solution for the planar heating problem T(t) under the con- inner diameter did not exceed DI = 20.5–21 mm and its length
dition of constant power Qs released on the surface (Eq. 11) can be was not more than LI = 22–22.5 mm (Fig. 1a). The diameter of the
represented by a damped function by analogy with the solution of inductor tube was 6.5 mm, while its inner diameter was 5.5 mm
the electrodynamics problem [2]. and the distance between the turns was 1 mm. A quartz tube with
   an external diameter of DC = 20 mm was placed vertically in the
2√ 1 z active region of the inductor.
T (z, t ) = α t √ · exp − √
πκ αt A titanium sample (disk) was located in the chamber, which
   was oxidized in the course of heating with the formation of a
z z
− √ 1− √ · QS , (20) functional coating. The outer diameter of the titanium sample was
2 αt 2 αt DS = 14 mm and the inner hole had a diameter of 3.5 mm and
where α = κ /(γ C )– thermal diffusivity, m²/s;  – Gaussian inte- a height of LS = 2 mm. The heated titanium sample was located
gral. in the active region of the inductor, which in the experiment was
This analytical solution allows the representation of the tem- provided by the use of a centering rod.
perature distribution T(z, t) depending on the power of the heat The finite element mesh was smaller in some elements of the
source distributed across the surface. However, of practical interest system, e.g. inductor turns, the gap between the titanium sam-
is the solution to this problem, which enables the calculation of ple and the quartz tube (Fig. 1b). The nature of induction heating
the surface temperature T(z=0, t) = TS . (speed, uniformity) of the metal elements of the system, in this
 case the titanium disk, to the required temperature depended on a
2 αt large number of factors. In numerical simulation, the parameters of
T (z = 0, t ) = TS = Q . (21)
κ π S the electric circuit, the electrophysical and thermophysical charac-
Given that the surface power density QS is determined by the teristics of materials and media (system blocks), the characteristics
expression (Eq. 14), the surface temperature TS can be found as of boundary processes (block boundaries) and the duration of the
follows: numerical experiment (for non-stationary processes) were set.
√ 
4 2 αt  3.1.1. Electrical parameters
TS = × 10−3 × × (Nl · I )2 × ρ μ f . (22)
κ π The parameters of the electrical circuit were:
Thus, to analytically solve the heat conduction problem, it is • Inductor current I, which was set for each half-turn (in the 2D
necessary to determine the amount of heat QS released on the model under consideration) in the range from 2.7 to 4.2 kA (the
metal surface Eqs. 11–(14). Next, the obtained value is used in solv- step of changing the inductor current was chosen as I1 = 0.5
ing equations (Eqs. 17,18) to identify the one-dimensional tempera- kA and the doubled step value I2 = 2·I1 =1 kA). The induc-
ture field. The obtained value TS can be refined as a result of exper- tor current was set based on the available experimental results,
imental studies or compared to numerical simulation data, which which were determined using current clamps [33].

4
A. Fomin, V. Koshuro, A. Shchelkunov et al. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 165 (2021) 120668

Table 2
Electrophysical properties of the model blocks.

No. Block name Relative magnetic permeability μ Electrical conductivity coefficient σ System element
n.u. n.u. n.u. Sm/m n.u.

1 copper 1 56 × 106 inductor

2 titanium 1 2.4 × 106 titanium disk
3 air 1 0 ambient atmosphere
4 quartz 1 0 quartz tube
5 water 1 0 internal cavity of the inductor for water cooling

Table 3
Thermophysical characteristics of the model blocks.

No. Block name (material, medium) Heat conductivity coefficient κ Specific heat capacity C Material density γ
n.u. n.u. W/m•K J/kg• K kg/m3

1 copper 400 390 8940

2 titanium κ (T) (Table 4) C(T) (Table 4) 4500
3 air 0.024 1005 1.16
4 quartz 1.38 1052 2201
5 water 0.64 4178 996

Table 4
Thermophysical characteristics of titanium at different temperatures [34].

Temperature T Density γ Specific heat capacity C Thermal diffusivity coefficient α Heat conductivity coefficient κ Electrical resistivity ρ
K g/cm3 J/kg × K (× 10−6 ) m2 /s W/m × K (× 10−8 ) × m

100 – – – – 8.3
200 – – – – 26.6
300 4.50 530.8 9.3 22.3 48.3
400 4.49 555.5 8.3 20.7 63.2
500 4.47 576.2 7.6 19.7 81.5
600 4.46 604.7 7.3 19.7 99.3
700 4.45 626.8 7.1 19.8 116.1
800 4.43 637.0 7.0 19.8 131.2
900 4.42 647.8 6.9 19.8 143.0
1000 4.40 646.9 6.9 19.6 152.1
1156 α 4.37 666.9 6.9 20.1 161.5
1156 β 4.38 617.5 7.8 20.0 146.3
1200 4.37 633.9 7.9 21.9 147
1400 4.35 663.7 8.3 23.9 151
1600 4.32 729.8 8.8 27.7 156
1800 4.29 799.8 9.0 30.9 160
1944 s 4.26 854.1 9.1 33.1 164
1944 l 4.12 989.2 – – 168
2000 – 989.2 – – 170

Note: the indices "α " and "β " denote the temperature and the corresponding thermophysical characteristics of different phases (α –Ti and β –Ti); the indices "s"
and "l" denote the temperature and the corresponding thermophysical characteristics for the solid and liquid phases.

• The current frequency had a constant value and f = 90 kHz was
adopted, which corresponded to experimental data [33].
• The number of turns of the inductor was set as w = 3 (in the
considered 2D model, 6 half-turns of the inductor coil were
shown). Based on engineering practice, this ratio of the length
of the inductor and the height of the heated cylinders provided
a uniform distribution of current density in the central part of
the active region of the inductor [2].
• The type of connection of the turns of the inductor, which in
this case was a sequential one, i.e. the inductor was considered
as one conductor.
3.1.2. Physical parameters of the model blocks
The physical parameters of the model under consideration were
electrophysical (Table 2) and thermophysical (Table 3) quantities,
which had constant values or changed depending on tempera-
ture. To solve the electrodynamics problem, it was necessary to set
the following quantities:
• Electrical conductivity σ of the material of the inductor and the
heated sample.
• Relative magnetic permeability μ.
The assumptions were made that the electrical conductivity of
non-metallic blocks was equal to zero. In particular, this corre-
sponded to distilled water and dry air for the "water" and "air"
blocks, respectively.
To solve the problem of thermal conductivity, the following
quantities and functional characteristics were set:
• Thermal conductivity coefficient κ .
• Specific heat capacity C.
• Density γ .
The indicated thermophysical characteristics of the materials
varied with temperature (Table 4). The solid state phase transition
for the heated material (titanium), namely the change in the type
of crystal lattice from the α -modification (close-packed hexago-
nal lattice) to the β -modification (body-centered cubic lattice), oc-
curred at a temperature of ≈ 883 °C [34].
3.1.3. Characteristics of the boundary processes
To correctly solve the heat conduction problem, the following
coefficient values were set that corresponded to the experimen-
tal data of the heating kinetics (Table 5).

5
A. Fomin, V. Koshuro, A. Shchelkunov et al.
Table 5
Values of thermophysical parameters of heat sinks at the boundary of the blocks of the "inductor –
sample" system.
No. Boundary name
– –
1 Water (still water)
Water (water flow) <1>
Water (boiling water)
Steam (condensing)
2 Titanium <2>
Titanium (oxidized)
Air (still)
Air (blowing)
Note: <1> – the value selected is necessary for sufficient convective cooling of the inner surface of
the wall of the copper inductor (it can reach 10 0 0 0 or more); <2> – the value characteristic of heat
transfer at a large temperature gradient from the surface of a morphologically heterogeneous structure
(oxide coating [28,30]) was determined.
• Heat transfer coefficient for convection process α CONV .
Fn = αCONV · (T − T0 ),
where (T – T0 ) – the difference between the current and initial
temperatures of the block surface, K.
• Radiation heat transfer coefficient (emissivity coefficient) ε RAD .
 
Fn = εRAD · kB · T 4 − T0 4 ,
where kB ≈ 5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 •K4 – the Stefan-Boltzmann con-
stant.
The heat transfer coefficient for air and water cooling is calcu-
lated more accurately, according to the following empirical expres-
sions [34]:
α = 5.6 + 4 · V,
√
α = 350 + 2100 · V ,
where V – the speed of air (Eq. 25) or water (Eq. 26), m/s.
3.2. Solutions of the self-consistent boundary-value problem of
electrodynamics and thermal conductivity for the "inductor –
titanium disk" system
When solving the self-consistent boundary-value problem of
electrodynamics and thermal conductivity for the "inductor – tita-
nium disk" system, the fragments were considered where the max-
imum current density j and the specific Joule heat source QV ap-
peared (Fig. 2). At a minimum inductor current of IIND = 2.7 kA,
the current density in titanium did not exceed 0.14 GA/m2 , which
corresponded to a QV value of not more than 3.3 GW/m3 . The max-
imum value for these characteristics of the system blocks was in
the copper inductor and it was a magnitude greater, i.e. j = 1.4
GA/m2 and QV = 33 GW/m3 .
At the maximum inductor current equal to IIND = 4.2 kA, the
current density in titanium did not exceed j = 0.2 GA/m2 , which
corresponded to a QV value of not more than 8 GW/m3 . When
considering thermal processes in the inductor, its intensive cool-
ing was taken into account; therefore, the temperature of the cop-
per tube and water did not exceed the critical value for the entire
duration of t = 300 s of the numerical experiment.
The temperature of the titanium disk at the minimum inductor
current of IIND = 2.7 kA was in the range 920–980°C (Fig. 3a). The
quasistationary temperature (operating temperature of the high-
temperature exposure) in the numerical experiment was achieved
over a period of 30–40 s (Fig. 3b, curves 1, 1∗ ). The temperature
of the titanium disk was determined at two characteristic points:
on the outer cylindrical surface of the disk (it corresponds to the
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 165 (2021) 120668
Heat transfer coefficient αCONV Emissivity coefficient εRAD
W/ m2 •K n.u.
300–600 –
3000–10000 –
3000–6000 –
6000–120000 –
250 0.19
– 0.5–0.7∗
5–10 –
20–300 –
closest distance to the middle coil of the inductor) and on the in-
ner surface of the hole (an asterisk "∗ " was added to denote this
(23)
point). The difference between the temperature of the outer (cylin-
drical) surface of the disk and the inner hole was 50–70°C.
At an inductor current of IIND = 3.2 kA, the exposure tem-
perature for the titanium sample was in the range 1190–1240°C
(Fig. 3b, curves 2, 2∗ ). The heating rate to a predetermined tem-
perature reached 70°C/s. At the maximum inductor current of
(24)
IIND = 4.2 kA, the exposure temperature for the titanium sample
approached the melting temperature and amounted to T = 1620–
1680°C (Fig. 3b, curves 3, 3∗ ). The heating rate of a titanium sample
at a given inductor current was T(t) = 120–130°C/s and the operat-
ing temperature of the high-temperature exposure was reached in
t = 25–35 s. When the inductor current grew the heating temper-
ature exceeded the melting temperature, which in the experiment
(25) was accompanied by a change in the electrical parameters of the
oscillatory circuit.
(26) Thus, as a result of a numerical experiment, the temperature of
the chosen region (block or boundary) was determined for each el-
ement of the "inductor – titanium disk" system. The temperature
parameters of the atmosphere near the titanium sample, which
characterized the course of dissociation processes and increased in
the adsorption-diffusion activity of atomic oxygen during interac-
tion with the metal surface, were also determined.
4. Materials and methods
4.1. Preparation of samples
Experimental samples were round plates with the diameter of
14 mm and thickness of 2 mm fabricated from commercially pure
(cp) Titanium Grade 2. The surfaces of the samples were processed
by grinding using abrasive fine-grained paper (P80 0–P20 0 0) in or-
der to obtain the surface roughness of Ra = 0.16–0.32 μm. Next,
the prepared samples were placed on a ceramic base inside a
quartz chamber of a water-cooled copper inductor (Fig. 4).
4.2. Research methods of the exposure during IHT and
macrogeometry of titanium disks
Induction heat treatment (IHT) of the titanium disks was per-
formed in the temperature range from 950 to 1650°C. Temperature
values equal to T = 1700–1750°C for a highly oxidized titanium
disk surface were obtained by extrapolation. The main parameters
of the IHT process were inductor current IIND , electric power PE and
exposure temperature T. The inductor current was determined us-
ing current clamps (model "UT205", UNI-TREND GROUP Ltd.) with
a current measurement limit of 4 kA and a measurement accuracy
of 0.001 kA (Fig. 4a).
6
A. Fomin, V. Koshuro, A. Shchelkunov et al.
Fig. 2. Plots showing the current density distribution field j (a) and the specific Joule heat source QV (b) at a minimum inductor current of IIND = 2.7 kA (the left half-plane
of the model under consideration is shown).
The values obtained in the experiment were rounded to
tenths of kA, since the measured values had a spread in this
range. A digital multimeter (model "UT58D", UNI-TREND GROUP
Ltd.) and current clamps (model "UT201", UNI-TREND GROUP Ltd.)
were used to control the voltage value (at the LATR output) and
current consumption with a measurement limit of 20 A. The elec-
trical power PE consumed by the IHT device was determined by
their direct product.
The temperature of the heated samples was controlled in
the range from room temperature from +18...+25 °C to +1100
°C (+1650 °C) by the non-contact method using an infrared
(IR) pyrometer (model "DT-8828", CEM Instruments) and a high-
temperature IR pyrometer (model "MS6550B", Precision Mastech),
respectively. The temperature of titanium samples was also con-
trolled using the temperature color palette (Fig. 4b) [28,30].
To control changes in the surface morphology and macrogeom-
etry of titanium disks, macroscopic analysis was performed. Dur-
ing macroanalysis the appearance of an oxide coating (sublayer) or
thick scale (its partial or complete delamination) was determined,
an increase in linear dimensions, thermal deformation, fusion and
destruction were noted. Other parameters of the resulting coatings,
in particular the chemical composition, surface morphology pa-
rameters, and hardness were considered in previous works [28,30].
After IHT titanium samples were subjected to thickness measure-
ment using a micrometer. This procedure was used to determine
the thickness of the scale; in this case the difference between the
thickness of the sample before and after removal of the scale was
established. The resulting value was halved, since an oxide layer
formed over the entire surface of the titanium disk. The control
of the scale thickness was not performed for the samples of ti-
tanium disks, on which spontaneous delamination was observed.
However, this phenomenon was typical for the samples processed
in the high temperature range (over 10 0 0°C).
5. Results and discussion
5.1. Electrotechnological dependences of the induction heat treatment
of titanium disk samples
The following regularities of the IHT process of titanium disks
(D = 14 mm, h = 2 mm having a central hole with a diameter of
d = 3.5 mm) in the considered "inductor – titanium disk" system
were determined:
7
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 165 (2021) 120668
• "PE – IIND " dependence for the inductor current IIND on the
electric power PE consumed by the induction heating device
(Table 6).
• "PE – T" dependence for the exposure temperature T of titanium
disk samples on the electric power PE (Table 8).
• "IIND – T" dependence for the exposure temperature T of tita-
nium disk samples on the inductor current IIND selected as the
main factor of the IHT electrotechnological process at a certain
frequency of the inductor current (90 kHz) and weight and size
parameters of the elements of the "inductor – titanium disk"
system (Table 10).
A typical characteristic of the IHT process for the output param-
eter Y from the input value X was represented by a linear equation
of proportional-logarithmic type:
Y = a + b · ln (X ), (27)
where a, b – the weight coefficients of the model, which
were reliable according to the calculated values of the t-ratio
(Prob(t) → 0 condition). The adequacy of the selected type of
model was checked using the F-ratio (Prob(F) → 0 condition).
Taking into account the calculated values of the model weight
coefficients (Table 7), the "PE – IIND " dependence for the inductor
current IIND on the electric power PE consumed by the induction
heating device was as follows:
IIND = 4.5216 + 1.1779 · ln (PE ), (28)
Graphically, the "PE – IIND " dependence was represented by a
curve that increased moderately with the growth of the electric
power (Fig. 5).
Thus, the established nonlinear regularity of the change in the
inductor current in the considered range of measuring electric
power was apparently due to the heating processes of the main
elements of the "inductor – titanium disk" system.
An increase in radiation losses and the formation of a function-
ally gradient structure [33], namely an oxide coating with nano-
and submicro-sized crystals and pores, on the surface of a tita-
nium sample influenced the "PE – T" and "IIND – T" temperature de-
pendences. Lower efficiency of induction heating when increasing
energy intensity of the IHT process was associated with a greater
heat transfer. The considered dependences were also represented
by an expression of the proportional-logarithmic type (Eq. 27).
Taking into account the calculated values of the model weight
coefficients (Table 9), the "PE – T" dependence for temperature T
during exposure of titanium disk samples on the electric power PE
A. Fomin, V. Koshuro, A. Shchelkunov et al. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 165 (2021) 120668

Fig. 3. Plot of the temperature distribution field at the minimum inductor current of IIND = 2.7 kA (a) and heating kinetics curves (b) at different values of the inductor
current: 1, 1∗ – at IIND = 2.7 kA; 2, 2∗ – at IIND = 3.2 kA; 3, 3∗ – at IIND = 4.2 kA.

Table 6
Electrotechnological parameters of the IHT process and calculated values in the nodes of the regression dependence (Eq. 27).

Electric powerPE Inductor current IIND Inductor current (calculated value) I∗ IND Relative calculation error
kW kA kA %

0.21 2.7 2.6832 0.62

0.25 2.9 2.8886 0.39
0.32 3.2 3.1794 0.64
0.49 3.6 3.6813 -2.26
0.61 3.9 3.9394 -1.01
0.74 4.2 4.1669 0.79
0.95 4.5 4.4612 0.86

Table 7
Weight coefficients and criteria-based evaluation of the mathematical model
(Eq. 28).

Variable Value Standard Error t-ratio Prob(t) Prob(F)

a 4.5216 3.33 × 10−2 135.96 0.0 n.a.

b 1.1779 3.45 × 10−2 34.14 0.0 n.a.
R2 0.996 – n.a. n.a. n.a.
F-ratio 1165.37 – n.a. n.a. 0.0

was as follows:

T = 1804.15 + 543.06 · ln (PE ), (29)

Fig. 4. Inductor current measurement (a) and visual temperature control (b): 1 –
insulation of a water-cooled inductor; 2 – current clamps (at a measured current Graphically, the "PE – T" dependence was represented by a
value equal to IIND ≈ 3.7 kA); 3 – a capacitor tank of the oscillatory circuit; 4 –
glow from a heated titanium sample.
curve that grew moderately up to the melting temperature of ti-
tanium (about 1670°C) with increasing electric power (Fig. 6).

8
A. Fomin, V. Koshuro, A. Shchelkunov et al. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 165 (2021) 120668

Table 8
The average values of the exposure temperature during IHT and the calculated values.

Electric power PE Exposure temperature T Exposure temperature (calculated value) T∗ Relative calculation error
kW °C °C %

0.21 950 956.62 -0.67

0.25 1050 1051.31 -0.13
0.32 1200 1185.37 1.22
0.49 1400 1416.76 -1.20
0.61 1550 1535.72 0.92
0.74 1650 1640.63 0.57
0.95 1750 1776.29 -1.50

Fig. 5. "PE – IIND " graphical dependence for the inductor current IIND on the electric power PE consumed by the IHT device.

Table 9 Table 11
Weight coefficients and criteria-based evaluation of a mathematical model (Eq. 29). Weight coefficients and criteria-based evaluation of a mathematical model (Eq. 30).

Variable Value Standard Error t-ratio Prob(t) Prob(F) Variable Value Standard Error t-ratio Prob(t) Prob(F)

a 1804.15 13.73 131.41 0.0 n.a. a -665.25 38.72 -17.18 0.0 n.a.
b 543.06 12.70 42.78 0.0 n.a. b 1615.51 32.01 50.47 0.0 n.a.
R2 0.997 – n.a. n.a. n.a. R2 0.998 – n.a. n.a. n.a.
F-ratio 1829.67 – n.a. n.a. 0.0 F-ratio 2547.47 – n.a. n.a. 0.0

In a similar way, the "IIND – T" dependence for the exposure

Graphically, the "IIND – T" dependence was represented by a
temperature T of titanium disk samples on the inductor current
curve that moderately grew up to the melting temperature of ti-
IIND (the main factor in the electrotechnological process of IHT)
tanium (≈ 1670°C) with increasing current of the inductor (Fig. 7).
was represented.
The changes in the obtained regression dependences (Figs. 5–
Taking into account the calculated values of the model weight
7) were also determined at lower values of the electric power
coefficients (Table 11), the "IIND – T" dependence for temperature
PE and the inductor current IIND . Extrapolation was performed up
T during the exposure of titanium disk samples on the current of
to the values of the parameters PE ≈ 0.1 kW and IIND ≈ 2.2 kA,
the inductor IIND was as follows:
which corresponded to the minimum temperature of the IHT pro-
cess of about T = 600°C. The calculated data for the established de-
T = −665.25 + 1615.51 · ln (IIND ), (30) pendences were compared with previously obtained experimental

Table 10
The average values of the exposure temperature during IHT and calculated values.

Inductor current IIND Exposure temperature T Exposure temperature (calculated value) T∗ Relative calculation error
kA °C °C %

2.7 950 939.37 1.12

2.9 1050 1054.81 -0.46
3.2 1200 1213.84 -1.15
3.6 1400 1404.12 -0.29
3.9 1550 1533.43 1.07
4.2 1650 1653.15 -0.19
4.5 1750 1764.61 -0.84

9
A. Fomin, V. Koshuro, A. Shchelkunov et al.
Fig. 6. "PE – T" graphic dependence for the temperature T during exposure of titanium disk samples on the electric power PE .
Fig. 7. "IIND – T" graphical dependence for the temperature T during the exposure of titanium disk samples on the inductor current IIND .
values in the temperature range 60 0–120 0°C [33]. Graphically,
the general regularities Eqs. 28–(30) were as follows (Fig. 8).
In previous studies, it was shown that thermal activation of
a titanium substrate required a lower temperature, in particular
T = 60 0–80 0°C [27,28]. For the considered "inductor – titanium
disk" system, this temperature range was achieved at an electric
power of PE = 0.11–0.16 kW and an inductor current of IIND = 2.2–
2.5 kA, respectively.
Thus, as a result of the experiment, proportional-logarithmic
dependences were established. The most convenient for practical
use is the "IIND – T" dependence, since the graph of this depen-
dence resembles a straight line. However, for a very specific case,
e.g. the considered "inductor – titanium disk" system with the in-
dicated geometric parameters, it was enough to identify the expo-
sure temperature through the consumed electric power PE , which
excluded the measuring of the inductor current at high frequency.
In other cases, in a first approximation, the use of numerical sim-
10
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 165 (2021) 120668
ulation to determine the inductor current IIND in order to achieve
the required temperature of the IHT process is preferable.
5.2. Surface morphology of titanium disks subjected to IHT
At temperatures below the considered range, e.g. T = 800–850
°С, the oxide coating was retained on the surface of titanium disks
even after the prolonged exposure t = 300 s (Fig. 9a). During the
high-temperature IHT, a scale appeared on the titanium surface,
the thickness of which depended on the temperature and duration
of exposure. At T = 900–950 °С, a scale with the thickness of about
30–40 μm was formed, which was mostly retained on the surface
of titanium disks after IHT was completed (Fig. 9b). However, with
a subsequent increase in temperature, the scale was spontaneously
separated from the surface of titanium samples (Fig. 9c–f).
At an IHT temperature of about T = 10 0 0–1050°C, a rutile oxide
sublayer was formed on titanium [30], where the scale fragments
A. Fomin, V. Koshuro, A. Shchelkunov et al. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 165 (2021) 120668

Fig. 8. "PE – IIND " (a), "PE – T" (b) and "IIND – T" (c) graphical dependences considering their extrapolation for the electrotechnological process of induction-thermal treatment
of titanium disks (D = 14 mm, h = 2 mm) at an inductor current frequency of 90 kHz and selected geometric parameters of the "inductor – titanium disk" system elements.

Fig. 9. Titanium disks (DS = 14 mm, h = 2 mm, with a hole d = 3.5 mm) subjected to IHT at an exposure of t = 300 s with different temperatures: a – T = 800–850°C; b
– T = 900–950°C; c – T = 1000–1050°C; d – T = 1150–1200°C; e – T = 1350–1400°C; d – T = 1500–1550°C.

were observed (Fig. 9c). At a higher temperature T > 1200°C, there
were practically no scale fragments on the surface of the sublayer
(Fig. 9d). However, with an increase in the exposure temperature
above T = 1300–1350 °С, the sublayer had a greater thickness and
was characterized by a matte gloss (Fig. 9e,f).
At an inductor current of IIND = 4.2–4.5 kA, partial and full
melting of a titanium disk, the surface of which had an oxide shell,
was observed (Fig. 10a). The scale was melted in the surface of
the titanium sample, which excluded its spontaneous delamina-
tion. The obtained temperature value was determined during ex-
trapolation and it corresponded to the consumed electric power of
PE = 0.76–0.95 kW.
The temperature and inductor current were not controlled fur-
ther as this was related to the operating ranges of the devices
used. Therefore, the power consumption PE was monitored. At a
power equal to PE = 1.1–1.3 kW, deformation of titanium disks
with oxide coatings was observed at a heating duration of about
30–60 s (Fig. 10b,c). The complete destruction of titanium disks oc-
curred at PE = 1.5 kW during the heating and exposure period of
about 20–30 s (Fig. 10d).

11
A. Fomin, V. Koshuro, A. Shchelkunov et al.
Fig. 10. Strongly oxidized (a) and semi-molten (b–d) titanium disks subjected to IHT at various power consumption values: a – PE = 0.76 kW; b – PE ≈ 1.1 kW; c – PE ≈ 1.3
kW; d – PE ≈ 1.5 kW (destroyed by low mechanical stress).
Conclusions
In case of the analytical solution of the heat conduction prob-
lem, the amount of heat released in the near-surface layer of metal
was determined. The obtained value of the thermal energy density
was further used to determine the surface temperature and the
nature of its change when penetrating into the metal. An analyt-
ical solution to the planar one-dimensional problem showed that,
at the selected current frequency values, the surface temperature
T quadratically depended on r.m.s. value of the inductor current I
and number of turns per unit length of the inductor Nl .
The surface temperature was determined by numerical simula-
tion, i.e. in solving the self-consistent boundary-value problem of
electrodynamics and thermal conductivity for the "inductor – tita-
nium disk" system. It was found that when the inductor current
changed in the range 2.7–4.2 kA, the average exposure tempera-
ture for the titanium disk varied from 850 to 1640°C.
As a result of experimental studies, the influence of the in-
ductor current IIND in the range from 2.7 to 4.2 kA on the sur-
face temperature of the titanium disk, which varied from 850±20
to 1640±30°C, was established. Thus, a correspondence between
the results of numerical simulation and the obtained experimental
data was observed.
A clear change in the surface morphology of the titanium disk
was studied over a wide temperature range. The initial oxide coat-
ing was retained on the surface of samples processed at a min-
imum exposure temperature of T = 800–850°C. A thick scale of
titanium dioxide was also preserved on the surfaces of molten ti-
tanium disks. During its mechanical removal, partial damage or
12
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 165 (2021) 120668
complete destruction of the disk sample itself was observed. In
the samples of titanium disks subjected to IHT at a temperature of
900–950°C, the spontaneous delamination of scale was rather poor,
i.e. some fragments were retained. In the rest of the IHT expo-
sure range from 10 0 0–1050°C to 150 0–1550°C, the scale was spon-
taneously separated from the surface of titanium disks; however,
there was enough time for an oxide sublayer with high hardness
and bond strength with the underlying oxygen-saturated layer to
be formed under it.
Declaration of Competing Interest
None.
Acknowledgments
The research was supported by the Russian Science Foundation
(project No. 18-79-10040).
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