Class Notes On Topology-I(PSMATC-104)

Semester-I, 2021
Unit-I
Dr. Anu Kumari Khanna
Department of Mathematics,
University of Jammu,Jammu,
J & K, India.

March 3, 2021

Application of Zorn’s lemma: Let X and Y be any two non-empty sets. Then either
there is an injection from X to Y or there is an injection from Y to X.

Proof: Let S = {(A, f ) : A ⊆ X and f : A → Y is an injection}.

Claim: S =
6 φ.

Since X and Y are non-empty sets, there exists x ∈ X and y ∈ Y.

Let A = {x} and f : A → Y defined by f (x) = y. Clearly, (A, f ) ∈ S and so S =

6 φ.

Now for (A, f ), (B, g) ∈ S, we define a relation ≤ as:

(A, f ) ≤ (B, g) iff A ⊆ B and f (x) = g(x), ∀x ∈ A.

We shall show that (S, ≤) is a partial ordered set.

(i) ≤ is reflexive: Let (A, f ) ∈ S. Then A ⊆ A and f (x) = f (x) ∀x ∈ A
=⇒ (A, f ) ≤ (A, f )
So, ≤ is reflexive.

(ii) ≤ is antisymmetric: Let (A, f ), (B, g) ∈ S such that (A, f ) ≤ (B, g), and
(B, g) ≤ (A, f ),
=⇒ A ⊆ B and f (x) = g(x), ∀x ∈ A
and B ⊆ A and g(x) = f (x), ∀x ∈ B.
=⇒ A = B and f (x) = g(x), ∀x ∈ A = B.
=⇒ (A, f ) = (B, g)
Therefore, ≤ is antisymmetric.
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 (iii) ≤ is transitive: Let (A, f ), (B, g), (C, h) ∈ S such that (A, f ) ≤ (B, g), and
(B, g) ≤ (C, h)
=⇒ A ⊆ B and f (x) = g(x), ∀x ∈ A
and B ⊆ C and g(x) = h(x), ∀x ∈ B.
=⇒ A ⊆ C and f (x) = h(x), ∀x ∈ A
=⇒ (A, f ) ≤ (C, h)
Therefore, ≤ is transitive.

This proves that (S, ≤) is a partial ordered set.

Next, let A = {(Ai , fi ) : i ∈ ∆} be a chain in (S, ≤). We shall show that A has an upper
bound in (S, ≤).

For, let A = ∪i∈∆ Ai . Then A ⊆ X. Define a mapping, f : A → Y by f (x) = fi (x), if x ∈ Ai

f is well defined: Let x ∈ A be such that x ∈ Ai and x ∈ Aj for i 6= j. To show that f is

well defined map, we have to show that fi (x) = fj (x).
Since (Ai , fi ), (Aj , fj ) ∈ A and A is a chain in (S, ≤), we have either (Ai , fi ), ≤ (Aj , fj ) or
(Aj , fj ) ≤ (Ai , fi )
Suppose (Ai , fi ) ≤ (Aj , fj ). This means that Ai ⊆ Aj and fi (y) = fj (y) ∀y ∈ Ai .
Clearly, fi (x) = fj (x) and so, f is well defined.

0 0
f is one-one: Suppose x, x ∈ A be such that f (x) = f (x ). Since A = ∪i∈∆ Ai , there exists
0
i, j ∈ ∆ such that x ∈ Ai and x ∈ Aj .
Also, since (Ai , fi ), (Aj , fj ) ∈ A and A is a chain in (S, ≤), we have either (Ai , fi ), ≤ (Aj , fj ) or
(Aj , fj ) ≤ (Ai , fi )
Suppose (Ai , fi ) ≤ (Aj , fj ). This means that Ai ⊆ Aj and fi (y) = fj (y) ∀y ∈ Ai .
Now x ∈ Ai =⇒ f (x) = fi (x).
0 0 0
Again, x ∈ Aj =⇒ f (x ) = fj (x ).
0 0
Now fj (x) = fi (x) = f (x) = f (x ) = fj (x ).
0 0
=⇒ fj (x) = fj (x ) =⇒ x = x .
Therefore, f : A → Y is injective and so (A, f ) ∈ S.

Also, it is easy to see that (Ai , fi ) ≤ (A, f ), ∀i ∈ ∆, so (A, f ) is an upper bound of A in

(S, ≤).
0 0
Thus by the Zorn’s lemma, (S, ≤) has a maximal element, say (A , f ).

Now we have two cases:

0 0 0 0
Case(i): If A = X, then f : A → Y ; i.e f : X → Y is an injective map.
0 0
Case(ii): If A 6= X, then ∃ x0 ∈ X such that x0 ∈
/A.
0 0
We first show that f : A → Y is an onto map.

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 0 0 0
For this, suppose f is not an onto map. Then f (A ) ( Y and so ∃ y0 ∈ Y such that
0 0
y0 ∈
/ f (A ).
00 0 0 00
Let A = A ∪ {x0 }. Then A ( A
00 00
Define f : A → Y by
 0 0
00 f (x) if x ∈ A
f (x) =
y0 if x = x0 .

00 00 00 00
Clearly, f : A → Y is an injection and so (A , f ) ∈ (S, ≤).
0 0 00 00 0 0 00 00 0 0 00 00
Also, it is clear that (A , f ) ≤ (A , f ) and (A , f ) 6= (A , f ); i.e (A , f ) < (A , f ), Which
0 0
contradicts the maximality of (A , f ) in (S, ≤).
0 0 0 0
This proves that f : A → Y is an onto map. Thus f : A → Y is a bijective map.
0 −1
Clearly, g = (f ) : Y → A is a bijective map and so g : Y → X is an injective map.
This completes the proof.


Theorem: Prove that Zorn’s lemma implies Hausdorff maximality principle.

Proof: Let (X, ≤) be a partially ordered set and let (C, ⊆) be the partially ordered set of
chains in X. We have to show that (C, ⊆) has a maximal element.

Let A = {Ai : i ∈ ∆} be a chain in C and let A = ∪i∈∆ Ai .

We claim that A is a chain in (X, ≤).

For this, let x, y ∈ A
=⇒ x, y ∈ ∪i∈∆ Ai
=⇒ x ∈ Ai , y ∈ Aj , for some i, j ∈ ∆.
Since Ai , Aj ∈ A and A is a chain in (C, ⊆), we have either Ai ⊆ Aj or Aj ⊆ Ai
Suppose Ai ⊆ Aj . Then x, y ∈ Aj . But Aj itself is a chain in (X, ≤). So either x ≤ y or y ≤ x.
This shows that A is a chain in (X, ≤). i.e A ∈ C.

Also, Ai ⊆ A, ∀i ∈ ∆, =⇒ A is an upper bound of A.

Thus every chain in (C, ⊆) has an upper bound and so by Zorn’s lemma, (C, ⊆) has a maxi-
mal element.

Hence Zorn’s lemma implies Hausdorff maximality principle.



(D.O.M/ ∗ 2021)