ZJC-1-2

INTRODUCTION
What is History?
- History is the study of the past, present and future historical events.
- These events are mainly political, social and economic events.
- Political-how societies were led or governed.
- For example, in the past societies were led by clan leader and chiefs.
- Economically –hunting, gathering and were major economic activities of societies.
- Socially- social gatherings (Bira) and entertainment using drums, song and dance.
WHY STUDY HISTORY
- We study history to know our past because our past predicts our future.
- To know developments which took place in the past for example tools, leadership etc.
- To take advantage of development made by other people.
- To know our origin and identity.
- To know the history of our country.
- To be united.
- It informs our enemies, detractors, and traitors the reasons behind such circumstances.
- To know past and present leadership styles and distribution of power in various government ministries.
- Helps us to think critically on historical matters to come up with real truth History also
liberates/frees human mind and level of thinking It stimulates analytical skills on human
matters in life.
TYPES OF HISTORY
- There are several types of history.

- These include political history, social history, cultural history, economic history, local history, diplomatic
history, intellectual history, and many others.
- In the context of our syllabus, we will only focus on social history, political history, economic history and
local history.
1. SOCIAL HISTORY
- This type of history examines/studies the experiences of people in the past.

- It is a broad/wide branch of history. This means that it looks at many aspects.
- It studies the ways and customs/habits of the family, education, children, demography (population change)
and voluntary institutions such as churches.
- In the 1960s and 1970s, social history went through what was called a golden age. This means that it was
a popular field among scholars at that time.
- Social history helps to focus public debate on the nature of family life.
- Social history does not only reflect or show public interest but also anticipates/looks forward to what
might happen in the future.
2. POLITICAL HISTORY
- Political history involves the study of governments of different countries, their political leaders, their
electoral systems, policy making, the connection and operations of branches of governments.
- The three arms of government are legislature, judiciary and executive.
- Political history provides an analysis of political events such as political violence during elections times,
strikes, political demonstrations and revolutions such as the Industrial revolution which took place in
Britain many years ago.
- Political history analyses the ideas and movements in politics as well as those of the political parties.
3. ECONOMIC HISTORY
- Economics is a broad/wide field of study.

- The simplest definition of economic history would be the “study of the process or system by which goods
and services are produced, distributed, sold and bought.
- Economic history focuses on the evolution/development of economic institutions/organizations over a
period of time.
- Economic history focuses on:
(i) how people produced food and everything else they used.
(ii) how they exchanged goods.
(iii) how they organized their labour and manufacturing.
- When economic historians look at the ancient civilisations for example, they look at the modes of
production which include the domestication of livestock, cultivation of crops, hunting and gathering,
mining, tribute payment and many others.
4. LOCAL HISTORY
- Local history is the study of history in a geographically particular context.
- Local history concentrates on local/particular communities such as villages, kraals, towns, cities, schools
and churches.
- It also traces the origins of organizations/institutions, how they got their names, who built them and when.
- Local history records all the other types of history that we studied above, but on a smaller (limited) scale.
- It mainly focuses on social and cultural aspects.
Historical evidence
• Oral tradition
- These are narrated by elders to the young.
- Usually they are interviewed and information is passed from one generation to another through the word
of mouth.
Advantages
➢ Easy to get information.
➢ Easy to understand.
➢ You can ask questions.
➢ Every member of the society can have access to the information.
Disadvantages
➢ Information can be easily forgotten.
➢ The narrator can also make deliberate lies.
➢ There might be a lot of exaggeration, bias or dilution of information.
• Written records
These are facts written by people of the past. These facts can be found in libraries or archives. Information can be
grouped into primary and secondary evidence.
❖ Primary evidence
These are diaries, letters or just information written by actual duress e.g. Rulers and Administrators who wrote
official letters.
❖ Secondary evidence
This information is found in published books and it is an analysis of primary evidence. Therefore a person who
analyses, studies or writes historical information is called a historian. A historian searches for facts about past
events and these facts are called evidences.
Advantages
➢ Information can be stored for a long time.
➢ Information could be from actual duress.
Disadvantages
➢ Only the literate can use this source.
➢ One may write wrong information.
➢ You cannot ask questions.
➢ Records may get lost.
➢ Information can be distorted, exaggerated or forcibly implied.
• Archaeology
This is a scientific way of studding remains, objects and artefacts of the past e.g. pottery, hoes and jewellery.
These artefacts of the fast are dug out from the ground at historical sites such as Great Zimbabwe, Khami and Old
Bulawayo monuments. They tell us what people ate, how they obtained their food, how they dressed and
equipment they used. Dates are obtained through a scientific way of dating called Carbon Dating.
Advantages
➢ It is more reliable than the other two sources as it cannot be distorted or forcibly implied as one will be dealing
with the original remains or objects.
Disadvantages
➢ The method is expensive i.e. Carbon Dating.
➢ It needs skilled people to find the information or discover the object from a historical site.
➢ If not careful information of different groups of people may be mixed up.
➢ Objects or remains may be destroyed therefore history of a particular group is lost forever.
A.D. – Anno-Domino (After Death).
BC. – Before Christ.
HUMAN EVOLUTION
¯ Evolution refers to the stages of development which men under went.
¯ It is also the process of change from one stage to another chronologically (orderly)
¯ There are two basic theory of human evolution or development and these theories have conflicting ideas
concerning the origin or evolution of men
a) Biblical theory
¯ The theory asserts that man was created by God as noted in the book of Genesis.
¯ It argues that God created Adam and then Eve who became the mother of the universe
¯ The theory is theoretical in nature as it only provides written evidence provides written evidence without other
evidence like archaeological and oral sources
b) The scientific theory
¯ It was a theory put forward by Charles Darwin with the help of studies made by Mr Richard Leaky.
¯ The theory argues that man developed slowly and stage by stage from a group of animals called apes.
¯ Subsequent stages of development until man left his/her original way of using four legs like other animals and
began to use two legs to stand upright and walk.
¯ History as a subject believes on availability of evidence to support the theory.
¯ Ample archaeological evidence supports the scientific theory making a theory worth acceptable.
¯ The theory also argues that the process of evolution took ten to twenty million years for it to be completed
which is supported by evidence recovered from archaeological remains discovered and studies made by
archaeologists and palaeontologist who study fossils.
¯ Radio carbon dating has dated these fossils since 1958 to discover the rough age of anything that grows.
¯ Why do Historians believe that human beings evolved rather than they were created by God?
¯ Historians believe in evolution because radiocarbon dating gives evidence of the ages to which evolution
underwent its processes.
Basis of the scientific theory
¯ A theory written by Charles Darwin argues that people and apes came from same ancestors.
Ramapithecus
- It is the ancestor of all apes and human beings, they lived millions of years ago.
- It was not an ape, hominid or human being but a different creature all together.
Hominids
- These were creatures which were more like humans than apes. They lived on earth millions of years ago.
- They were not apes or monkeys and neither were they human.
- These hominids became extinct. They were believed to live in Eastern and Southern Africa.
- Remains of these hominids had been found covered in dried lakes and these historical remains are also
known as fossils.
• Australopithecus
- It lived millions of years ago.
- These were small creatures that when fully grown looked like a 12 year old and couldn’t walk upright.
- They are two types which were:
- Australopithecus Robustus
- It was sometimes called the nut cracker as it was able to crunch and grind hard food like nuts as it had
large grinding teeth. It was also called Zinjathropus.
- Australopithecus Gracilis
- These had small teeth of about the same size and it had no specialised tasks like the Robustus.
- It ate all sorts of food like human beings of today eat.
- The Australopithecus did not make tools but used their teeth.
• Homo Habilis (Skilful man )

- Survived over the early Stone Age period. It was the first hominid to talk using languages, to use tools and
these tools were called Oldwans as they were found at Olduvai Gorge.
- Habilines probably got meat by Scavenging, they waited for lions and hyenas to feast on the meat they
would’ve killed and ate the remains.
- Meat formed a small part of their diet.
• Homo Erectus
- The word erect means to walk upright. They used hand axes and cleavers to chop down trees, branches
and for digging.
- People were able to make tools easily and this period was referred to as the early Stone Age.
- The Homo erectus learned to use fire to drive animals away, protect their shelter at night, to cook and
keep them warm.
• Homo Sapien
- They survived during the middle Stone Age period.
- They used flex tools for cutting meat, scrapping skins and making tips of weapons.
- They used glue to stick a pole on a wooden handle. A greater use of fire was noticed.
- They began to build shelter at their camps made from branches, stones and dry grass.
• Homo Sapien (Neanderthals)

- They survived during the middle Stone Age period.
- They looked after the sick, buried the dead and believed in life after death.
- They drove animals over cliffs as groups, trapped, killed and shared meat equally.
• Homo Sapien Sapiens

- The people of today are called Homo Sapien Sapien.
- They continued with the middle Stone Age period but developed future Stone Age tools.
- Future changes are noticed due to environmental changes that is the reason why people differ because of
different environments.
WHY AFRICA IS THE CRADLE OF MAN?

Cradle
¯ It means origin (where one come from)
¯ Most discoveries of human race were done and concluded in Africa.
¯ These discoveries of the human race were done along the East-African Rift valley.
¯ Discoveries made at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania four million years in North East Africa is evidence (facts) that
human race originated in Africa.
¯ The first ape-like, though they could stand and walk on two legs were found in Africa.
¯ Changes in the colour of human race are also a result of weather changes.
¯ Tool making also began in Africa and fire making.
Physical changes in human development
¯ Ability to think and work in group co-operation
¯ Ability to make tools which makes work easy.
¯ Ability to speak or communicate sharing ideas or information.
¯ Development of hunting skills e.g. trapping.
¯ Development of skills on how to gather.
¯ Division of labour- woman gathering and, in some cases, helped men in setting traps for animals.
¯ Sharing of hunted and gathered foods equally among participant
Effects of tool making

- Tool making affected people’s lives positively by making production easier.
- It was easier because they used the tools for gathering food e.g. fruits and insects.
- This also brought communication and their language progressed and this was where early language
emerged.
- The transition from collecting to hunting established an important base for the future human development.
By this people learnt how to take care of themselves.
- The struggle for survival helped the human development increase.
EGYPT AND KUSH
- In Egypt two great civilised groups existed which were Egyptians and Kushians.
- The Nile River in Egypt is the longest river in Africa.
- It has two great tributaries which are the Blue Nile and the White Nile.
- The Nile was the centre of life through trade, transport and agriculture.
- The early people of the Nile had to learn to understand the river to control its flooding.
- Dam walls were built to stop the water from flooding the villages.
- Canals were also built to help water run through the fields.
- To calculate this Egyptians needed accurate measurements therefore they developed early forms of
mathematics and Geometry which they called Geometrics.
- Egyptians came up with three seasons which the called Arket (the time for planting), Peret (the time for
harvesting) and Shemou (the time when the Nile river flooded).
- Days were counted by phases of the moon called months.
- The flood cycle started after every 365 days and each month had 30 days and that left them with 5 extra
days which they called Heryou Renepet.
Egyptian writing
- The most vital steps to civilisation were the invention of Egyptian writing.
- The Egyptians adopted a picture way of writing called Hieroglyphics.
- The most important records of the Egyptians which have come down to us are on papyrus (paper).
- At first Egyptians curved their writing on stones e.g. on the walls of Egyptian tombs and temples.
- They learnt how to make paper from papyrus reeds which grew freely on the Nile banks.
- Ink was made by mixing soot and vegetable dye.
- The Egyptian handwriting is called Hieroglyphics which means picture writing or sacred carvings.
Who learnt to write?

• Pharaohs and their advisers.
• Priests learnt to interpret sacred writing.
• Scribes as they worked in civil services and wed professional writers.
• Sons of rich man learnt to write as part of their education.
What did they write?

• They kept records of their everyday business.
• Plays and stories of all kinds mostly about the gods.
• Letters of state business to foreign countries or personal letters.
• Books of medicine, signs and moral based on religion practises as well as social questions.
• Scribes were present in fields to record the size of the harvest so that proper text/record could be assessed.
• From this idea modern man developed writing for communication and Egyptian writing has thus made a great
contribution to our present civilisation.
Agriculture
- Crops such as wheat, barley and sorghum were grown.
- Their food was made up of bread and fish from the Nile.
- They kept a lot of sheep and goats but few cattle.
- Their animals were mainly for paying taxes to the Pharaoh.
- They also grew flex which helped them to make cloth.
Shaduf
- It was like a see saw, a bucket was fastened to one end to a pole and a heavy stone to the other side.
- The pole then supports the crossbeam layered across to short wooden posts. When the bucket is dipped
into the river, a heavy stone acts as a centre weight and the bucket can rise easily and tipped into the
irrigation charets.
- Today we have irrigation in most of our country but the idea was borrowed from Egypt and as years
passed by Egyptian grew crops as a result of the irrigation system.
Pyramids
- Pyramids were the mightiest tombs of all built by the Pharaohs for their burials.
- Together there were 80 pyramids which were built near the Nile.
- The first pyramid was built for Pharaoh Zhoza and it was designed by an Architect/Imhotep.
- It was made out of a tomb layered out of different levels and this gave an impression of steps and it was
given the name Heroe.
- The largest was built for Pharaoh Khufu and it stands at Gizi near the city of Cairo, it took many years to
build and many men were required for the construction.
- Pyramids were built during the season of Shemou were no work was done in the fields.
Egyptian beliefs
• They believed in life after death and looked forward to the same kind of life which they were living on earth in
the next world.
• The book of the dead was listed 2 sins which a man had to avoid which were cheating and killing.
• The Egyptians believed the soul left the body to be judged by Osiris the underworld god.
• The heart of the dead was placed on a huge scale and weighed against its sins, guilty souls were at once devoured
by the jackal headed god Anubis but good souls entered the world of the dead and the company gods.
• The soul that had been judged worth of eternal life could eventually enter the body but only if it was properly
preserved and laid in a tomb.
• The re-entry of the soul into the body explained why Egyptians preserved the body of the dead (mummified).
• For kings and rich man, the preserving process of the body would last over 2 months, vital organs were first
removed and stored in Alabo Jars whilst the body itself was dried and treated with spices of essence.
NB: Much of Egyptian culture, writing and was lost and other point changed under the rule of theGreeks,
however, the Greeks learnt more from Egyptian arts, religion, architecture and science.
Egyptian gods
Horus – The sky god, his eyes were the moon and the sun.
Ptah – He invented the arts, the god of the capital menu.
Hathor – She was the goddess of beauty.
Osiris – He was a god of the underworld.
Rechoralchty (Ra) – He was the sun god.
• The word Pharaoh came from Per-au which means great house of leader.
• Pharaoh was the head of state and high priest; he governed with the assistance of Advisors, Generals and Priests.
• The Pharaoh was seen as a god and different from other humans.
• Women played a very important rule in the state and 4 women became pharaohs themselves.
• Means of production and distribution of wealth was in the hands of the Pharaoh.
• Building of the temple and mining were state businesses.
• Most people were peasant farmers who worked and lived on land which belonged to the Pharaoh.
• Land was given as payment to the priest, officials and soldiers.
• Land which was owned could be passed from parents to their children.
• Those who worked for the Pharaoh were paid in regular gifts like grain, fish and other things.
• There were also crafted people who were involved as potters and sculptors.
• The survival of the economy of the society depended upon the growth and distribution of land.
• Peasant farmers grew wheat and barley.
• Bread and beer was made from grain as well as vegetables and fruits were the staple food.
• Land was too wet for cattle raising there for they mainly kept sheep and goats.
• Glasses were made from sand.
Egyptian law
• Men and women were equal before the law in relation to royal decisions, legal practises and penalties.
• They had equal rights to property as well as justice.
• A family was constituted of mother, father and children.
• A strict code of ethics was kept.
Important events in Egyptian history

Historical evidence was obtained from
• Oral tradition.
• Written records.
• Archaeology.
A historian called Manetho sorted the kings into dynasties. A dynasty is a line of family rulers. He divided the
periods into 3 kingdoms.
• The old kingdom (2750-2200 BC)
• The middle kingdom (2150-1800 BC)
• The new kingdom (1580-1100 BC)
The intermediate was the period between dynasties and no records were kept during this period between civil
wars and foreign invasions (Dark ages).
The old kingdom

- The first pharaoh was Menes who united lower and Upper Egypt.
- He was a leader from the south and his capital was Memphis. The 1st and 2nd dynasties worked hard in
Uniting a society.
- During the third dynasty the first pyramid was built for Pharaoh Zozer at Sakkara; pyramids were burial
places for Pharaohs.
- Pharaoh Zozer was the founder of the third dynasty; his pyramid was the only one with stepped sides.
- Three more pyramids were built during the fourth dynasty and these had smooth sides.
- Pharaoh Khufu’s was the greatest and is one of the wonders of the world.
The middle kingdom

- Pharaoh Menthuhotep of the 11th dynasty worked hard to reunite Egypt once again.
- His successors extended the power over the rich Nubia at the Sauté.
- During this period Pharaohs put their sons as core rulers. During the 13th dynasty the Pharaohs were more
concerned about the south that the northern defences became weak.
- Groups of invaders from Asia began to enter the country and these foreign invaders were known as
Hyksos.
- The rulers Thebes fought a war of liberation against the Hyksos and this war lasted for 50 years.
The new kingdom

- Between the 18th and 20th dynasties Egypt became powerful again.
- Pharaohs of that time were Amenhotep I, Thutmose I and Queen Hatshepsut I.
- They strengthened and attended external affairs such as building temples.
- During Thutmose III’s reign Egypt became an imperialist power ruling over city states of Palestine, Syria
and Lebanon.
- During the reign of Amenhotep III he concentrated mainly on the internal as he was more interested in
culture at home than abroad.
- During his reign a temple at Luxor in the valley of kings was a sight of one of the most important of all
archaeological findings, the mummified body of Tutankhamen was found in1922 of the 18th dynasty.
- Great important Egyptian evidence was found in his tomb.
STONE AGE PERIOD

¯ It was a time began to make stone tools.
¯ As people continued to evolve their teeth grew small and their jaws became weak to eat uncut meat.
¯ This forced man to develop stone tools.
¯ The Stone Age period is divided into three stages that are Early, Middle and Late Stone Age.
¯
a) Early Stone Age
¯ Four million years ago to 50 000 BC, stone tools became widely used.
¯ The developed the hand axe for killing animals, skinning and cutting meat into pieces.
¯ Also began to make and use stone tools like cleavers, scrapers, knives and throwing stones.
¯ Gathering and hunting was a major pre-occupation.
¯ The gathered nuts, berries, bulbs and other fruits.
¯ Archaeological evidence in East Africa points out that trapping and poisoning of pools was used to catch fish.
¯ In Zimbabwe people use a bulb called Chitupatupa to poison pools to kill fish.
¯
b) Middle Stone Age
¯ Started around 50 000 BC to 150 000BC.

¯ It was the period in which fire was made.
¯ Fire was used for scaring world animals from their caves which they used as their shelter at night.
¯ Fire was also used for drying meat, warmth during winter days and to make glue through warming up juices
from plants and insects.
¯ Glue was used to protect spear heads.
¯ Fire was made from rubbing two dry sticks continuously.
¯ They also made spears from bones of animals.
¯ Scrapers continued to be used for scraping animal skins.
¯ Fire was made also used to clear forests to easy the work of hunting.
¯ Stone Age people also made gums out of juices of herbs and insects to make poison arrows or spears.
¯ Poisoned spears killed the animals quickly during hunting.
¯ Gathering also continued.
c) Later Stone Age
¯ It lasted two million years ago.

¯ The means of production was communal because people worked as groups.
¯ Hunting and gathering was done collectively (in groups).
¯ There was also equal sharing of goods or foods hunted and gathered.
¯ They carried out some religious ceremonies like now hunting seasons.
¯ They began the practise of burring off dead person in small and shallow caves (Ninga for Chiefs).
¯ Practised rock painting – drawing of people on walls/ rock surfaces to show their different activities.
¯ The painting shows the life styles, beliefs and myths of the period.
Later Stone Age tools and their uses
1.MICROLITHS ¯ Is a tiny-very small tools made from bones.

¯ Used for cutting skins
¯ To make clothes
¯ Sawing
¯ To make bulbs put on spears to increase its
sharpness
2.BOWS AND ARROWS

¯ It is a projectile pin used for hunting and
killing animals.
¯ Used in hunting
THE LATE STONE AGE AND EARLY IRON AGE
The Early Iron Age is the period which followed the Late Stone Age. The early began to be practiced in Central
Africa in AD300. The Bantu are associated with the Early Iron Age. They absorbed San hunter-gathers, they
brought with them iron tools which changed mode of production i.e. How people obtained necessities of life e.g.
clothes, food housing etc. The Iron Age was called the revolutionary period therefore it led to the formation of
States.
Political Changes
• Permanent settlements were established. There was a lot of food so people abandoned the idea of moving from
place to place in search of food.
• Village communities were created. This led to formation of classes i.e. chiefs and subjects, rich and poor.
• Population increase. As the economy improved people got enough food to store for the next season. People
became healthy due to balanced diet thus leading to population increase.
• Rivals amongst villages. Villages fought to control resources and weaker villages were destroyed by stronger
ones. This led to creation of armies as a way of securing land, cattle and grain.
• Decisions were made by a small and powerful group after reaching a consensus.
• Raiding- Due to the availability of better and stronger weapons people started raiding one another.
Economic Changes
Change of tools and their results
LATE STONE AGE EARLY IRON AGE

The hand-axe was blunt, difficult to use when Hand axe was now lighter and sharper
cutting down trees for agriculture and it was therefore it was easier to clear large pieces of
also heavy. land for agriculture
Used the stone tipped arrow for hunting and it Used iron tipped arrows for hunting and it was
was difficult to kill a lot of animals. easier to kill a lot of animals.
Stone knifes were used for cutting meat. Iron knifes were used for cutting meat.
Most people had no food to store for the next A lot of people had food to store for the next
season. season.
Farming was done on a small scale. Farming was done on a large scale.
Population was stable as food was scarce. Population increase as food was in abundance.
People could die early because of diseases People could live longer because they ate a
associated with malnutrition. balanced diet.
Fish was caught using baskets. Fish caught using iron fish hooks.
• Mining
It came due to iron technology. Copper, gold, silver and iron ore were mined. Hoes and axes were vital for mining
as hoes were used to dig for minerals and axes for cutting trees to use for the furnace. Before Iron Age these
minerals were ignored and regarded as colourful rocks. Gold and copper were processed into jewellery and Iron
was used to make tools. These were used for internal and external trade, externally with Swahili, Chinese and
Oman on the Indian Ocean coast.
• Cultivation
A variety of crops were grown e.g. millet, sorghum and pumpkins. These became the main source of food though
hunting and gathering were still done but, on a small scale.
• Pastoralism
They kept cattle, sheep and goats. Goats and sheep were killed for meat but, cattle were vital as they were considered
as a symbol of wealth. They were killed on special occasions e.g. deaths, rain making ceremonies and births.
• Pottery Making
This was mainly done by women and pottery was decorated, it was used for
storing grain, water and milk.
• Tribute
It was paid to the ruling class as a sign of respect by the subjects. Tribute could be in the form of crops, iron tools,
minerals, cattle and labour
• Man’s mobility was increased through the use of bigger canoes that facilitate the crossing of big and wide
rivers.
• Hunting- became more organised and efficient through the use of iron arrow and spears.
• There was the development of specialization that is specialized metal workers (blacksmith), farmers, hunters,
traders etc. (occupational based division of labour)
• Trade- Iron Age people engaged in both internal and external trade in grain, livestock, tools and crafts. Trade
was mostly controlled by rulers who became rich and powerful.
• Tribute-the rulers established a tributary system in which the subjects paid tribute as a sign of
allegiance/loyalty.
Social Changes
• The early Iron Age people abandoned living in caves and began to live in pole and dagga huts.
• There was division of labour which indicated specialisation of jobs. Men went for mining as it was dangerous and
women concentrated on household chores.
• Specialisation led to exchange of goods amongst neighbours especially in times of crisis e.g. blacksmith could
exchange axes and hoes for cattle, sheep and goats.
• Gaps between different classes broadened.
• Chiefdoms emerged.
• Polygamy was widely practised. It was vital for social status of a person because the more wives one had the
more one was respected. This also meant a lot of labour in the fields and a good crop yield.
• The boy child was valued more compared to the girl child because he perpetuated the family name.
• Lobola was widespread and it was in the form of cattle, hoes, beads and labour.
• They believed in life after death therefore they buried the dead with their belongings.
• Accommodation improved as iron axes and hoes made it easier to cut more wood and mould dagga for house
construction.
Impact of changes
• Food was now in abundance.
• Hunting became effective due to new iron tools.
• Trade became very important.
• More permanent settlements were built therefore people stayed at one place for a long time.
• Exploitation of women and children by men and also exploitation of man by other man began.
• Displacement of earlier San inhabitants.
• Formation of chiefdoms/states.
• Tribute was introduced whereby subjects would pay or give a token of appreciation to their rulers.
Uses of Iron
1. To make light arrow-heads and spears.
2. To make jewellery.
3. To make knives, hummers and chisels
4. To pay lobola e.g. hoes.
5. Blacksmith used iron to pay tribute to the chiefs
Importance of iron
1. Iron technology increased the man’s ability and capacity to domesticate the environment in
order to satisfy basic needs.
2. Settled life encouraged the development of permanent settlement, there was now better food
security derived from farming, hunting and trade.
3. The safety and security from enemies and wild animals increased through the building of houses
in clusters.
4. The development of specialization in the areas of farming, mining, manufacturing and trade
led to an increase in production and prosperity.
Problems of iron technology
1. Disintegration of communal way of living and the growth of inequality in wealth and power
between individuals, social groups and communities.
2. Women were regarded as commodities indicating wealth in marriage. The more wives one had
the wealthier he was regarded.
3. The establishment of tributary system promoted the exploitation of man by man.
THE GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE
It is situated south east of Masvingo and is believed to have been built by the Shona people around A.D. 1200.
Our country took its name from the ruins which are complex and beautiful. 1200 to 1500 AD saw the rise of The
Great Zimbabwe. It was established on a hill and had several outlying areas. Great Zimbabwe was believed to
have been built by the Karanga of the Shona tribe. The word Zimbabwe comes from the Shona word
“Dzimbadzamabwe”. The wall covering The Great Zimbabwe was known as The Great Enclosure. Other
Madzimbabwe are Chisvingo, Nhavayatumbare, Mapungubwe, Naletale, Msimbira, Manekweni, Tsindi, Khami
etc.
Origins of the State

It is believed that the kingdom rose to intercontinental trade, this theory is referred to as the trade stimulus theory.
It is argued that the state owes its origins from its control of gold trade mined across the whole of the Zimbabwe
plateau. As traders passed through the state they were forced to pay tax. The military strength of the kingdom
enabled them to force tributary kingdoms to pay tax. Other historians also argued that the state rose as a result of
the ruler’s ability to accumulate and control cattle.
One of these developing Iron Age villages grew into the biggest and strongest state of its time. It had a population
of more than 10 000 people. The great walls of stone were a symbol of its power. The walls show the developed
into a prosperous and well organised state. The walls were built from granite which was carefully fitted and set in
straight lines. The walls were built loosely without water to hold them together. Stone walls were built to fit into
the system of domestic life and houses were built inside them. The bird sculptures found at Great Zimbabwe have
become the symbol of the modern state of Zimbabwe as a reminder of the country’s long history.
Factors leading to the rise of Great Zimbabwe
• Strong Army
Great Zimbabwe had a large population which enabled it to fight and defeat enemies through its army. Those who
were defeated were incorporated into the army.
• Good Agricultural and Grazing Lands

Agriculture was widely practiced, crops such as millet, sorghum and maize were grown and food was in
abundance leading to the growth of the state. Good grazing land led to increase of cattle, cattle were then
distributed to the subjects through a system called “Kuronzera” and could also be used to pay labourers hired to
construct the stone walls and this brought the community together as the poor and rich were catered for thus
leading to the rise.
• Enough Mineral Wealth

They got gold from Mapungubwe and Mapela, iron and copper were also plenty. This facilitated trade between
Shona and Portuguese at Sofala. International trade was through the east coast. Traders who passed through Great
Zimbabwe had to pay tax; tax also came from tributary kingdoms leading to prosperity of Great Zimbabwe.
• Religious centre
It is believed to be a Hungwe religious shrine as evidence by the Hungwe soap
Stone bird found there. However, some historians disagree with the idea that the
Religion led to the rise of the state.
Reasons for building the Great Zimbabwe

• As an expression of pride and ancestral achievement.
• As a religious centre - the Shona were believed to be connected to God “Mwari”, whom they worshiped through
ancestral spirits.
• As a trading centre - it is believed that the Great Zimbabwe was built for trade and other economic activities.
Buildings, used for storage purposes are still there as well as artefacts from the far east¸ Middle East and China.
• As a form of shelter.
• To reflect the king’s power.
• For prestigious reasons.
• To control subjects as well as to separate king from the common people.
For privacy
• As the King’s court
• As a fortress in times of war.
• As an administrative centre.
The Great Zimbabwe

• It is made of granite stone and the stones were cut into almost the same size and arranged in straight lines.
• No water or cement was used and this is why the buildings are unique.
• The Great Zimbabwe has two main complexes:
➢ Acropolis
➢ Temple
• The temple was often referred to as the great enclosure.
• It was the centre of administration.
• Spirit mediums helped the king in making decisions.
• The Acropolis was made up of a number of enclosures.
• This was the oldest part of Great Zimbabwe.
• The hilltop was probably a centre for rain making ceremonies, soap stone birds were found and these birds were
used to interpret the voice of the Hungwe, (shiri yamwari) God’s bird.
• Eastern enclosure was where the spiritual advisors occupied.
• Sacred birds were found indicating the importance of the area as a religious centre.
• The senior wives lived at the “imbahuru”, whereas the junior wives lived at the valley enclosures. This was
suggested by pots and ornaments which were found there, these were linked to women.
Political Organisation
• The king was the head of the state and supervised trade, commanded the army, received tribute and judged all
cases that were brought before him.
• Chiefs were below the king and had to be submissive, these included provincial chiefs and district chiefs.
• They paid tribute as loyalty to the king.
• They also collected tribute from the subjects and ruled their own areas.
• Village chiefs and village heads controlled villages; they were submissive to the king and paid tribute.
• Religious leaders conducted religious ceremonies and advised the king when ruling; they were part of the council.
King
Council
Provincial
Chiefs
District
Chiefs
Village
Chiefs
Village
heads
Subjects
Economic activities
• Cultivation
They practised cultivation - grew crops such as millet, sorghum, pumpkins, barley, wheat etc. Men cleared land
for agriculture and helped when harvesting. Women and children did most of the work in the fields.
• Pastoralism
They kept cattle, sheep, and goats. Cattle were regarded as a symbol of wealth, they were killed on rare occasions
e.g. funerals and state functions, they obtained milk and hides from cattle. Cattle could be exchanged for grain
and other food stuffs in times of drought. They could be used for paying Lobola; many wives meant many
children and a lot of labour in the fields. Goats and sheep provided them with meat, hides and manure.
• Trade
Great Zimbabwe was the centre of trade. Internally they exchanged grain for different items they did not have e.g.
hoes and spears. Externally, they traded with the Chinese, Arabs and Swahili. They exported grain, iron tools,
hides, baskets etc in exchange for glass beads, brassware, seashell, cloth, salt etc.
• Mining
This was mainly done by men. They mined gold, copper, iron etc. Copper was found in Hurungwe and was used
to make jewellery. Gold was found in Mapela and Mapungubwe and was got through shaft and alluvial mining, it
was used for making jewellery and iron was used to make tools.
• Hunting and Gathering

This remained part of their diet. Hunting was done by men, but on a very small scale. Animals such as leopards,
lions, kudus and impalas were killed for their skins and elephants for ivory. Women gathered small insects and
berries.
• Craft work
This was done by both men and women especially weaving. They produced cloth which was cheap, but ordinary
people still wore animal skin “Nhembe”. Pottery making was vital, pots were made for storing grain, water, milk
and beer.
• Tribute
This was paid by the subjects to the ruling class in the form of grain, tools and cattle.
• Raiding
Neighbouring states were raided for cattle; grain, and women. Women were incorporated into the state.
• Fishing
Iron fishhooks were used for fishing. Fish supplemented their diet.
Social and Religious organisation

• People worshiped God through spirit mediums.
• Spirit mediums were vital for installation of new chiefs.
• The king himself consulted God through spirit mediums especially in times of drought.
• They believed in life after death and therefore they buried the dead with their belongings.
• Beer was brewed at traditional ceremonies.
• They were national spirits called “Mhondoro” and ancestral spirits called “Vadzimu”.
• Families consulted ancestral spirits in times of illness and crisis.
• Soapstone birds were their religious symbol therefore Great Zimbabwe was the spiritual headquarters of the
Shona ancestors.
• People of the same totem were not allowed to get married.
• Men hunted on their spare time and women specialised in child bearing.
Decline of Great Zimbabwe

• Overpopulation
• Great Zimbabwe became too big a state that the king lost control of the state. This is why Nyatsimba Mutota
moved away from Great Zimbabwe.
• This also encouraged diseases leading to death of some and migration of some. With the ever increasing
population farming land became exhausted.
• Civil wars
People would fight against each other in times of drought so as to get food.
• Succession disputes
With time people began to fight for leadership and those leaders that were weaker had their positions taken by
those who were stronger. Some were even forced to move away from Great Zimbabwe.
• Shortage of salt
This is why Nyatsimba Mutota moved away from Great Zimbabwe.
• Land exhaustion
With the ever increasing population farming land became exhausted.
• Shortage of food supplies, minerals and grazing lands

Shortage of food supplies, minerals and grazing lands affected trade negatively leading to the down fall of the
economy.
• The state became too large to be controlled by one king.
• Out breaks of epidemics killed a lot of people.

THE MUTAPA STATE
THE MUTAPA EMPIRE

Introduction
¯ The state has been founded by Nyatsimba Mutota.
¯ It was formed around 1400AD. Mutota led a number of people and soldiers from Great Zimbabwe to the Dande
region. The state was formed after the decline of Great Zimbabwe in 1400AD. The son Matope continued with
the extension of the state boundaries, by the 16th century the Mutapa State included Guruuswa, Manyika, Mbire,
Tete, etc.
¯ The state is an off-shoot of Great Zimbabwe. The word Mutapa state is a short- cut of Munhumutapa.
Some of the leaders who ruled Mutapa state
¯ Nyatsimba Mutota
¯ Nyahuma
¯ Chikuyo chomunyaka
¯ Gatsi Rusere
¯ Kapararidze
¯ Neshangwe
¯ Chivero Nyasoro
¯ Negomo Mapunzagutu
¯ Mavhura Mhande
¯ Mukombwe
Factors leading to the rise
• Successful agriculture and pastoralism
Dande was a suitable area for agriculture as it received favourable rains and a lot of animals were kept due to
good grazing land e.g. cattle, sheep and goats.
• Availability of minerals
Rich in gold and iron, these could be used for making jewellery and tools respectively and thus promoting trade.
• Accessibility of the area to international trade

Dande lay in the area between Ingombe, Ilede and Swahili trade centres.
• Presence of politically ambitious leaders

These leaders became effective in leadership due to their strategic planning.
• Strong army
Could raid and conquer other nearby and weaker local people e.g. Tonga and Tavara.
• Decline of Great Zimbabwe
This forced some people to move away and search for better areas since
Great Zimbabwe was overpopulated hence rise of new states e.g. Mutapa.
Political organisation
• King
He was the overall ruler. He was also commander of the army of about 3000- 5000 soldiers; Soldiers were treated
by witchdoctors before heading for a battle for them to be strong. He received annual tribute and made final
decisions in political and judiciary matters. He elected chiefs but first consulted national spirits.
• Council (Dare)
The council advised the king when ruling. The council included Priest of the Mwari cult, councillors,
blacksmiths, army commanders, sons of provincial chiefs, king’s mother, queen’s mother, queen and king’s
brothers and sisters.
• Provincial Chiefs
Provincial chiefs ruled provinces such as Guruuswa, Mbire, Manyika,Barwe, Uteve etc. The position of chiefs
was hereditary and the provincial chiefs were either relatives of the king or friends of the king. They collected the
royal fire once a year from Munhumutapa as a sign of respect. They paid tribute to the king. They gave troops to
the king in times of war. They distributed land to district chiefs.
• District chiefs
These were under provincial chiefs. Their position was hereditary. They paid tribute to the king. They also
collected tribute from the subjects in the form of ivory, cattle, grain, gold and labour. They distributed land to the
people. They also tried cases brought before them.
• Village chiefs
These were under District chiefs; they distributed land to the people and tried cases brought before them. They
paid tribute to the king and also received tribute from the subjects. Their position was hereditary.
King
Council
Provincial
Chiefs
District
Chiefs
Village
Chiefs
Village
heads
Subjects
Economic organisation
• Crop cultivation
They grew millet, sorghum and peas. They also grew exotic crops like maize, watermelons, tobacco, potatoes and
citrus fruits. They practised shifting cultivation whereby a piece of land was left to lie fallow for 2 or more years
to gain its fertility before another crop was grown.
• Pastoralism
They kept cattle, sheep and goats. Cattle were a symbol of wealth and those that had many cattle had many wives.
These animals were important for hides, meat and milk.
Hunting was done by men and was an important source of meat and hides. Gathering was done by women and
they gathered berries, roots and insects.
• Trade
They practised both internal and external trade. Internal trade involved buying and selling goods among the
Mutapa. They exchanged surplus grain, salt, cattle and iron tools. Local people known as “Vashambadzi”
facilitated trade. Trading stations were Zumbo, Tete and Sena.
• Mining
They mined gold, silver, iron and copper. Mining was done during the dry season. They practised shaft mining.
Gold, copper and silver were used to make jewellery and iron was used to make iron tools.
• Blacksmiths
They made tools for agriculture like hoes and axes and they also made weapons like spears and arrows.
• Craftwork
Women made a variety of pots which they traded to earn vast amounts of wealth in the form of grain, goats and
sheep. The Mutapa also made baskets and wood carvings.
• Fishing
Fish supplemented their diet.
• Raiding
Neighbouring states were raided for cattle; grain, and women. Women were incorporated into the state.
• Tribute
The king received annual tribute in the form of cattle, gold, ivory, agricultural tools and labour.
Social Organisation
• The Mutapa state had people of different dialects e.g. Karanga, Ndawu and Zezuru.
• There was gender awareness when allocating duties. Men were part of the army and hunted whilst women were
involved in household chores e.g. cooking, taking care of children etc.
• People of the same totem were not allowed to marry one another.
• They believed in life after death and so they consulted family spirits, clan spirits and national spirits, this was
usually done in times of war, drought and harvest.
• Family spirits were believed to help family members achieve their ambitions.
• Clan and national spirits also intervened in political disputes, succession disputes and inter-clan disputes.
• They believed in avenging spirits (Ngozi).
• They believed in God the creator of mankind whom they worshiped through their ancestors.
• They practised polygamy.
PORTUGUESE PENETRATION OF THE MUTAPA

During the 15th century Portugal was sending exploration voyages to central Africa. One of the explorers Vasco
Da Gama reached the Cape of Good Hope. Therefore, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to settle in the
Indian Ocean coast. They discovered the sea route to India and trading activities between Central Africa and east
coast. They investigated the presence of gold at Sofala and Kilwa. The two ports were used to acquire gold and
ivory from Mutapa state and in exchange got Indian spices from India.
Reasons for penetration

• To establish a number of trading posts in the interior especially the Zambezi.
• To gather more information on trade especially presence of gold, ivory and alcohol.
• To drive any Swahili traders from the interior so they could take over trade within African states. They
established Sena and Tete around 1530s.
• Later they developed interest in African politics; they did not aim for this in the beginning.
• Later moved inland to avenge the death of Fr Goncalo Da Silveira.
• To spread Christianity.
Developments
• After the death of Matope there were quarrels over leadership.

• In 1494 Chikuyo Chisamarengu became king; he was the first king to have a European visitor called Fernandez a
Portuguese trader.
• Fernandez gave the king and gun powder and Munhumutapa was able to expand his empire.
• After the death of Chikuyo in 1530 Neshangwe became king and was succeeded by Chivere Nyasoro in 1550 who
crushed the Tavara in the revolt and as symbol of the defeat took their totem as Nzou.
• Chivere died in 1560 and his eldest son Negomo Mapunzagutu took over the leadership and was assisted to
govern by Mr Chiuyu.
• The Portuguese Priests were pushed/encouraged to move into the interior to convert Mutapa and his people to
Christianity. A catholic called Fr Goncalo Da Silvera became a great friend of the king and his mother and the
Muslim traders (VaMwenye) were angered when the king and his mother agreed to be baptised. In 1561 the
VaMwenye plotted and killed Da Silvera and dumped his body in a pond. Fr Goncalo Da Silveira death gave the
Portuguese a chance to attack Mutapa as they were against their contact with the Moors.
The In 1570 the Portuguese king sent an army to Mutapa to avenge the death of Da Silvera and because the
Portuguese did not know the area so well they were easily defeated even though they had superior weapons. 1567
Francisco Barretto was sent by the Portuguese to invade Mutapa so as to avenge the death of Fr Goncalo Da
Silveira as well as driving away Muslims. Unfortunately he died before invading as they reached Mutapa during
the rainy season and were affected by diseases. In 1574- Father Vasco Fernandes Homem was sent together with
400 men. Before reaching Manyika, he faced resistance from Chiteve. Chiteve King was defeated, but the
Portuguese realised that the area had little gold deposits. Most soldiers sent by the Portuguese faced opposition
from the Tonga and couldn’t invade Mutapa. For 35 years there was peace in Mutapa.
In 1607 Munhumutapa Gatsi Rusere asked for Portuguese help to fight a revolt for the leadership in return for
silver mines at Chikova and other mines. However, he refused to tell them the location of the silver mines and the
people of Mutapa refused because they had seen and Prazero and Portuguese land owners. As more and more
Portuguese arrived they took more land and cattle and forced people to work in the fields and formed their own
private army. They became wild, lawless and no longer obeyed the Munhumutapa. Portuguese began refusing to
pay tribute to Mutapa; Mutapa stopped trade with the Portuguese and ceased Portuguese properties and the
Portuguese declared war but later began to pay tribute. The next Mutapa kapararidze tried to expel the Portuguese
after they refused to pay tribute but he was over powered and replaced by Mavura Mhandu who agreed to serve
the Portuguese and become a puppet king. The new ruling Mutapa Mavura was baptised to Philip. In 1629
Mavura signed an agreement with the Portuguese, Portuguese had freedom to:
➢ Build churches whenever/ wherever they wanted.
➢ Travel to any part of Mutapa as traders.
➢ Drive away Muslims from Mutapa.
➢ Mine in Mutapa.
The Portuguese established Tete, Sena, Kilwa, Zumbo, Sofala, Quelimane and Luanze.
How they took over Mutapa State

• Mutapa was made a vassal state by the Portuguese; the Portuguese began to demand tribute from vassal chiefs.
• Vassal chiefs rebelled against the Mutapa; Mutapa turned to the Portuguese for protection.
• At first Portuguese wanted an alliance with the Mutapa so as to replace Swahili and Moor traders in gold, silver
and ivory; they also wanted to spread Christianity.
• Moor traders continued to establish more routes into the interior and this influenced Portuguese to make contacts
with the interior.
• However the Mutapa :

➢ Lost the right to give any gold bearing territories to other whites.
➢ Had to pay tribute to the Portuguese.
• 1652, Munhumutapa Mavura died and was succeeded by Domingos. Domingos was assassinated and Nyenyedzi
took over.
• Nyenyedzi was succeeded by Nyakunembiri, Nyakunembiri appealed to Changamire Dombo to assist him in
fighting the Portuguese; together they destroyed the Portuguese power and killed most of the Portuguese.
• No Portuguese were seen in Mutapa until colonisation when BSAC took over Mutapa.
• Mutapa state was now under Changamire Dombo, Mutapa state was dead.
Decline of the Mutapa State

• Inexperienced leaders - there were inexperienced leaders who took over after the death of Matope (1450) e.g.
Nyahuma.
• Overpopulation - the state became too large to be controlled by one king.
• Civil wars and Succession disputes - this was due to power struggle within the Mutapa e.g. vassal chiefs who rose
against the ruling Mutapa. Nyahuma was killed by Changa and later Changa was killed by Nyahuma’s sons. The
State became politically weak.
• Portuguese Influence - they brought Christianity which destroyed the traditional religion of the Mutapa people.
• Shortage of Salt and Minerals - this affected trade which once made the state a prosperous one.
• Death Of Many People - Outbreaks of epidemics killed a lot of people.
THE ROZVI STATE
THE ROZVI STATE

¯ Leaders who ruled the state include the following:
1. Changamire Dombo
2. Chirisamhuru 1
3. Chirisamhuru 2
4. Rupanda Manhanga
5. Nechasike
6. Nechagadzike
7. Gumboreshumba
8. Gumboremvura
Origins
¯ Founded by Changamire Dombo around 1700.
¯ Had strong army of between 2000 and 4000 men.
¯ Using his army he conquered the Torwa and incorporated them into Rozvi State, in 1693 he defeated and
expelled the Portuguese from Zambezi Valley.
¯ Changamire Dombo was a military genius, thus he was able to defeat and unity people under his rule.
¯ He also took control of Manyika and the larger parts of former Mutapa State on the Zimbabwean Plateau.
¯ People respect Changamire Dombo due to his charisma and rain making powers.
¯ He established his capital at Danangombe and this capital was later moved to ThabazikaMambo.
¯ Due to their conquest the Rozvi became known as the destroyers (pillagers).
¯ D.N Beach 900-1850 AD-Changamire Dombo was Mutapa’s top ranged officials who fought and defeated
Mukombwe and the Portuguese drove them to Masekesa.
¯ He was a cattle keeper in the Mutapa and he rebelled against Mutapa and subdued them. He made his capital at
Danangombe.
Military strength
• Changamire Dombo defeated the Portuguese in many battles between 1684-1695.
• Changamire Dombo was said to have had special powers like changing the colour of cattle, making rain and
making soldiers brave, however, the Portuguese thought he was a wizard or magician. The may have been
because of the clever tricks he used in battle.
• He soldiers would often form a half circle around their enemy.
• Dombo soldiers used many kinds of weapons like wooden clubs, assegais, spears, bow and arrows, cow hides as
shields and Rozvi officials used guns.
• Mambo received guns from the Portuguese as tribute therefore the highest ranking Rozvi officials had guns.
Political Organisation
• Mambo was head of state, his title was hereditary, succession was collateral and chieftainship was passed from
father to son.
• The king had the duty to install new chiefs.
• Provincial and District chiefs were responsible for maintaining peace and order in their areas; they also collected
tribute on behalf of the king.
• Vassal chiefs also paid tribute to the king as a sign of loyalty, failure to pay tribute meant great punishment by
military leader (Tumbare).
• Tumbare took over as leader when a king died until a new one was elected.
• The mambo was the commander of the army; he had a very strong army which maintained peace and security in
the state.
• The army possessed guns acquired from Portuguese through trade therefore they could raid neighbouring states
easily. It was also used to punish rebellious chiefs and subjects.
• The mambo conducted religious ceremonies with the help of priests.
• The King was advised by military leaders and provincial governors when ruling.
• He was head of the judiciary and he made sure there was fairness.
• Mambo distributed land to provincial chiefs.
• Headman was responsible for supervising homesteads.
Economic Organisation
• Crop cultivation
They grew millet, sorghum and peas. They also grew exotic crops like maize, watermelons, tobacco, potatoes and
citrus fruits. They practised shifting cultivation and burning farming.
• Pastoralism
They reared cattle, goats and sheep. They got meat, milk and hides from those animals.
Uses of cattle in the Rozvi State
¯ To pay lobola
¯ To provide draft power
¯ To provide meat, milk, skins and manure
¯ Cattle were killed at religious ritual ceremonies
¯ It was a symbol of wealth
¯ Were used in trade

¯ Were used to pay tribute
¯ Cattle skins were used to make drums

Hunting was done by men and was an important source of meat and hides. Gathering was done by women and
they gathered berries, roots and insects.
• Trade
They practised internal and external trade. They exchanged cattle for grain in times of draught. They exported
gold, ivory, iron, copper and lead. They exchanged these with clothes, beads, seashells, guns and candles with the
Portuguese.
• Mining
Gold was the main mineral, it was mined at Buchwa. They also mined copper, iron and lead. Iron was used to
manufacture tools and weapons. Copper was used to make bangles.
• Tribute
All subjects and Portuguese paid tribute. At an installation of new chiefs the chief was obliged to pay tribute as
assign of alligiance therefore the chief paid tribute to the king annually
• Craftwork
They made wood carvings and pottery.
• Blacksmithing
Blacksmiths made iron tools.
• Fishing
It supplemented their diet.
• Raiding
They raided neighbouring states for cattle and women.
Social organisation
• People were organised into homesteads.
• A linage head ensured good conductions of religious ceremonies and other ceremonies.
• There was sexual division of labour; man had several social duties which included herding cattle, building houses,
making tools, skinning animals etc.
• Females did household chores such as taking care of children, cooking, gathering firewood and wild fruits,
fetching water and making pottery.
• Homesteads were related into Moyo totem.
• They believed in “Mwari” whom they worshiped through Shona priests
• Shona priests linked the living and the dead.
• They believed mambo descended from God.
• Ancestral spirits were also vital; there were other spirits which they believed to live in mountains and pools of
water.
• They practised to “kuronzera” whereby those without cattle were given by the king to use for manure and milk,
but were not allowed to sell them or kill them.
• They sang and danced on important occasions like weddings, funerals and religious ceremonies.
• Territorial mediums solved succession disputes.
• Spirit mediums formed members of mambo’s council and could make decisions for the state.
Decline of the Rozvi State

• Civil wars which were then followed by succession disputes which disrupted other economic activities.
• Drought also caused the decline as some people moved to favourable parts of the area and it also weakened their
economy.
• Some people moved to favourable parts of the area and it also weakened their economy.
• Overpopulation - the king lost control and led to some political divisions.
• Attacks by Nguni groups running away from Mfecane - they were attacked by Zwangendaba when he was
defeated by Soshangane. They were also attacked and incorporated into the Ndebele State.
• Decline in Trade - they lost control in trade which once made them very prosperous, limited technology made
mining difficult and elephant population was decreasing rapidly.
• Coming of Europeans - they were finally destroyed by the BSAC led by Cecil John Rhodes in 1890.
MFECANE
It refers to wars which took place among then Nguni people around the 18th century, Nguni people included many
groups speaking dialects e.g. Zulu, Mthethwa, Xhosa, Hlubi, Mpondo, Zizi etc. New states were found due to
military power and trading. By 1820s, one state had emerged to dominate others (Mthethwa of Dingiswayo,
Ngwane of Sobhuza) i.e. Zulu state. Other states were forced to migrate from Nguniland e.g. Ndebele of
Mzilikazi and Kololo of Sebetwane. A lot of destruction resulted as warfare spread to Central Africa as death and
destruction was greatly experienced. This time was called Mfecane by the Zulu meaning “Great crushing” and
Difaqane by the Sotho meaning “Scattering”. It was also referred to as time of suffering, trouble, movement etc.
Causes of Mfecane
• Economic and Political development
Northern Nguni people were farmers during the 19th century and heavy rainfall was received leading to good crop
yields, the area had good soils and vegetation leading to surpluses. As a result population increased. As
population increased herds also increased in size and therefore could not be moved freely to the hills and villages
for grazing. There was an imbalance in population density and available resources so competition to control the
best lands for agriculture and grazing purposes developed.
• Age regiments
As states grew age regiments increased in importance e.g. were Amabutho promoted unity and provided an army
as competition to control land increased, therefore the role of the army became more important and initiation
ceremonies were banned so that young men would participate in the army.

This led to a large scale destruction of wild game. Powerful states could get larger areas for hunting as they could
overpower weaker states. Elephant hunting led to a greater demand of ivory at Delagoa Bay by the Europeans,
good control of such trade meant a lot of wealth to a particular state, and this also meant good rewards to subjects.
The desire to control trade led to growth of states.
• Drought
Rains came to an end and drought was experienced for about ten years. Crops failed, pastures withered leading to
wide spread famine. This became known as Madlatule famine meaning Madlatule meaning “let him eat and keep
quiet”. Competition for scarce resources became severe as people raided each other for cattle and stores of grain.
Course of Mfecane
• When raided some chiefdoms broke up and migrated disorganised as desperate beggars, they had no time to pack
up food or cattle.
• Some migrated as strong men and women under leadership and most likely not to beg.
• Whole chiefdoms were terrified of the Zulu and its raids so much that they moved to safer lands while some
remained and paid tribute to the Zulu.
• Ngwane of Sobhuza was defeated by Ndwandwe of Zwide and moved to north part of Pongola River, his soldiers
adapted tactics of the Zulu, Mthethwa and Ndwandwe. This made him conquer other weak groups and
incorporated them into his new kingdom (Swaziland).
• Soshangane of Gaza-Nguni was in Zwide’s army as one of the chief officers, when Tshaka defeated the
Ndwandwe in 1818 he escaped and absorbed some immigrants (Northwards) and he was able to conquer
Southern Zimbabwe and Mozambique but was not as successful as Sobhuza as his political influence was weak.
• Zwangendaba of the Ngoni also escaped when the Ndwandwe were defeated, he followed Soshangane but parted
when the two clashed and lost the battle in 1831 and the Ngoni travelled to Northwest Zimbabwe.
• Zwangendaba had a series of battles with the Shona under Changamire dynasty, failing to subdue them
completely. He crossed the Zambezi river and finally settled in Tanzania.
• After Zwangendaba’s death they separated, one group settled in Eastern Zambia and the other group caused
havoc in Southern Tanzania and Malawi as they used Nguni warfare to overwhelm weaker groups.
• Mzilikazi of the Khumalo was also part of the Ndwandwe, but presided over the Khumalo clan as he was loyal to
Tshaka, Zwide had conflicted with Mashobane, Mzilikazi’s father so as a result there was hatred between the
groups and Mzilikazi sided with Tshaka, but sooner conflicted because of resources as he preferred to give them
to the Khumalo than the Zulu.
Impact of Mfecane
• Death of many people due to hunger as they lost their cattle, sheep and goats.
• Abandonment of circumcision as it kept young boys away from active duty for a long time i.e. in the army.
• Destruction of chiefdoms which began Mfecane e.g. Ndwandwe, Mthethwa, Ngwane and new ones emerged e.g.
Kololo of Sebetwane and Ndebele of Mzilikazi.
• Some large areas were left depopulated e.g. South of Tugela river
• Spread of Nguni culture and language through assimilation. However, in some instances the Nguni language was
destroyed.
• New war tactics were spread in Southern and Central Africa.
• People from stronger chiefdoms benefited from the loot taken from weaker chiefdoms.
• Leaders were appointed due to talent and rather than inheriting.
• A balance between human population and land available was established leading to stability in the region.
Rise of Tshaka
Tshaka was born in 1787. His father was Senzangakhona, a Zulu chief and his mother was Nandi. Senzangakhona
and Nandi were never formally married therefor Tshaka grew up with his mother among the Langani, Gwabe and
finally Mthethwa. Tshaka joined the Mthethwa’s age regiment and proved to be very brave as a regimental leader.
He became Dingiswayo’s military advisor at a tender age. When Senzangakhona died in 1816, Tshaka seized the
Zulu throne; he was supported by Dingiswayo and became the Zulu chief. Zulu means rain or heaven. Zulu State
is said to have originated from a man called Zulu ka Ntombela who probably was the ancestor of the Zulu clan.
Factors leading to the rise
• Competition for fertile land
In Nguniland there was population increase and at the same time herds also increased, people began to fight for
control of land for cultivation of crops as well as grazing animals, therefore Tshaka proved to be very powerful
and defeated a lot of states hence his rise to power.
• Competition for trade with Portuguese

Portuguese wanted cattle, fresh meat and ivory. The number of cattle a state had the more it would supply meat to
the Portuguese. The Zulu had a lot of cattle and controlled hunting grounds for ivory, therefore Tshaka emerged
as powerful
• Military methods learnt by Tshaka from Dingiswayo.
• Tshaka’s ambitious character
Tshaka was teased by his peers as he grew up, so he was determined to prove to them that he could achieve
something in life and became a chief.
Military reforms
• Assegai/ Short stabbing spear
Tshaka introduced the assegai, which encouraged hand to hand fighting; it made sure that the enemy was killed.
Loss of this assegai meant harsh punishment / execution. Any stab at the back was considered cowardice and it
attracted punishment of death.
• Bare-footed
Soldiers went to war bare-footed so as to increase speed.
• Age regiments
Soldiers were organised in regiments according to their ages. Regiments were disciplined and loyal to Tshaka,
they were trained to fight effectively in battles.
• Long shields
Long shields were developed and were made of cow hides. The fact that the shields were the height of a man
made it possible to shield soldiers from enemies; The shield was also used to hook away enemies shields.
• Discouragement of early marriages

Early marriages were discouraged as one could not fight well thinking of the family home, However, soldiers
who displayed skill by killing a lot of enemies later got beautiful women raided during war. Raided men were
incorporated into the Zulu army, sometimes they fought for total destruction by killing men, women and children.
Therefore no soldier was allowed to marry before forty.
• Banning of circumcision
Tshaka banned the system of circumcision as it prevented young boys from participating in war.
• Tshaka used guerrilla warfare by attacking at night and at times ambush attacks.
• Tshaka used witchdoctors to treat injured soldiers.
• Tshaka employed spies

These were sent to gather information about the enemy. They helped in setting a suitable regiment to attack the
enemy.
• Tshaka made use of smoke signals for communication.

• Each soldier had a distinctive head-gear.
• Cow horn formation
This proved effective as enemies were distracted
• They cultivated near homesteads, they grew maize and millet.
• Men took care of cattle, manufactured and repaired weapons and other household tools e.g. hoes; they also
constructed huts as well as repairing them.
• Some skilful women were involved in bead work; pottery making and making of mats. Weaving was done to
produce mats.
• They traded iron tools with each other.
• They cultivated and gathered to improve their diet.
• They kept cattle for meat, milk and hides.
• They paid tribute to the chief in the form of cattle, special animal skins and other iron tools.
• They practised external trade with English traders; beads and cloth were exchanged for ivory. Ivory hunted
belonged to the king.
• They also practised hunting and hunting parties were put into regiments.
• The king was an absolute ruler; he was supreme administrator though he had a council of Indunas which advised
him when ruling. Though he got advice his decision was final.
• Duties of the king included:
➢ Allocating land.
➢ Distributing cattle.
➢ Commander of the army.
➢ Chief Judge.
➢ Initiated inxwala and inkata ceremonies.
• Chiefs were vital as they ruled their chieftaincies.
• Chiefs were loyal to the king.
• The state was divided into regimental towns and a woman was chosen to override each town. This was a way of
controlling regiments and also gave information to Tshaka on the Induna responsible of that town; this
encouraged the checking on the balance of the administration.
• Each regimental town encircled a huge cattle pen as each town was allocated regimental cattle.
• Outlying tributary states paid tribute to Tshaka as a sign of respect.
• Youths were divided into military groups which could provide service to the state e.g. working for the king; they
could also raid and hunt.
• The king controlled their work leading to public order.
Social Organisation
• The Zulu believed in God whom they called Unkulunkulu
• They believed in worldly spirits “Amadlozi” whom people would communicate with in times of need.
• They believed that every misfortune that people encountered was caused by sorcery (magical practise).
• Settlements/military towns were circular and each settlement encircled a cattle pen.
• Cattle were vital as they determined one’s social status; they were used for paying lobola.
• Polygamy was widely practised such that a Zulu family was built on a polygamous family.
• Zulu became the national language so those incorporated into the state had to speak the language.
• Inxwala ceremony was initiated by the king and every Zulu member had to attend.
• Inkata was a national ceremony that promoted Zulu identity.
Problems faced by Tshaka during his reign

• His most trusted Induna e.g. Mzilikazi ran away, this made the state weaker and he felt insecure.
• He did not get support from his family and relatives.
• He got many threats from British, Ndwandwe and Boers.
• The death of his mother made him rule with anger and also reminded him of his death.
• He had unsuccessful military campaigns and was defeated by the British.
Impact of Tshaka’s rule

• Zulu became a very large state under Tshaka due to raids, a lot of people were incorporated into the state and the
State expanded from Pongola river to the north i.e. Tugela river up to Indian ocean in the east.
• Zulu was a unified State because people who were absorbed had the same culture and language.
• Age regiments brought young people together as they no longer stayed in homesteads, but regimental towns
therefore they became more loyal to Tshaka than the clan head.
• The State became dominant in Southern Africa and was known as the “fighting machine” due to military reforms
introduced by Tshaka.
• Development of pride in the Zulu State due to military success in war.
• The Zulu State became a very rich state economically; cattle raided were a lot and people benefited through meat,
milk, hides and manure etc.
Decline of Zulu State
• Death of Tshaka
Ineffective leaders took over.
• Death of Nandi
Tshaka felt empty without her as she was his advisor.
• Mfecane
His most trusted Indunas ran away e.g. Mzilikazi with some of the Zulu people and the state was weakened.
• Endless military campaigns.
THE NDEBELE STATE
Ndebele Migration
Ndebele means man of long shields. Mzilikazi’s Khumalo was part of Zwide’s Ndwandwe but later joined
Tshaka’s Zulu State. In 1821 Mzilikazi was sent by Tshaka to raid the Sotho, Mzilikazi then decide not to hand
over the raided cattle. Tshaka sent an army as this was regarded as rebellion against him; the Zulu army was
defeated by the Ndebele. Its leader was Mzilikazi son of Mashobane of the Khumalo clan. The Zulu army was
sent for the second time and Mzilikazi was defeated at Ntumbane hill but some warriors were left. In 1822 the
Ndebele moved across Drakensburg. Between 1822 1nd 1823 the Ndebele reached Olphant River and they rested
at Ekupemeleni (resting place). They continued to raid neighbouring states, bringing forth cattle, men and women
who integrated into the state. Ekupemeleni was not a very good area as it was close to Zululand and the Pedi were
a threat to the Ndebele, the area also lacked good grazing lands especially after the 18323/24 draught, since it was
resting place the Ndebele head to move. They moved to Pretoria and their new settlement was called
Nhlahlandela, at Nhlahlandela they attracted the Sotho through their raids in Botswana, Lesotho and Zimbabwe.
The area was still close to Zululand which was now under Din’ani and in 1830 Dingani sent an army to attack the
Ndebele. The Ndebele also felt insecure as they experienced threats from Kora and Khoisan.
• After the attack by the Zulu the Ndebele were also attacked by the Griguas, Tswana and Kora continuously
attacked the Ndebele especially for hunting grounds, the Ndebele then sent an army and defeated the groups but
lost men , women and cattle.
• The Ndebele moved further to Marico and their new settlement was at Masega.
• The Ndebele left Masega due to frequent attacks and in 1837 they moved further north.
• At this point they divided themselves into two groups since the group was too large to control and feed.
• One group was under Chief Induna Gundwane Ndiweni also called Kalipi. It had old people, women, children,
sheep, goats and Mzilikazi’s children; Nkulumani and Lobengula. This group moved to Mzingwane valley hill
where they reached
the once Rozvi state, they named the place Gibixhegu (Nhavayatumbare).
• The second followed a longer route. Mzilikazi was the leader and was helped by Indunas including Magqekeni,
they moved westwards towards Lake Ngami leading to the Kalahari Desert. They moved eastwards towards
Zambezi but the area was tsetse infested.
• When Mzilikazi heard that Nkulumani had been installed as king, he rushed to Gibixhegu and killed Ndiweni and
some of the chiefs who had installed Nkulumani as king.
• Nkulumani ran away and Lobengula was hidden and released when Mzilikazi had calmed down.
• Mzilikazi then established his capital at Inyathi and in 1840 in Matabeleland. It is believed the Ndebele arrived in
present day Zimbabwe in 1841 and found Rozvi state seriously weakened and established their state in the now
modern city of Bulawayo.
• Factors leading to the rise of Ndebele State

• Mzilikazi ability to rule
He saved the Khumalo from Tshaka’s ruthlessness by leading them, through a long journey i.e. from Nguniland
to Zimbabwe.
• Strong army
The Ndebele had a very strong army because Mzilikazi had learnt a lot of fighting methods from Tshaka. The
army raided a lot of people for cattle and grain as they travelled and were able to feed the Ndebele. The army was
also able to defend the people from enemies leading to the creation of the Ndebele state.
• Enough mineral wealth

They had a lot of gold which enabled them to practise both internal and external trade. They traded with the
Portuguese and the Arabs hence prosperity of the state.
• Strong economy
Food was in abundance as they supplemented raiding with agriculture though agriculture was on a small scale;
this led to growth of the state.
• The Ndebele state was more centralised and covered a limited area.
• All Ndebele cattle were located within 80km of the kings’ village
• Outlying areas of the Rozvi Empire were kept in touch through ambassadors and tribute to the royal court and
shrine of Mwari.
• The king occupied central and almost powerful position in the Ndebele state.
• The king was the commander of the army and chief judge.
• He was also chief administrator and religious leader.
• He made major decisions and power of life and death over the subjects.
• He was helped to administer the state by a few wise men in the advisory council.
• The Mpakati was made up of selected chiefs and members of the royal family; they made all decisions affecting
the state.
• A bigger advisory council called the Izikulu included all chiefs, elders known for wisdom, traditional customs and
history; these groups discussed all national issues in accordance to local tradition before referring them to
Mpakati and the king.
• Mzilikazi organised his state in regimental towns.
• Each town was a settlement of soldier and supporting civilian’s commanded by an Induna.
• The Induna was an administrator of the town as well as military commander.
• These regional governors kept the king regularly briefed on the activities and the state affairs of the province.
• The regimental towns were grouped into 4 provinces headed by an appointed chief.
• Provinces were divided into regimental towns and an Induna was in charge of each regiment, however, their
position was not hereditary, some of the king’s wives controlled the provinces therefore these wives had power
over Indunas, this encouraged total control of the state as the wives reported any developments and problems to
the king.
Socio-Political organisation
The state was divided into three classes:

➢ Zansi
Constituted of the original Khumalo who formed aristocracy class, they made up 15% of the total population;
although they were few they were very powerful and privileged. Most Indunas were elected from this class; they
were not allowed to marry from Enhla and Hole but with time could, the Enhla and hole were not allowed to
marry from Zansi.
➢ Enhla
This made up all elements that had been in cooperated into the state either by force or voluntary on their journey
from Nguniland to Zimbabwe. They made up 25% of the total population and included the Sotho, Tswana and
Kora etc. they were not as privileged as the Zansi but were treated better than the Hole class.
➢ Hole
This was made up of the Shona, Karanga, Leya, Nyayi etc; they made up 60% of the total population. They were
most disadvantaged in the state as they did most of the hard work in the state. They were not elected as Indunas or
any other leadership positions in the state.
• Cultivation
They practised crop cultivation but on a small scale because the area could hardly
Receive enough rainfall. They grew crops such as maize, millet, sorghum, pumpkins, melons, potatoes, beans etc.
Both men and women cultivated crops.
• Pastoralism
They were also pastoralists who kept sheep, cattle and goats. Cattle were of greater value compared to sheep and
goats. There were Zebutho (National herds) and Inkomo Zamatonga (Private herds and king’s herds). The rich
loaned cattle to those who had none and this promoted peace among the Ndebele. Cattle were used for lobola
payment, as food at funerals, weddings, inxala ceremony and in times of draught.
• Trade
Ndebele practised both internal and external trade. Externally they traded with the Portuguese and Arabs for
firearms, beads, cloth and ceramics, foreigners were interested in gold and ivory. Internally they traded cattle for
grain and iron tools e.g. hoes, spears and knifes.
• Raiding
Was vital amongst the Ndebele, they obtained food young men and women. Youngman were needed to build a
strong army to defend the state; this also meant a powerful nation. Herds also increased through raiding.
• Tribute
It was paid by subjects as a sign of respect; it could be in the form of cattle, grain, firewood, iron tools, leopard’s
skin and labour.
There was clear division of labour as men hunted and women gathered. Animals such as, Impalas, Kudus etc
were hunted whilst women gathered berries, bulbs and small insects.
• Crafts work
Women were involved in weaving baskets; baskets could be used to store grain. Pottery work was done and thus
having pots for cooking.
• Blacksmithing
This was mainly done by and made hoes, spears and knives.
Religion
• Nguni groups worshipped a high God (Mlimo), Mlimo and Unkulunkulu were the same, the Ndebele adapted
Mlimo from the Tswana and when they reached Zimbabwe they adopted the Shona high God (Mwari), Mwari
was believed to be powerful so when rain failed they consulted Mwari.
• The Ndebele sent annual gifts and offerings to the Mwari shrine.
• The Karanga and Rozvi worshipped “Mhondoro” a lion spirit, powers of God and ancestors could be only
reached through Mhondoro or king.
• They held an annual gathering, inxala ceremony were they thanked ancestors for good harvests, prosperity and
success especially in military campaigns.
Ndebele-Shona relations
• For a long time it was commonly believed that the coming of the Ndebele caused the breakdown and
disappearance of all aspects of Shona life.
• Lobengula also believed that Mashonaland was under his control; it was so because he did not know to what
extent of the area inhabited by the Shona speaking people.
• However, the Ndebele took time to establish control of the Shona groups and even when they did the impact was
not always as disastrous and as brutal.
• It is assumed that despite the raid of the Shona, the Ndebele were more interested in peace by exchanging grain
and iron tools for cattle and they also adopted some Shona religions.
• The impact of the Ndebele dominance was greater to those who lived near than those who lived further away.
• The interdependence that existed between the Shona and the Ndebele is witnessed by their willingness in fighting
together during the first Chimurenga against European imperialism / occupation.
Decline of the Ndebele State
• Mzilikazi died in 1868 and was succeeded by Lobengula in 1870, between 1868 and 1870 there were succession
disputes between Gwabalanda and a chief Induna who supported Lobengula and Zwangendaba’s regiments which
supported Nkulumani, Zwangendaba urged that Nkulumani was still alive in South Africa.
• Lobengula experienced threats from Transvaal, Portugal and Britain, they were interested acquiring colonies for
prosperity, and therefore they were defeated by BSAC in 1893.
THE SLAVE TRADE AND ORIGINS OF UNDERDEVELOPMENT
What does slavery mean?

It is when one is taken forcibly from their home and sold. One there for loses their freedom and their possessions
and no longer is in control of their lives and they are ill-treated.
Origins of underdevelopment
Wealth of a society is no longer used for its own development and this is called underdevelopment. Wealth is
exported and the people are robbed of their potential by their own labour and resources. Africa was developing at
her own pace meeting her own technological needs, however, in the mid of the 15th century changes took place
that allowed the natural course of her history and development. European traders came to Africa not to look for
traditional items for trade such as gold, ivory and cloth but to purchase people. It was the beginning of the
processed of underdevelopment. The progressive development of Africa was disturbed and never restored.
The Demand for slaves

The sale of human beings was a result of external demand. The growth of political and economic systems
required the use of human labour. The development of mercantile capitalism in Europe and America led to the
setting up of plantations and mines where human labour was required to produce a mine and warrant of minerals
and grew sugar, tobacco, coffee and bananas needed by emerging capitalists of Europe. A number of areas in
South Africa and the mainland of North America were colonised.
Why ware Africans Enslaved?

• It is believed that Africans were prepared and could resist diseases.
• Others argued that Africa had many unwanted people who could be sold without disturbing the existence of the
social system.
Supply of slaves
• The demand for slaves led to the capture or buying of many millions of Africans.
• However, millions of people died during the process of raiding, capture and transport.
• One study says the population of Europe and Asia increased by 4 times between 1650-1900, while that of Africa
remained stable.
• The slave buyers preferred their victims between the age of 15-35 thus it had a terrible effect on the African
labour force.
• Most of the people sold into slavery in the Americas and the Atlantic islands came from West Africa.
• The Portuguese were the first to obtain slaves in 1518. There after the supply of slaves from West Africa was
more as countries such as Britain, France, Netherlands and Spain were involved.
• The main supplying regions were the Sene-Gambia, Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast of Benin.
• During the latter part of the 18th century, the supply of the slaves from West Africa decreased because of the
growing anti-slavery movements in some parts of Europe. This forced the slave traders to concentrate on the East
African region.
• These slaves were exported to Oman, Persian Gulf and India.
• In the 19th century there were also sent to Brazil and the Caribbean islands.
• During the early days of the trade European merchants obtained slaves through the use of force. They hunted and
raided local people of the coast and later then adopted methods of exchange.
• They offered African middlemen imported and manufactured items such as cloth, metal work, ornaments, guns
and gun powder, spirits and tobacco in exchange for human beings.
• The middlemen were chiefs, clan leaders and headmen.
• The victims were weaker ethnic groups, prisoners of war, criminals, so called witches and domestic slaves.
Abolition of slave trade

• As anti-slavery movements increased more and more slaves were supplied to the Arab owned plantations on the
island of Zanzibar and Pemba.
• It is said throughout the 19th century about ½ of the population of these islands were made up of slaves.
• Despite the fact that it laagered behind Portugal in the slave trade, Britain was the leading buyer of slaves by the
18th century.
• However, Britain was also the first to abolish the trade of humans.
• Some of the leading British abolitionists were Thomas Clarkson (Writer), William Wilberforce (Member of
Parliament) and Granville Sharp (Lawyer).
• These and others that opposed slave trade were known as Humanitarians.
• Slavery was declared as illegal in 1772 but the British Parliament did not agree in the abolition of slave trade until
1807.
• Slavery itself in the Americas was not abolished until much later and in the British colonies in 1833, however, the
trade continued illegally from much of the 19th century.
Effects of slave trade

• Slave migration affected development because of loss in human resources.
• The Big man and the middleman strengthen their political and economic powers.
• Slave landlords became very wealthy.
• The strong military groups were able to build stronger states as a result of slave trade; however, smaller states
were completely wiped out and destroyed as a result of slave trading.
• Indigenous development suffered through loss of able bodied.
• Trading items such as gold and salt declined.
• Indigenous mining, craft and manufacturing declined.
• The exchange system was unequal to one side and European goods discouraged development.
EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM IN AFRICA
SCRAMBLE AND PARTITION FOR AFRICA
Definition of terms
¯ Scramble means a struggle against others for something.
¯ Partition means a thin dividing war or cutting up into parts.
¯ Imperialism means the process of acquiring administering and exploiting colonies or it means the acquisitions
of regions or pieces of territories that were originally not used or it means the process of exploiting foreign lands
and foreign people for personal benefit. It normally involves conquering and subjugating (place under your
control normally by force) a foreign people.
European powers which scrambled for Africa
1. Britain
2. France
3. Germany
4. Portugal
5. Italy
6. Spain
7. Belgium
Causes
• Political factors
➢ Nationalism
European countries competed to colonise Africa for supremacy. A European state which had many colonies was
of importance and was of value. The Franco-Prussian war between 1870-71 between Germany and France was an
example. This greatly caused the expansion of other European states in colonisation of most of Africa as many
European states wanted to be valued.
➢ Strategic purposes
Other parts of Africa e.g. Egypt, Morocco, Mozambique, Angola and the Cape were obtained to control trade in
times of reservoir (peace and war). Britain’s interest in Egypt was the Suez Canal as it was a faster route to India.
➢ Balance of power
After the Berlin congress was held and the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78 there was a realisation by European
countries that there was no power in Europe which was more powerful than the others. This meant that no
country in Europe could expand its territory without risking a major war hence they turned to Africa where there
was no resistance.
➢ Source of troops
European nations also obtained colonies in Africa so as to provide a source and
base for troops e.g. France obtained Senegal and Britain obtained South Africa and used Africans from these
territories to fight for their respective sides during the First World War.
• Social factors
➢ To civilise Africa
The fact that Europe was technologically advanced made Europeans feel superior to Africans therefore Europeans
felt they had the duty to civilise Africa and bring it out of darkness characterised by cannibalism and barbarism.
They considered Africans to be like children who needed instructions on everything and they were to be dragged
from their beliefs to the civilised ones of Europe.
➢ To end slavery and slave trade

➢ The scramble was also as a result of need by Europeans to abolish slave trade and introduce Christianity. Slave
trade was popular in Africa so other Europeans felt that it was unfair to continue treating Africans like this.
➢ Extra living space and search for jobs
The scramble was also as a result of the need to create extra living space for growing population. This was
because most of the people in Britain had lost their jobs in Britain therefore they needed to be employed
elsewhere.
• Economic factors
➢ Need for raw materials
The 19th century marked the importance of raw materials. Industries began to produce goods in abundance and at
faster rate. Therefore, raw materials could not meet the demand for the production of goods. This led to
competition for raw materials gold, cotton, rubber and vegetable oil. When gold was discovered at Kimberly and
Witwatersrand, new hopes were raised for Southern Africa especially South Africa and Zimbabwe which were
believed to have second rand gold.
➢ Markets
The home population in Britain was largely made up of lowly paid workers and ordinary people who could hardly
buy goods. Britain imposed high tariffs on imported goods and this made it difficult to sell goods to industrialised
countries. As a result, most countries had to seek markets in Africa.
➢ Search for investment

During the European depression (1875-1900) investment of capital became lucrative and this forced capitalists to
view Africa as an investment opportunity bringing a lot of profits. This proved true in the Kimberly diamond
mines were their profits doubled or trebled those in Europe.
➢ Population increase
Population of industrialised countries increased and it became difficult to provide enough food for them.
Therefore, open spaces were a necessity so as to cater for all population. Above all, European governments feared
that extra and poor population could rise against those in power as a way of expressing their needs so they wanted
to avoid this.
Local factors
The colonisation of Africa would not have been possible if there were no conditions in Africa that led to the
defeat of Africans by settlers.
➢ There were men who were already working as agents for European countries and for charted companies i.e.
Mulatoes.
➢ Many African states had been weakened by devastating effects of slave trade.
➢ Minerals that were found in Africa attracted European settlers.
➢ Some chiefs had invited the Europeans to their states and this showed lack of unity among Africans.
➢ Traders and missionaries urged their countries to establish political control and this made it easier for them to
accomplish their missions e.g. Charles Helm, Robert and John Moffat etc.
➢ Influence of businessmen e.g. Cecil John Rhodes who initiated the influence of Britain in many parts of Africa
including Southern Africa. He had a dream of painting “Africa red” from Cape to Cairo.
Berlin Conference 1884-85

To avoid fighting over claim to territories in Africa, the European countries called a meeting in Berlin, Germany
in 1884-85 to discuss and decide on how to divide Africa among themselves. No African country was invited to
the conference; it showed clearly that Africa had lost power to Europe. The future political affairs of Africa were
to be decided in the offices of Europe and not Africa.
Aims of the meeting

➢ To draw up rules for the effective occupation of Africa. Therefore, Africa was divided into 20 territorial units
known as ‘spheres of influence.’
➢ They agreed that any country willing to occupy African land had to inform other interested powers so as for them
to make their own claims different from the ones claimed.
➢ To plan an effective way of conquest - effective conquest meant a colonial administrative structure and failure to
do so meant that any country had the right to occupy the particular country this was article 35 of the Berlin
Conference.
➢ To end slavery and slave trade in territories occupied.
➢ Major water ways e.g. Congo, Niger and Zambezi had to become open for trade to all European countries.
Territorial terms
• Portugal which had claimed the territory at the mouth of the Congo River and got a piece of land to the mouth of
Congo.
• French claims along the Northern bank of the Congo were recognised, this became French Congo.
• Germany claims on Tanganyika were recognised.
How Africa was divided by Europeans
Colonial Power Colonies

Zimbabwe, Gambia, Sierra Leone, Ghana,
a) Britain Nigeria, Kenya, Uganda, Sudan, etc.
Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Mali,

b) France Guinea, Dahomey, Chad, etc.
Cameroon, Tanzania, Rwanda, Namibia,

c) Germany etc.
d) Portugal Mozambique, Angola, Part of Guinea, etc
e) Belgium Congo
Part of Morocco
f) Spain
g) Italy Libya, Somaliland, Eritrea, etc
Results
• Africans lost power and independence to Europeans.
• Africa became a source of raw materials needed by European capitalists.
• Africa was under developed as profits were sent back to Europe.
• Africans lost their land and were forced to produce labour in farms.
ZJC NOTES Page 50

• Slavery and slave trade began to be experienced in Africa.
• Africans lost their culture in most areas due to introduction of Christianity.
• Technological changes were noticed e.g. bigger ships were made to carry weapons and larger
cargo, better weapons were also made.
• Shift of population as most people moved from rural to urban areas due to construction of
industries and markets.
• Africans gained skills in carpenting, metal work, building etc.
• Development of transport system e.g. railway lines, roads and telegraph lines.
• Establishment of social services e.g. schools and hospitals.
• Improvement of agriculture due to the Agrarian revolution whereby new crops and farming
methods were introduced.
ZJC NOTES Page 51

COLONISATION OF ZIMBABWE
It was part of imperialism brought forth by the scramble for Africa in the 19th century. Mainly
four groups of Europeans i.e. Germans, British, Boers and Portuguese were interested in the
Limpopo Zambezi area.
British – Thought second rand gold was present across Limpopo and into Zimbabwe. They also
wanted to stop Boers from expanding into Central Africa.
Portugal – wanted to occupy Zimbabwe so as to link her colonies to South East Africa. Portugal
was familiar with trade with the Mutapa and minerals in the territories.
Germans and Boers – They dreamt of expanding their territories and therefore had to occupy and
colonise African states e.g. Cecil John Rhodes who colonised
Zimbabwe.
Early European contacts with Zimbabwe

• The Portuguese traded in Mashonaland from the early 16th century.
• Other European missionaries, traders and Adventists visited north of Limpopo in the 1820s.
• Robert Moffat was one of the first missionaries who paved the way of the British occupation.
• He signed a treaty with Mzilikazi in 1836 which was called the Moffat treaty of 1836 which
established friendship between the Cape Government (The British) and Mzilikazi.
• Between 1836 and 1868 when Mzilikazi died he also signed a treaty with the Boers but was not
that important.
ZJC NOTES Page 52

Reasons for colonisation
➢ Expected mineral wealth
Europeans believed that as gold was discovered at the Rand in 1886, it was most probably it also
existed in Zimbabwe which could become the second gold bearing area. Previously Portugal had
benefited from gold trade in Mutapa. This caused Boers, British and Portuguese to occupy
Zimbabwe. However, the British won the fight.
➢ Presence of good savannah soils.

Across the Limpopo there was suitable land for European commercial agriculture; this would in
turn bring about profits to Britain. The British turned to land after realising that there was no
second rand gold they envisaged.
➢ Rhodes imperialism
He felt that the British were a superior race in the world due to their civilisation
Therefore, he felt it was their duty to civilise Africa. He intended to seize Southern Rhodesia due
to his dream to occupy Cape to Cairo.
➢ Competition between the British and Portuguese for Zimbabwe

Britain hoped to use Zimbabwe and Central Africa transport routes to link South Africa
and East Africa, this could be done by the Cape to Cairo railway. Portuguese wanted to link
Mozambique and Angola.
➢ Good climatic conditions

Zimbabwe was believed to have a cool climate favourable for good health. This explains why
Cecil John Rhodes came to Zimbabwe to recover from his ill-health.
➢ Considerable population of elephants for ivory

This would promote trade and Europe would get a lot of profit since there was great demand for
ivory.
➢ Illiterate leaders
Most African leaders were illiterate. Therefore, they were cheated in signing treaties with
Europeans.
ZJC NOTES Page 53

Steps taken to colonise
• Tati concession (1870)
It was signed between Lobengula and John Swinbourne. It was created on the borderlands of
Matebeleland and Bechuanaland (Botswana). Swinbourne was granted permission to search for
gold and other minerals in that particular area.
• Gobler treaty (July 1887)

It was signed between the Boers and the Ndebele and it was a friendship treaty. Piet Gobbler
negotiated the signing of the treaty.
Terms
➢ Enforced peace between Matebeleland and South Africa Republic (Transvaal).
➢ Lobengula was regarded as a Paramount chief and an ally.
➢ Lobengula had to assist the Boers with troops if asked to help.
➢ Anyone with a pass from the Transvaal President had the right to hunt and trade in Matebeleland.
➢ All criminals who could have escaped from South Africa were to be sent back to South Africa by
Lobengula.
➢ South Africa Republic to appoint a council which would reside in Matebeleland and administrate
justice to those who might violate Lobengula’s laws.
Later Lobengula renounced the Gobbler treaty arguing that there were no independent witnesses
when the treaty was signed. Also Boers were the only ones who could read considering the
people who had signed. The Transvaal government insisted that the treaty was still valid. Rhodes
was forced to act quickly so he sent John Moffat to negotiate a treaty with Lobengula; he wanted
Matebeleland to be a British sphere of influence.
• Moffat treaty(11 Feb 1888)

Renounced the Gobbler treaty of 1887.
Terms
➢ Peace to prevail between the British and the Ndebele.
ZJC NOTES Page 54

Lobengula not to deal with any other power without permission from the British high
commissioner in South Africa.
The Rudd Concession (30 October 1888)
Rhodes sent a lawyer Rochford Maguire, his friend Charles Rudd and Francis Thompson who
spoke Ndebele well to negotiate the Rudd concession. Lobengula was unwilling to sign the treaty
but one of his Indunas called Lotshe misled him into signing the Rudd concession because he
was bribed by Thompson. Other agents of imperialism at Lobengula’s court was a missionary
Rev Charles. D. Helm, he pretended to be Lobengula’s friend as said he was someone who did
not take sides but was advancing the interest of Britain. He persuaded the Ndebele king to sign
the Rudd concession. Lobengula did not realise that Helm was actually being paid by Cecil John
Rhodes.
• Terms
Lobengula was promised:
➢ £100 per month for an unspecified period.
➢ 1000 loading riffles.
➢ 100 000 rounds of ammunition.
➢ A gun-boat to be placed on the Zambezi River.
In turn Lobengula would:

➢ Grant mining rights to Cecil John Rhodes’ men.
➢ Grant them power to do all things they deemed necessary in order to carry out their mining
activities.
➢ To give legal rights to Cecil John Rhodes’ men to stop other fortune seekers such as Boers to
enter Matebeleland.
Non-verbal terms
• Only ten whites were allowed to mine. They were not allowed to mine near towns, they had to
surrender their fire arms to the king.
• Obey Ndebele rules.
• Dig one hole at a time.
ZJC NOTES Page 55

NB: After receiving the Rudd concession, Rhodes rushed to Britain to apply for a Charter (a written
document) to enable him to form a company for the occupation of Zimbabwe.
OCCUPATION OF ZIMBABWE BY EUROPEAN SETTLERS
Cecil John Rhodes

• Cecil John Rhodes made an effort to colonise as many African countries as possible, he wanted
to paint the continent red.
• He had moved away from Britain as a result of his illness.
• He saw business opportunities and started two businesses:
➢ BSAC (British South African Company).
➢ Kimberly.
• He traced his gold mine and saw that the belt was reaching Zimbabwe so he thought of
colonising the country.
• Rhodes was an imperialist at heart; he wanted to construct a railway line from Cape in South
Africa to Cairo in Egypt.
• He felt that the British were the finest race of all; he spent sleepless nights thinking how lucky he
was to be British.
• He even told Starr Jameson that they are lucky to belong to the finest flower of civilisation.
The Charter
The Charter was granted on 29 October 1889.
Objectives
ZJC NOTES Page 56

• Construction of a railway line and telegraph
• Encouragement of migration and colonisation
• Development of mining
• Promote trade and commerce
The Charter also included that:

• Imperial government had full control of Southern Rhodesia and could act upon the advice
of the Secretary of colonies.
• The company to have its head office in Britain
• Religion in the country was not to be interfered with
• Rhodes was given permission to occupy the country for 25 years and after that
permission had be granted renewed for terms of ten years.
• Rhodes had to maintain a police force and undertake public works.
Cecil john Rhodes formed the BSAC for the occupation of Zimbabwe and a Board of Directors
was formed to lead the BSAC. Adverts were made of Engineers, Miners and Doctors etc. Many
applied, but only 200 were accepted. Every member was promised 3000 acres of land and 15
gold claims. A police force was also formed to protect the members. Army members and their
wagons were referred to as the ‘Pioneer Column.’
The Pioneer Column
• It was a march regardless of what Lobengula said.
• Soon after being granted the Charter, Rhodes went to South Africa to gather a gang of
mercenaries which he called the pioneer column.
• The Gang consisted of 200 mercenaries supported by 500 policemen.
• To reduce danger of conflict, a decision was made to avoid Matebeleland and march into
Mashonaland.
• F.C. Selous led the way marking trees to be cut to make a road.
• About 170 wagons followed him and the nearest Ndebele village was left 150km north.
• Lobengula sent his men to ask them why they were marching but were brushed aside by Colonel
Penne-father who was commanding the Pioneer police.
ZJC NOTES Page 57

• On the way the Pioneer column established Fort Tuli and from there Fort Victoria and then Fort
Charter and on September 12 1890 they got to Salisbury and hoisted the British flag and declared
Mashonaland occupied.
• As they established Fort Charter on their way, a segment of it headed by Jameson branched off
and trekked to Mashonaland to pre-amp the efforts of the Portuguese who were driving from the
east.
• The whole aim of this was to seize the east and establish Beira as an independent Port for new
BSAC territory.
• The most important Shona Chief Mutasa was persuaded by Jameson and his party to sign a
treaty known as the Mutasa treaty on the 14th of September, 2 days after the establishment of fort
Salisbury.
The War of disposition of 1893(Anglo-Ndebele war)
• The Ndebele Kingdom was doomed from the moment Rhodes decided to colonise Zimbabwe.
Causes
• Conflicts over control of the Shona
The British and the Ndebele wanted the Shona, but for different purposes. The Ndebele needed
them for raids and the British as a source of labour. The British prevented the Shona from the
continuous Ndebele raids therefore the two clashed.
• Boundary issue
After reaching Mashonaland, Jameson marked a boundary to separate Mashonaland and
Matebeleland on the Inyathi and Shashi rivers. This angered Lobengula as he continuously asked
who Jameson was, to demark such a boundary. Therefore, Lobengula refused to accept the
boundary
• Railway link
The British felt that the Ndebele blocked the route of communication between Salisbury and
Mafeking (South Africa) as they intended to construct a railway line to link Salisbury and
Mafeking through Matebeleland. Such a route minimised costs to South Africa. This seemed to
ZJC NOTES Page 58

be impossible as they feared Lobengula and above all they had not invaded Matebeleland, but
Mashonaland.
• Failure to find second rand gold in Mashonaland

British failed to get as much gold as they expected so they thought it was in Matebeleland, they
also believed that Matebeleland was built on a hill of gold.
• Rich soils and cattle

The British wanted the good grazing lands and great herds of Ndebele cattle. They believed they
would make a lot of profit from agriculture if they failed to get the gold.
• The Ndebele were warning light

They were a military threat to the British.
• Quick Victorious war

The Ndebele war would make Rhodes popular in Britain; they wanted to fight and defeat the
Ndebele as soon as they possibly could.
• The Victoria Incident

In 1891, Lomagundi and Chibi were killed by Lobengula. Lobengula continuously raided the
Shona in Masvingo who were providing labour to the British. May 1893, some men under
headman Gomara cut some 500 yards of telegraph wire between Fort Tuli and Fort Victoria.
Gomara paid the fine demanded by the British using Lobengula’s cattle. Another Chief Bere
stole Lobengula’s cattle and Lobengula became furious and sent an army under Munyawo and
Umgandani to teach Gomara and Bere a lesson. By July the army reached Masvingo, burnt down
homes, killed men and took young children and women in Zimuto and other areas in Masvingo.
• Farms and mines were attacked and a lot of cattle were taken even the ones belonging to the
whites.
• Shona stopped providing labour in European farms and mines in Masvingo.
• The Ndebele demanded the handover of the Shona who had taken refuge in white farms and
towns.
ZJC NOTES Page 59

• Lendy refused to comply and a meeting was held between Umgandani/Manyawo and Jameson/
Lendy and this was called the Victoria Agreement.
• They agreed that the Ndebele had to withdraw from the Victoria district within 2 hours and
accept the boundary proposed.
Jameson felt that the Ndebele army had not gone as far as expected so he attacked them killing
30 people including Umgandani. Lobengula became angry and sought revenge.
• War became unavoidable between the British and the Ndebele.
• After the Victoria incident, Lobengula refused monthly payments as per the Rudd concession,
Rhodes began to buy horses from South Africa and looked for volunteers to occupy
Matebeleland.
• Each volunteer was promised a farm (3 000 acres), 15 gold claims and half the cattle captured in
Matebeleland to be shared amongst volunteers.
• The first column left Harare leading to Bulawayo, the second left Victoria and met the Harare
column near Kwekwe and the last column left Botswana and went directly to Matebeleland.
Course of the War in Matebeleland

• The war began in October 1893, the Ndebele prepared 18 000 men where-as BSAC had 3 500
men including 2 000 Tswana auxiliary fighters.
• The company moved faster as it had horses.
• It used modern weapons e.g. machine guns, gun powders and wagons to help in the providing of
war material.
• The Ndebele used spears and shields.
• The first battle was the Shangani (25 October 1893).
• The Ndebele came at night and killed people camped outside.
• By sun down the Ndebele were defeated and some of their warriors died.
• The second war was at Mbembezi (November 1893).
• The Ndebele routed the Laager by the river at night and three Ndebele regiments ambushed it. A
fierce battle was fought and the Ndebele lost due to inferior weapons.
• When Jameson and company entered Matebeleland the found it deserted. Jameson’s plan to
capture Lobengula was in vain.
ZJC NOTES Page 60

• Allan Wilson was sent to fetch for Lobengula, the Shangani River flooded before he could cross
over.
• The Ndebele king attempted to prevent a war with the Europeans by offering them 2 bags of gold
as a peace wish of gift.
• However, the gold did not reach Starr Jameson leading to the war of disposition in which the
settlers succeeded in taking the land from the Ndebele and destroying the state.
• The Ndebele army attacked Wilson and his men; they were slaughtered with their horses.
• In 1894 Lobengula was said to have died of Malaria. The Ndebele Indunas lost hope and
surrendered themselves to the BSAC.
Results
• The Ndebele were defeated.
• Matebeleland became company territory.
ZJC NOTES Page 61

Chimurenga 1
• Chimurenga means war of liberation. It was also known as the Chindunduma due to the founders
booming sounds which were used by Europeans against Africans.
• Because of the wars were many and the fact that both the Shona and the Ndebele took part in the
war reflect the wide spread to opposition to colonisation. They had similar problems and unified
to fight the settlers.
Causes
• Loss of land
Land belonged to community and not the chief even everything in it i.e. animals, firewood, fruit
trees etc. The British pegged farms in best areas in the country owned by Shona and Ndebele.
The Ndebele and Shona were driven away from their farms and had to work as labourers for
Europeans and farms which once belonged to them. Therefore, they felt offended and degraded
when their land was taken away from them. They had to fight to regain their lost land.
• Introduction of reserves
Gwaai and Shangani reserves were created for the Ndebele after their defeat. Reserves could not
accommodate all the Ndebele and were very hot, dry and tsetse infested. Some Ndebele refused
to occupy the areas, but to no avail.
• Loss of cattle
Cattle was a symbol of wealth, they distinguished chiefs from subjects; rich from poor. Police
boys helped in the administration of the country, but abused their powers as they began to
demand cattle, goats and sheep from Africans and thus became unpopular. The settlers
themselves lacked capital to invest in Rhodesia so they stole cattle from Africans, raided them
and subjected them to taxes especially chiefs who failed to supply the labour required. They were
either punished or forced to pay a fine in the form of cattle.
• Taxation
ZJC NOTES Page 62

The company introduced hut tax in 1894. Every adult was made to pay a dollar for every hut he
had. The motive behind this was to force Africans to leave their homes and be employed and
accommodated by the settlers on farms. Both the Shona and the Ndebele resisted, the company
seized goats, crops and cattle from people who failed to pay tax. Animals were driven to the hills
and hid.
• Abuse of African women

In 1903 the company introduced immorality suppression act. It mainly affected the Shona. No
white woman was to have sexual intercourse with a black man. Police boys also took advantage
and abused African women as whites were interested in black women and no law governed it.
Africans resented this as some husbands lost their wives forever. Whites never married and yet
in-laws expected lobola according to their custom. Therefore, Africans felt that war was the only
solution to end this.
• Forced labour
The company forced black men to work for the whites for a certain period of time per year. The
Ndebele and Shona ran away to the hills to avoid being overworked. Some chiefs and headmen
openly resisted forced labour e.g. a Mutoko headman was punished by receiving ten lashes and a
fine of 6 goats and 3 heads of cattle. The sjambok was applied on Africans to force them to
work; at times whole villages were burnt for failing to provide labour. This disrupted African
way of life completely.
• Ndebele confidence
In the Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893, some regiments did not participate. Therefore, they felt that
as a combined force they would definitely win the war. They were so determined to re-establish
their supremacy in Matebeleland therefore they were very confident.
• Natural/Physical disasters.
Favourable rain was received in both Matebeleland and Mashonaland, but thereafter the area was
struck by a drought. Huge swarms of locust devoured the few crops left and this worsened the
situation and famine was being experienced. Rinder-pests wiped huge herds of cattle and this
was associated to the Shona high Priest at Matopos Mlimo/Murenga, the spirit believed that the
ZJC NOTES Page 63

white had to be driven away from Matebeleland and Mashonaland for all these problems to be
solved.
• Loss of independence
The Ndebele were forbidden from choosing another king after the death of Lobengula; they had
to fight the whites to regain their independence as well as an opportunity to choose a new king.
The Shona also felt that the settlers did not sign any treaties with them, but they had also lost
their independence.
Uprising in Matebeleland
• March 1896, white attacks began with the killing of Thomas Murdock a miner.
• March 1896, about 30 whites were killed as the Ndebele attacked farm houses, missions and
collaborators.
• Ndebele were organised by high priest Umlugulu with help of regimental Indunas e.g. Nyanda
and others.Officials of Mwari/Mlimo such as Mkwati and Siginyamatshe helped Umlugulu.
• Mkwati’s shrine was at Ntabazikamambo and it became the centre of the war.
• Around June 1896, the whites got reinforcements from Salisbury, South Africa, Botswana and
Britain; there were about 2 050 troops altogether.
• The Ndebele were defeated at Umguza in June 1896 and this implies they retreated mostly into
the Matopos hills.
• The Ndebele were defeated as they faced food shortages, most of their crops were destroyed as
well as their grain stores.
• Ntabazikamambo was stormed and forces gathered around Mkwati were war broke up.
• Rhodes became afraid of the war because:
❖ It was becoming expensive as the Ndebele were taking too long to defeat.
❖ Mines had closed down so the company was running a loss.
❖ The British parliament was about to withdraw the B.S.A.C. charter to rule Rhodesia.
❖ War had begun in Mashonaland so Rhodes was not able to fight the Ndebele and the Shona at the
same time.
❖ Whites were losing in terms of both man power and resources.
ZJC NOTES Page 64

• Rhodes therefore quickly settled an agreement.
The Ndebele were promised:
1. Supply of both food and seeds.

2. Salaries for Indunas (aristocracies) e.g. Umlugulu the Induna of Gwanda district.
In return the Ndebele were asked to:
1. Surrender all their weapons.
2. Handover all who performed all the numerous settler murders.
The war ended not because the Ndebele were defeated, but because of a settlement.
Mashonaland Uprising.
• Suprised the settlers as they felt that they protected the Shona from Ndebele raids.
• Signs of war had begun at Chief Makoni’s court in Manicaland.
• June 1896, fire was seen at hilltops around Hartley (Chegutu area), it spread to Mazoe,
Murehwa, Mtoko Headlands and Makoni; it was their sign to begin the war.
• Mwari religious leaders united paramount chiefs, these included Mkwati with his headquarters at
Ntabazikamambo.
• In western Mashonaland, Mashayamombe’s kraal was the centre of rebellion.
• Settlers were killed including traders; Beatrice mine was attacked as well as areas 70km away.
• Kaguvi and Nehanda coordinated people, Kaguvi worked with Chinamora, Chikwaka,
Nyandoro, Zvimba, Mangwende, Mashayamombe, Rusike etc.
• Nehanda worked with Chiweshe, Hwata, Nyamweda, Negomo, Nyachuru etc.
• Fighting was organised at local levels by traditional, political, and military leaders.
• Shona used guerrilla warfare, they would attack and after attacking they would hide and pretend
to be ordinary people, therefore many settlers were killed.
• Whites were outnumbered and about to be defeated so settlers asked for reinforcements from
Britain, Whites burnt down Shona villages and seized their cattle.
• A force of horse troops attacked Mashayamombe; the settlers used dynamites on Shona caves.
• Mashayamombe together with 230 people were killed whilst escaping. As a result paramount
chiefs were defeated one by one and these included Makoni, Mangwende etc.
ZJC NOTES Page 65

• Spirit mediums were hunted down. Kaguvi was captured in October 1897 and Nehanda in
December and they were both hung on 27 April 1898.
• Chief Mapondera who was also active died in prison.
• 1903 Chimurenga in Mashonaland ended.
Duties and roles of spirit mediums

• They prepared and mobilised people for war.
• Inspired people to fight.
• Provided logistics needed during uprising.
• Gave medicine to warriors, treated and healed the wounded and the sick.
Reasons for defeat of the Shona
• They used inferior weapons e.g. spears, shields, clubs and arrows whilst Europeans used
superiors weapons e.g. guns and cannons and also dynamite.
• Africans were not united as some regiments were against uprising and therefore did not fight.
• They lost hope after their leader had died.
• Whites destroyed some Shona crops, villages and water source. As a result the Shona were
starved.
• Whites got help from Britain (1 000 soldiers).
• Lacked a single army and a leader to coordinate.
• Surrendering of the Ndebele made settlers concentrate on the Shona.
• Spirit mediums misled the people by informing them that the white man’s bullets were going to
turn to water.
ZJC NOTES Page 66

POLITICAL STRUCTURES 1894-1923
¯ Zimbabwe was governed by the BSAC up to 1922
¯ The Administrator and the legislative Council were appointe4d by the company.
¯ Voting was through property qualification.
¯ This resulted in Africans beings segregated from the voting roll as they did not own the
property demanded by the company for one to vote.
¯ The Whites used traditional chiefs to rule and to keep order among the Africans in their
Districts.
¯ Chiefs who refused to cooperate with the Whites were removed to be replaced by those who
were loyal.
¯ The Resident Minister approved any bill which was regarded unfair to the Africans.
¯ The High commissioner based in South Africa dealt with most important matters affecting the
colony.
¯ The settlers occupied important positions in the government e.g. magistrates and Native
commissioners.
¯ Magistrates dealt with important issues affecting the settlers such as land application and civil
matters.
¯ The African chiefs assisted Native commissioners.
¯ By 1913, there were more settlers on the Legislative Council than company men.
¯ A referendum was held in 1922 and the majority of the settlers opted for self-rule rather than to
be ruled by the company.
¯ In October 1923, the settlers became responsible for all government except defence and
African affairs which were reserved for the British government.
¯ Thus Southern Rhodesia became an exclusive White colony.
THE COMPANY BSAC RULE 1894-23

¯ After the invasion and occupation of Zimbabwe, the BSAC started to enhance infrastructure
development.
¯ The Mutare to Beira railway was built and later linked to Salisbury.
¯ The Cape to Mafeking railway was later connected to Bulawayo.
¯ It is important to realise that African labour was used to build these railway lines.
ZJC NOTES Page 67

¯ In 1903 coal mining began in Wankie and in 1908 asbestos mining started at shabanie.
¯ Mining activities led to the development of the economy.
¯ More so large tracks of land were used for farming by the volunteers of war.
¯ The BSAC remained with large tracks of land which it reserved.
¯ This land was left open for sell especially to the whites as the Blacks could not afford.
¯ In 1914, 23% of the country was allocated as reserve land, 32% was given to European
individuals and 45% was for future use.
¯ This reveals how brutal were the Whites.
¯ Though they were few numerically they owned large tracks of land than the Blacks who were
the majority.
¯ The settlers were concerned with land ownership and they resented that the land belong to the
company.
¯ Due to such disagreements between the settlers and the company, the issue was resolved in the
court from which the verdict was that the company did not own land but the Crown (British
Government).
¯ With frustration, the company relinquished is power and in 1923 it was settler independence.
¯ This became the reign of the Responsible Government up to 1953.
ROAD TO RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT
Between 1890 and 1897, the BSAC failed to make progress in Southern Rhodesia economically
and politically. This was due to the Anglo-Ndebele war, Chimurenga, rinder-pests which
destroyed cattle and locusts which destroyed crops. Therefore, the company used a lot of capital
on war as well as finding means for survival.
Developments in Agriculture
European type African type
They began to grow tobacco, maize, cotton, New methods of farming such as crop rotation
groundnuts etc. Southern Rhodesia became one and construction of contour ridges were
of the major maize growers and exported to introduced.
Britain for the first time in 1909.
ZJC NOTES Page 68

Markets were established for exporting Domboshava and Tsholotsho schools were set
tobacco. up by the government to train agricultural
demonstrators. They were issued badges or
master farmer certificates
In 1912 the land bank was established for Those who were able could buy plots of about
exporting tobacco. This helped Europeans to 200-300 acres.
establish themselves on land as they were able
to get loans.
The Department of Agriculture was set up in They could also sell their produce but not on
1908 to implement agricultural policy to white the same markets as Europeans.
farmers.
Research station e.g. Gwede 1909, Rhodes
Nyanga and Matopos Estates were established.
A pricing policy which discriminated against
Africans was implemented; the levies which
were paid were for one to be able to sell goods
produced were too high that Africans could not
pay.
Africans were further subjected to forced
labour and most of them lost their land.
Industrial developments
• Development of a railway line from Bulawayo to Harare in 1897 and then Harare to Mutare in
1898. This was vital for transportation of equipment in the industrial sector as well as the
exportation of goods.
• Industries were built near towns e.g. Gwelo, Que Que and Gatoma. Most people moved from
rural areas to urban areas to seek employment.
• Asbestos replaced gold as the most valuable mineral in Southern Rhodesia.
• Establishment of electricity supply commission in 1937. This prorated the use of power lines.
ZJC NOTES Page 69

Legislative council
In 1908 the first legislative council was elected. It had 9 members, 5 elected from the company
and 4 elected by the settlers to represent settler’s needs. The Chairperson of the council was also
chairperson of the
Resident commissioner
The resident commissioner was elected by Britain to check if African were being treated fairly
by the BSAC. The commander General controlled the company’s army therefore no police force
was to be used without knowledge of the commander General.
Voters for the council

A voter was expected to be able to fill an application form and had to earn $100 per year or
more. This meant most Africans were excluded from voting. In 1898, the settlers began to
complain that they were not benefiting as compared to the company. They also argued that
mining royalties charged by the company were too high to benefit ordinary people. In 1925,
settlers won against the company, instead of the company rule ending 1914 according to the
charter. More years were added as settlers were benefiting from the company’s investments.
However, clashes continued to exist between the company and settlers, they were mainly for
land. There was alienated land (shared land) and unalienated land (unshared land). The settlers
demanded to know the owner of the unalienated land but the company did not answer. The
company had reserved land for their unborn children. Therefore, the company handed in the
government to the settlers, but not the land.
Administrative issues
• The company had given off around 16 million and the settlers demanded to know who was
responsible for paying money back after the termination of the company. Settlers demanded that
the company was responsible so they clashed with the company.
• The issue was passed on to a judicial committee in Britain which finally ruled out that land
belonged to the British government. Britain offered to pay 3.5 million as compensation for
administration deficits. The company was offended as it needed land.
ZJC NOTES Page 70

• South Africa offered a larger amount than Britain only if Joined South Africa as a fifth province.
• Charles Coughlan leader of the legislative council was against the joining of South Africa and
Southern Rhodesia; he argued that Rhodesia had a small population and could be swallowed by
South Africa. This also diluted British influence as she would be flooded by the Boers.
• In 1919, Charles Coughlan formed the Responsible Government Association (R.G.A.), to fight
for a responsible government in Rhodesia.
• A referendum was held on 22 October 1922 in which Coughlan won against unionists (those
who voted for the union of South Africa and Southern Rhodesia) and those prevented Southern
Rhodesia from being incorporated into South Africa, R.G.A. got 8 774 votes and Unionists 5 589
votes.
• 1 October 1923 Southern Rhodesia won the self-responsible government with Charles Coughlan
as the first Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia.
• The country was divided into 15 districts and each district had to send 2 members to represent
them in the parliament.
• Elections were to be held after every 5 years, but Africans were still excluded from voting.
• 1923 Britain surrendered the African majority to the settler regime.
• Federation of Southern Rhodesia and Northern Rhodesia was also suggested, but it failed.
CENTRAL AFRICAN FEDERATION
Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Nyasaland
Federation – It is when individual countries keep their territorial government but sends
representatives to the federal assembly.
Amalgamation – It is when several countries are joined to come up with one country.
In this case Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Nyasaland
(Malawi) had to be joined as one country.
Reasons behind Amalgamation

• Settlers in Northern Rhodesia wanted to share the profits of Zimbabwean gold field as well as the
profits from the copper.
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• The settlers in Southern Rhodesia wanted to use the huge reserves of Zambia labour as they
believed that blacks were the only valuable source of cheap labour.
• Settlers supported federation as custom barriers would be removed so that Southern Rhodesia
and Nyasaland could benefit as Northern Rhodesia which was a potential market for goods, this
meant goods could be exported and imported without paying duty.
• Post war Europeans could be attracted.
• Whites in Northern Rhodesia would get their territories commission to send representatives to
amalgamation.
The idea of amalgamation was rejected as Northern Rhodesia was not producing much; they also
feared that a few whites in Northern Rhodesia would not resist nationalism.
Therefore Gore Brown a settler from Northern Rhodesia continued to suggest the idea of a
federation. He felt that Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland should form a
federation but interest of Europeans in Southern Rhodesia had to be respected whereas African
treatments in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland had to be respected.
Roy Welensky of Northern Rhodesia and Godfrey Huggins of Southern Rhodesia began to
campaign for federation arguing that there would be partnership between Africans and whites
and yet it was partnership of a “rider and horse”. The Africans equated the partnership to that of
a ladder which the Europeans wanted to use to climb on. Africans also saw this as an instrument
designed to perpetuate white and racist supremacy while others saw it as a ploy to delay their
independence. This meant exploitation of Africans. Africans therefore protested against
federation. Proponents of federation argued that a Federal State would attract massive foreign
investment thus, stimulate economic growth in the region. A Federal state would also mobilise
resources as one unit, therefore enable the development of infrastructure such as power
generation, roads, railway and industries. In 1953 the British Government approved federation.
The white settler population of Southern Rhodesia greatly outnumbered the settler population of
both Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. This population growth greatly shaped the way towards
a Federation and the future developments.
Structure of Central African Federation
- It was made up of five arms of government namely:
• The Federal government
ZJC NOTES Page 72

• Three Territorial governments
• The British government
Central African Federation had a legislative Council of 36 seats which consisted of 29 Europeans
and 6 reserved for Africans representatives. The six seats for Africans were not necessarily
meant for blacks but Europeans representing African Affairs. This was despite that Africans
were the majority and needed better representation. Southern Rhodesia had 18 seats, Northern
Rhodesia 11 seats and Nyasaland 7 seats in the Federal Assembly. The capital of federation was
Southern Rhodesia (Salisbury). The Federal government was responsible for key Ministries such
as Finance, External Affairs, Trade, Communication and Defence. The Federal government also
received revenue from the three territories for its upkeep. Each territory had a territorial
government led by a Prime Minister in the case of Southern Rhodesia and Governors in Northern
Rhodesia and Nyasaland. The territorial governments controlled the Ministries of Local
government, Land, Agriculture, Health and African Education. Africans in Northern Rhodesia
and Nyasaland were part of their governments unlike in Southern Rhodesia were such a
partnership was unacceptable. Africans gained little as they were excluded from the political
cake. Economically they did not gain much either as taxes, prices of goods remained high,
discrimination persisted and wages remained low compared to that of European settlers.
Amenities like hospitals, education and others also remained separate for blacks and whites.
Federation meant;
• Southern Rhodesia was benefitting more than Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia as the Kariba
Dam was to be built in Southern Rhodesia, this meant promotion of tourism and electricity.
• University of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was to be built in Southern Rhodesia (University of
Zimbabwe).
• Construction of a railway line from Northern Rhodesia to Lourenzo Marques (Maputo).
• Roads and bridges were constructed.
• Agriculture and industries were to be created.
However, development was skewed in favour of Southern Rhodesia as the Capital of the Federal
government was in Salisbury. Many of the developments were thus undertaken in Southern
Rhodesia. Southern Rhodesia also received 60% of the Federal revenue, thus relations became
ZJC NOTES Page 73

sour leading to the collapse of the Central African Federation. Other factors which contributed to
the collapse of the Federation were:
• In 1950 Africans in both Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia campaigned to end federation.
• Racial attitude of Southern Rhodesia.
• Changing attitudes towards colonialism.
• Granting of independence / self rule of Nyasaland in 1962.
• The British government terminated the Central African Federation in 1963.
THE SETTLER COLONIAL ECONOMY
The Land Question

➢ The land segregation policies were implemented and Africans remained without land for
Agriculture.
➢ They were forced to work as labourers in mines, factories and mines which Africans were
exploited as they were given low wages considering the work they did.
➢ Reserves were created for Africans after the 1896-97 war.
➢ In 1898 the order in council ordered the company to provide enough land for Africans.
➢ In 1902 order in council ordered creation of more reserves instead of redistributing land as for
the 1898 demand.
➢ Settlers began to buy land such that by 1902, 2/3 of the Highveld was belonging to the
Europeans.
➢ The land commission of 1914 reflected what they thought was final by 1920, land was said to be
redistributed as follows:
❖ Land bought by Europeans: 31 484 095 acres.
❖ Native reserves: 21 203 493 acres.
❖ Land not allocated: 43 529 880 acres.
NB: one really wonders what the land not allocated was for.
ZJC NOTES Page 74

The Land Apportionment Act (1930)
• It was a system in which settlers wanted to be divided between blacks and whites in such a way
that they could keep some land for their unborn white children.
• Out of a total land of 96 000 000 acres, Europeans were given 49 149 174 acres and Africans
were given 21 127 040 acres. During that time there were 1 081 000 Africans and 50 000 were
Europeans.
• The devastation of land apportionment Act is that it caused a lot of overcrowding in the reserves.
The Native Land Husbandry Act

• This was an effort to reduce effects of the Land Apportionment Act of the African population.
• It stated how land in the reserves could be used and divided.
• One family was allowed to keep 5 cattle only and to farm 8 acres only.
• District commissions distributed land which had been formerly distributed by chiefs. it was
hoped that the Native Husbandry act would prevent Africans from coming to urban areas to seek
employment.
• They also expected that it would result in better farming methods being used.
Effects of the Land Acts on Africans

• It created a serious land shortage among African peasants.
• Crop production declined as 1 acre could only produce one bag of maize.
• African were turned to low paid labourers as they could get 1 mealie meal, beans and salt as
payments.
• Africans had to pay rent to whites.
• Africans were forced out of the rural areas to the urban areas to seek employment.
• It contributed to the raise of nationalism in Zimbabwe e.g. The African National Conference of
1957 which aimed at reversing the Land Apportionment Act and relocation of land on non-racial
base.
The Land Tenure Act (1969)

• It was introduced by the Rhodesia Front to tighten the Land Apportionment Act.
• It increased the eviction or removal of Africans from European areas.
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• The Land Tenure Act caused some hardships in the African community.
• Several Acts were later introduced to discriminate against the black people.
Chief Rekai Tangwena

• He was an African leader who opposed the policy of land segregation.
• Tangwena lived around the Inyangani Mountains, this land was sold to the whites without him
knowing and therefore he became a squatter.
• In 1962, the Rhodesian Front removed all squatters but Tangwena refused to move.
• He was taken to court and lost and in June 1968 he appealed to the high court and won the case.
• The Rhodesian Front became angry in the victory, abandoned in rule of law and resorted to
violence and murder.
• September 18 1968, the Rhodesian Front government evicted Rekai Tangwena by force, arrested
him, burnt villages down and his people fled mountains where they lived without shelter.
• Tangwena was later accompanied by Robert Mugabe to Mozambique in 1974 and only returned
after independence.
• The Tangwena’s returned to their land and are now happily settled.
Rhodesian Law
• In Rhodesia the law was used as an instrument for oppression and underdevelopment.
• In the early years of settler rule laws were passed to force Africans to work for Europeans by
confiscating their land.
• Later laws introduced prevented Africans from competing against white in employment, selling
produce and residential areas.
• There were also laws of governing African movement from one part of the province to another.
• However, these laws did not stop Africans from fighting to achieve independence.
Laws Passed
LAW YEAR PURPOSE
Land Apportionment Act. 1930 Creation of reserves e.g. Gwaai and Shangani.
Cheap labour
Native Land Husbandry Act. 1951 Deprive Africans of their land.
ZJC NOTES Page 76

Cheap labour.
Land Tenure Act. 1969 Deprive Africans of their land.
Force them to sell their labour cheaply.
Industrial Conciliation Act. 1934 To govern labour relations.
The law stopped Africans from forming trade
unions.
Registration of Labours Act 1895 Records of finger prints and details of each
worker’s village, tribe etc.
Native Registration Act. 1936 Controlled movement of Africans.
Forced Africans to carry passes wherever they
went.
Native Passes Act. 1937 Controlled movement of Africans.
Forced Africans to carry passes wherever they
went.
Maize Control Act. 1931 Created better marketing opportunities as a higher
price of European maize.
Cattle Levy Act. 1934 Made it possible for Europeans to sell their cattle
for better prices.
Sedition Act. 1936 Speeches and action intended to make people
rebel against the authority of the state were
forbidden.
Unlawful Organisation Act. 1959 Accused the leaders of the A.N.C. of addressing
ignorant and unwary persons in stolen and
threatening language.
Preventive Detention Act. 1959 Gave the Minister of Justice power to distinct
people concentration camps without trial in a
proper court.
A.N.C. leaders were arrested and detained
Law And Order Act. 1960 Replace preventive detention.
(Maintenance Act)
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African Labour Regulation Prevented people from leaving their jobs and from
Act. strike.
Masters and Servants Act. Prevented people from leaving work.
Made sure labour was available to European
masters.
MODERN AFRICAN NATIONALISM AND LIBERATION
Nationalism is a feeling of oneness and love for one’s country. Modern nationalism grew in
opposition to colonial and other settler occupation of the country. The ill-treatment of Africans
and other social and economic problems which held back African development led to increasing
protests as blacks struggled to end oppression and inequality that the settlers created and tried to
kill. Instead of seeing the protest movements as a sign that conditions need to improve the
legislations were tightened. Despite the brutality and abuse of colonial governments the Africans
did not stop to organise and redress themselves.
Early protest movements

• After the first Chimurenga, protest movements were formed all around the country and dealt
with grievances in those areas.
• The leaders came from the black elite which included teachers, priests. Trade unions and the
working.
• The organisations formed protested about particular grievances such as:
➢ Land.
➢ Wages.
➢ Representation in parliament.
ZJC NOTES Page 78

➢ Educational opportunities.
• Some of the movements were reformed Industrial workers unions, Rhodesian Bantu voters
association and British African Voice Association.
• However, during this period these organisations did not die with issue of ending minority rule.
The rise of mass nationalism

• When the World War II broke out, many Africans in the colony served in the war to support their
colonial masters.
• The Rhodesian Africans were not an expectation during the war, people of different races were
made equal as they suffered and died at the war front.
• Once the war was over, the experience of equality was carried home and as a result the
nationalist voice demanded Political participation to grow.
• They fought and died as equal alongside whites but once home there were no longer equal in the
settler system.
• The 1st mass nationalist political movement was African National Congress (A.N.C.) in 1957 and
whose leaders were James Chikerema, Michael Malema, Joseph Msika, George Nyandoro,
Joshua Nkomo, Standake Samkange and Edson Sithole.
• The A.N.C. was banned in February 1959 by Sir Edgar White and many nationalist leaders were
detained.
Formation of National political parties
The National Democratic Party (NDP)

• It was 1st led by Michael Mawema the Joshua Nkomo took over.
• Although N.D.P. leaders included Robert Mugabe and Leopold Takawira.
• Other African countries like Ghana made Zimbabwe nationalist demands stronger.
• In 1961 representatives for the party went to London to discuss a new constitution with the
British government, however, they were not offered equal representations.
• The party was then banned on 9 Dec 1961.
ZAPU and ZANU
ZJC NOTES Page 79

• The banning of the N.D.P. led to formation of the Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU)
with Joshua Nkomo its leader.
• After violent protests in the country ZAPU was banned in September 1962, lack of agreement
among the nationalists led to the formation of Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) in
August 1963 with Ndabaningi Sithole as its leader.
• In August 1964 both parties were banned and the leaders were detained.
Developments in Southern Rhodesia

• Unlike in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland were Africans campaigned to end federation, in
Southern Rhodesia Africans were exploited.
• Most Africans were excluded from voting therefore the protested against colonial rule.
• In 1962 elections were won by the Rhodesian front (R.F) led by Sir Winston Field.
• Ian Smith threatened to declare independence as he claimed that majority rule should not exist in
Southern Rhodesia but minority rule.
• He detained political leaders, banned televisions and declared U.D.I. illegal on the 11th of
November 1965.
• Britain responded by introducing sanction on Ian smith.
Revolutionary Nationalism
• On 11 November 1965, Ian Smith declared U.D.I. against African nationalism.
• It became clear that the settlers would not listen to black demands.
• ZANU and ZAPU then sent more of their leaders out of the country to prepare for an armed
struggle.
• ZANU was allowed to setup camp0s in Zambia, Ghana, Tanzania and China whilst ZAPU
organised joint training camps with A.N.C. (S.A.) in Zambia, and the Solvent Union (Russia).
• Herbert Chitepo was leader of ZANU and its Military leader was ZANLA and James Chikerema
was leader of ZAPU’s military wing ZIPRA.
• The armed struggle began on the 28th of April 1966.
The Armed struggle
ZJC NOTES Page 80

• Because of early defeats the Guerrillas began to listen to the grievances of the mass which they
referred to as National grievances.
• These are:
➢ Land struggle.
➢ General poverty.
➢ Constant harassment by Rhodesian Front.
• The guerrillas’ full understanding of these grievances encouraged people to join the armed
struggle.
• Political education was introduced to fighters so that they would be aware of the exact aims of
the struggle.
• Political education was introduced to fighters so that they would be aware of the exact aims of
the struggle.
• Old men and women provided food and other supplies to freedom fighters whilst the youth, both
boys and girls were organised into security groups to watch enemy movements and supply
information and food to the guerrillas.
Financial support
• Both ZAPU and ZANU received political and financial support from people outside Zimbabwe.
• Countries such as Tanzania, Mozambique, Angola, Zambia, Ethiopia, Algeria, Yugoslavia,
China, Romania, North Korea, Soviet Union (Russia) and other socialist countries supported
armed struggle.
• Many countries in the world including frontline states (Angola, Botswana, Mozambique,
Tanzania and Zambia) supported the first struggles of the African people and opposed the illegal
state of Rhodesia.
• The increasing guerrilla struggle led to the loss of discipline and confidence among white
settlers.
Settler response to armed struggle

• The government created protected villages surrounded by wire and guarded by Rhodesian forces.
This was aimed at stopping support for the guerrillas.
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• African homes were burnt down, crops destroyed and cattle killed in order to deny the guerrillas
food.
• Thousands were detained and hanged for supporting guerrillas.
• Botswana, Mozambique and Zambia were attacked by the Rhodesia Front.
• The Rhodesian government used agents to kill top leadership of the liberation movement.
Pearce commission
• Edward Heath, the leader of a Conservative party negotiated for a settlement with Ian smith
disregarding the fact that Ian Smith was not interested, Goodman was therefore sent to negotiate.
• However, he felt that the British Government had to negotiate
• The settlement he came up with meant continuous exploitation of Africans, some African
protested by carrying demonstrations in the streets.
• In 1973, Ian Smith desired to have talks with Bishop Abel Muzorewa (UANG) but failed to
reach any consensus.
• He tried Dr Joshua Nkomo of ZAPU but failed again.
• Ian Smith began to fear armed struggle from Africans so he decided to negotiate with less
militant African leaders.
Internal Agreement
• Besides attempts by South Africa and Zambia to end the war, attempts were also made by the
U.S.A.
• A meeting took place and Ian Smith announced acceptance of majority rule on 24 December
1974, however, Police army and vital agencies had to remain in white hands.
• This called for great opposition from African and British called a Conference in Geneva,
Switzerland which failed again as Ian Smith was not ready to amend anything.
• In 1976 the American Government sent Henry Kissinger the American secretary of state to
organise the Geneva Conference at which Ian Smith was to meet ZAPU and ZANU leaders, as
they feared the defeat of Ian Smith through war of liberation. However, at this point Smith did
not want to grant majority rule.
ZJC NOTES Page 82

• As the cost of the war became burdensome, it led Ian Smith to adopt the idea of negotiating with
internal leaders as a way of ending the war.
• African leaders who supported the settlement include Muzorewa, Sithole, Chikerema and Chirau.
• On March 3 1978, the internal settlement was signed and the leaders agreed to form a
government of national unity.
• Under this arrangement Muzorewa became Prime Minister of the brief Zimbabwe Rhodesia
in1979 but even during this period the settlers continued to hold politic and economic power.
• The settlement had been a desperate attempt to stop the armed struggle, unfortunately this did not
happen as Muzorewa and others did not have any control over guerrillas so the struggle
continued.
Lancaster House Conference

It was held in London in September 1979 and it lasted for 4 months
Members present
• British Delegation – Lord Carrington – 3 representatives.
• ZANU – Robert Mugabe – 57 representatives.
• ZAPU – Joshua Nkomo – 20 representatives.
• Zimbabwe Rhodesia Delegation – Bishop Abel Muzorewa –20 representatives.
➢ The Patriotic Front was threatening to fight the colonial government and therefore a Conference
was called for , the Question of land became critical at Lancaster
➢ ZANU wanted land which was owned by the whites to be redistributed to the rightful owner i.e.
the Africans.
➢ Whites refused to hand over the land arguing that they had to be paid for the land to be released.
➢ ZANU argued that if any payment had to be made the international community was responsible.
➢ The British government later agreed to pay the whites so that they hand over the land they owned
for redistribution.
➢ Elections were held and ZANU won the majority box.
➢ I8 April 1980 independence was granted to Zimbabwe.
ZJC NOTES Page 83

➢ Cde Canaan Banana the late became the first President of Zimbabwe and Cde Robert Mugabe
was Prime Minister.
From liberation to Independence

• The British government in September 1979 called the warring parties to a conference at the
Lancaster House.
• Bishop Muzorewa led the Zimbabwe Rhodesia Delegation while Robert Mugabe led the patriotic
front.
• The meeting was chaired by British foreign secretary Lord Carrington.
• The conference ended in December 1979 with an agreement that they will be a cease fire
followed by elections involving all parties.
• In the elections Robert Mugabe’s ZANU won the elections.
• The birth of a new nation was witnessed on the 18th of April 1980 with the hoisting of the
Zimbabwean flag.
Post-independence Zimbabwe
• The new government of Zimbabwe was faced with serious problems of receiving economy and
sociality had been destroyed in the armed struggle.
• From the onset government started to address the political and economic problems faced by the
country.
Socialist ideology
• During the armed struggle Zimbabwean government material support from socialist states.
• ZANU was assisted by China whilst ZAPU got help from Russia.
• It is therefore not surprising that the 1980 government chose to follow socialist ideology which
was to support equality in the distribution of wealth.
• However, socialism was difficult to implement as it did not get whole hearted support from
everyone as some quickly assumed personal wealth.
• Such behaviour destroyed socialism as it showed double standard in practise.
ZJC NOTES Page 84

• With the collapse of socialism in the Soviet Union (Russia) in 1989 Zimbabwe back tracked and
openly they accepted capitalism.
Political developments since independence
• Although there was no voters roll in 1980, true democracy was achieved.
• People voted freely and the outcome of the elections was welcomed by the majority of the people
who wanted the war to end.
• During the armed struggle there were many armed groups in the country and it was now
necessary to maintain peace and security.
• As a result General Solomon Tapfumanei Mujuru was given that task.
• A multi-racial Cabinet was appointed.
• However, because of misunderstanding among the political groups a bloody civil war broke out
in Matebeleland in 1982.
• This ended with the unity agreement of December 1987 and Mugabe became President.
Economic development since Independence

• The Zimbabwe economic problems started at independence when the government attempted to
do too much with every little resource.
• Among the other things were introduction of education at primary level and health services for
other disadvantages groups.
• At independence the economy was determined by foreign companies.
• Zimbabwe had gained political freedom but not economic freedom and as a result as late as 2000
the majority of the Africans remained as workers and peasant farmers.
• However, some progress has been made in giving economic power to Africans.
Education
• The colonial government aims in education were:
➢ To spread Christianity through work of various missionary societies.
➢ To train people who would be useful for capitalists’ extraction of wealth from the colony.
➢ For education to be used as instruments to separate Africans from their culture.
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• Only European history was learnt e.g. Hitler, Napoleon, Mussolini etc.
• Missionary societies were the first to start formal; schools for African in Southern Africa.
• The first mission station was established at Inyathi by The London Missionary Society (L.M.S.)
in 1859.
• In 1870 a 2nd mission station opened at Hope Foundation.
• The Jesuits followed the L.M.S in 1879 and the Dutch Reformed Church established one school
near Masvingo in 1891.
• In 1899 the Government passed its 1st education for white children and not Africans.
• The ordinance also stated that individual training was to be included in the curriculum for
African children.
• In 1903 ordinance was passed, it aided on teaching African Children enough English to be able
to understand. Therefore this education assumed at making Africans better labourers.
• In 1946, the 1st government school Goromonzi was established and it courted for skilled labourer
power in both private and public sectors.
• The African demanded that the government had to run with the education sector as they did
European education.
• The partnership between Missionaries and government had continued in the education sector.
Education during Federation

• During federation, the federal government became responsible for education.
• However, primary and secondary education became under territorial government.
• The federal government had a list of resources: The University of Zimbabwe was built.
• A department of native education was established as a separate body.
• The colonial regime did very little to respond to African demands.
African Education System

The education during U.D.I.
• After the Illegal declaration of Independence in 1965, Africans were trained for semi-skilled
labour in local areas.
• There was a plan for training teachers and building schools (306) over 10 years.
ZJC NOTES Page 86

• Africans who were allowed to go to the full 4 year secondary program constituted 12.5% and the
rest ended at primary school.
• This was because grade 7 markers were instructed to fail the rest after a certain number had
passed.
• The Skilled Man Power Development Act and The Industrial Conciliation Act prevented
Africans from training and working in technical fields.
• White trade Unions stopped blacks from getting technical education and training.
Post-Independence period
• Before independence the education system had favoured the white minority whilst they were
bottlenecks for African children who forced them out of schools.
• This system produced Africans who were only able to read and write that they could be accepted
in the mines, farms and industries.
• In 1981, the government set out to provide better educational opportunities for Africans.
• There was to be no discrimination in education on grounds, voice class and gender.
• An expansion in education led the government to introduce a fast track teacher in schools.
• Other universities were opened/ established to relieve the University of Zimbabwe to
accommodate those finishing their A level studies.
• To promote the girl child, in 1996 the government came up with the affirmative action policy,
this encouraged female enrolment at higher institutes.
• Since independence the education system has received outstanding achievements.
• On the other hand the quality of education has been limited by lack of funds and brain drain.
• Equality has also been difficult to achieve as some schools have excellent facilities whilst others
have to do with bare minimum.
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ACHIEVEMENT OF INDEPENDENCE IN AFRICA
• Partition of Africa after 1884 led to the occupation of the continent by European colonial power
except for 2 countries; Ethiopia which had been independent throughout its history and Liberia.
• The exploitation of African people and their resources followed a similar pattern but in some
countries there was strong resistance to colonisation.
• The liberation of the liberation of the African continent has been a long struggle.
• Egypt became the first country to gain independence in 1922.
• The first black African country to become independent was Ghana in 1957; this encouraged
other African nationalists in other parts of the continent.
Liberation of Ghana
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The gold coast as it is known during the colonial times became independent on the 6 th of March
1957. At the beginning of the 18th century the British company of merchants sent an official to
make a treaty with regional chief. In 1821 the British government took over the company and in
1874 the Fante and Ga Coastal areas became a British colony and 2 years later the Asante area
was occupied because of its gold.
Protest movements
• Despite a few Africans having being members of the Accra Legislative council 1877.
• The colonial government kept Africans out of the senior posts in the civil service.
• In 1897, members of Ghana’s 2 elite groups the educated and chiefs formed the gold coast
Aborigines Rights Protection Society (A.R.P.S.).
• They had been united by their opposition to laws which did not allow Africans legal ownership
of their land.
• In response to growing discontent, The United Gold Cross Convention (U.G.C.C.) was formed in
1947.
• The U.G.C.C. invited Kwame Nkrumah a graduate in the United States to come back and
become the party’s secretary general, he was a good speaker and organiser.
• In 1948 he and others were detained and a state of emergency was declared following
demonstrations and riots after he had called for a boycott of European firms until firms were
forced to lower prices.
• The constitution of 1950 gave Africans more representations.
• In February 1951, C.P.P. won the legislative elections and became leader of government
businesses and the Prime Minister the following year.
• In 1954 he led his party to victory in the new elections, the regional and capitalist’s forces were
mobilised against the C.P.P. and the British demanded a new set of elections.
• In these elections the C.P.P. won again.
Ghana After independence

• Nkrumah’s victory inspired nationalists all over Africa.
• In his speech he promised his country’s support to Africa’s total liberation.
• Ghana was the first country to train Zimbabwean guerrillas and many other liberation units.
ZJC NOTES Page 89

• Nkrumah was overthrown by his army in 1966 and died in exile in 1972.
• However, Nkrumah is remembered as father of African independence.
THE ORGANISATION OF AFRICAN UNITY
It was a loose association of 30 African countries. The O.A.U. was an attempt to establish an
Inter African organisation of independent states. Then O.A.U. organised to fight against
colonialism in Africa.
Pan-Africanism
• This was a feeling of African inside and outside Africa to free themselves from white people.
• The origins of Pan-Africanism are traced to North America were people from African descent
desired to establish links of Brotherhood with Africans in Africa.
• Its aim was to bring together all the black people of the world in a common struggle for freedom,
equality and self-determination throughout the world.
• Pan-Africanists believed that Africa is a single unit that should unite; there was a deep cultural
unity among all Africans.
• Europe and America developed because of slave labour and raw materials from Africa.
• Because of these beliefs some of the African in America organised Africans to come back to
Africa and a number actually came and stayed in Liberia and Sierra Leone.
• The movement of African unity and solidarity was known as Pan-Africanism.
• With prominent figures such as Henry Sylvester Williams, Marcus Garvey and Dr William E.B.
Du Boise.
• The early Pan-Africanists were Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya and Julius
Nyerere of Tanzania.
• Henry Sylvester Williams came from Trinidad in the West Indies; he was the first person to
champion Pan-Africanist ideas in 1900. Williams advised African chiefs to fight against
colonialism in order to be independent.
• Marcus Garvey came from Jamaica, he called for black people to return to Africa and his
movement was called “Back to Africa movement”. To help the black Americans go back to
ZJC NOTES Page 90

Africa, Garvey formed a shipping company and told black Americans stop to rely and depend on
white employers.
• Dr William E.B. Du Boise. Was regarded as father of pan Africanism, Du Boise ideas were
shared by most afro Americans. He regarded America as his native land. Du Boise pan
Africanism aimed at encouraging and uniting Africans against oppression and exploitation
wherever they were.
Formation of the O.A.U.

• Before the formation of the O.A.U. there were several attempts to create an Inter African
organisation, however, these attempts failed because of political, economic and linguistic
differences.
• The independence of Ghana speeded up the process and Ghana’s first black leader Kwame
Nkrumah worked on the independence of African states, he wanted to see Africa as one country.
• These ideas of federation were not widely accepted leading to the split among independent
African states namely Casablanca and Monrovia.
• They opposed each other because the Casablanca group favoured a federation for Africa whilst
the Monrovia group favoured a loose association.
• The Casablanca group was radical, militant and violently to the west whilst the Monrovia group
was very friendly to the west.
• Although the two opposed each other they both agreed on the need to form an organisation with
an African interest.
• Eventually Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia, Modibo Keita of Mali and Sekou Toure of
Guinea joined the two together leading to the approval of a charter which established O.A.U. in
Addis Ababa on 25 May 1963.
Aims of the O.A.U.

• To promote unity and solidarity of African states.
• To coordinate and intensify their cooperation and efforts to achieve a better life for people of
Africa.
• To defend their sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence.
• To eradicate all forms of colonialism from Africa.
ZJC NOTES Page 91

• To promote international cooperation, having due regard to the charter of United Nations (U.N.)
and Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Principles of the O.A.U.

• The sovereign equality of all member states.
• Non-interference in internal affairs of the state.
• Respect for all sovereignty and territorial integrity of each state and for its inalienable right to
independent existence.
• Peaceful settlements of disputes by negotiation, mediation, conciliation or arbitration.
• Unreserved condemnation in all its forms of political assassination as well as subversive
activities on the part of neighbouring states or any other state.
• Absolute dedication to the total emancipation freedom on the African territories which are still
dependent.
• Affirmation of a policy of non-alignment with regard to all blacks.
The O.A.U. organs and their duties.

The most important organs of the O.A.U. are:
❖ The assembly of Heads of States and Government (The Assembly).
❖ The Council of Ministers.
❖ The Commission of Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration.
❖ The General Secretariat.
The Assembly of Heads of States

• The supreme or most powerful organ of the O.A.U. formed by Heads of States and Government
which met once a year.
• Decisions were made by a consensus or agreement or 2/3 of a majority.
• It made decisions, policies and adopted resolutions.
ZJC NOTES Page 92

Policy
making
Approves body
budget
ASSEMBLY OF
HEADS OF STATES
AND
AGOVERNMENT
Makes Adopts
decisions resolutions
Council of Ministers
• It is made up of foreign ministers of member states and met twice a year.
• It prepared conferences and agendas and approved the O.A.U. budgets for the assembly.
ZJC NOTES Page 93

Adopts
budget.
Prepares
Labour Agenda for
The
Assembly.
Cultural co- Makes

operation recommend
ations
THE
COUNCIL
OF
MINISTERS
Transport,
education,
Meets twice
health and
a year
science co-
oparation
Commission
Economic for
and Social co- Mediation,
operation Councilation
& Arbitration
Defence
The General Secretariat

• It is the civil service and permanent organ of the O.A.U.
• It prepares reports on the O.A.U. activities, keeps all documents and files of the organisation.
• It also writes minutes and prepares the program and budgets of the O.A.U. for each year.
• It is headed by the Chief Executive who is appointed by the assembly.
ZJC NOTES Page 94

Permanent
organ of
the O.A.U.
Keeps all
Coordinating documents
committees and files of
for liberation the
of Africa. organisation.
The
General
Secretariat
Informatio
Organises n and
meetings. Public
relations.
Prepares
programs and
budgets
annually.
Achievements and failures of the O.A.U.

• End of colonialism in Africa was O.A.U.’s greatest achievement.
• Not successful in ending conflicts and preventing conflicts which left hundreds and thousands of
people dead, maimed and displaced.
• The O.A.U. failed to prevent and end civil wars.
• The factors divided Africa.
• The African unity has remained a dream.
• The O.A.U. experiments on African Unity and has not been successful so far.
How the A.U. was formed

• The O.A.U. was formed to liberate Africans from colonialism.
• This was its major role besides other social and economic aims.
• By 1999 almost all African states were liberated and no foreign power directly ruled Africa.
ZJC NOTES Page 95

• This development made the O.A.U. an old organisation in a new world because its main aims of
liberating Africa had been achieved.
• This was thus agreed for a new body with aims to address the challenges that Africa was facing
in the global village.
• Calls to have a United States of Africa were shot down.

• Under this agreement there was to be a continental leader with federal governments in the
member states.
• The assembly agreed to form the A.U. at Lome in Togo on 11 July 2000 and at the Lusaka
Summit in Zambia in July 2001.
• The 53 members of the O.A.U. signed the constitution of the A.U., it was called the Constitutive
Act of the A.U. and on 1 July the A.U. was formed at the O.A.U. after 38 years of life and the
A.U. became problems on the continent.
Aims of the A.U.

• To achieve greater unity and solidarity between African countries and people of Africa.
• To defend sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of member states.
• To promote and defend common African interests on the continent and beyond.
• To encourage continental cooperation through the United Nations (U.N.) and Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (U.D.H.R.).
• To promote peace, security and stability on the continent.
• To promote economic cooperation and sustainable use of resources.
• To improve living and working conditions of Africans.
• To promote research in education, science and technology.
• To eradicate poverty and diseases.
The organs of the A.U.

The Assembly
• This is the supreme or most powerful organ of the A.U.
• It was made up of the Heads of States and Government.
• It met once a year.
ZJC NOTES Page 96

• The office chairman of the assembly is held for a period of one year by Head of State or
Government.
• Decisions are made by consensus, agreement or 2/3 majority.
• The assembly determines the policies of the union and adopts commissions.
• It monitors improvements of policies by member states.
Assembly
Executive Financial
council. institutions
Economic,
Pan-African Social and
parliament. Cultural
African council.
Union.
Specilised
Court of
technical
Justice.
committees
The Permanent
representative
commission committe.
The Executive council

• It is made up of foreign affairs ministers of member states.
• It meets twice a year and its decisions are by consensus, agreement or 2/3 majority.
• It coordinates policies in areas of common interest to member states.
ZJC NOTES Page 97

Specialised Technical committees
• These are committees that report to the Executive Council.
• Each committee prepares projects and programmes and make follow up supervision.
• It then reports to the Executive Council on progress being made.
Pan-African Parliament
• This is made up of representatives of all member states.
• The purpose is to ensure full participation of all African people in the development of their
constituency.
• The parliament also reports to the Executive Council on emerging challenges and the progress
made on development projects.
Financial Institutions
The council had the following financial institutions:
• The African momentary fund.
• The African Investment Bank.
• The African Central Bank.
The Commission
• It works as the secretariat of the African council.
• It consists of a Chairperson and a group of commissioners,
• The commissioners report to the assembly which alternates its structure, functions and
regulations.
The Permanent representative committee.

• It is composed of permanent representatives to the African Union.
• Its members came from the member states.
• Their task was to prepare the work of the Executive Council and carry out their constituents.
• This committee works with various sub councils here and other groups.
The Economic, Social and Culture Councils
ZJC NOTES Page 98

• This is an advising organ composed of different social and professional groups of member states
of the Council.
• The works of this organ is outlined improving the economies of member states as well as
changing the living standards of the people.
• It also promoted culture exchanges on the constituent.
Challenges of the A.U.

• The A.U. has taken over the political work left by the O.A.U.
• The main task facing the A.U. is the one of promoting democracy and good government in
Africa.
• Other challenges are:
❖ Poverty and unemployment is worsening.
❖ International terrorism.
❖ Lack of financial resources to establish a standing army to maintain peace and security.
❖ Disunity and selfish interests among member states which is causing lack of progress in
development plans.
❖ Human rights abuse on Constituent is increasing.
❖ Africa is still cheap exporter of raw materials.
❖ Lack of cultural identity.
ZJC NOTES Page 99

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INTRODUCTION

WHY STUDY HISTORY

- There are several types of history.

- This type of history examines/studies the experiences of people in the past.

- Economics is a broad/wide field of study.

b) The scientific theory

• Homo Habilis (Skilful man )

• Homo Sapien (Neanderthals)

• Homo Sapien Sapiens

WHY AFRICA IS THE CRADLE OF MAN?

Effects of tool making

Who learnt to write?

What did they write?

Important events in Egyptian history

The old kingdom

The middle kingdom

The new kingdom

STONE AGE PERIOD

¯ Started around 50 000 BC to 150 000BC.

c) Later Stone Age

¯ It lasted two million years ago.

Later Stone Age tools and their uses

1.MICROLITHS ¯ Is a tiny-very small tools made from bones.

2.BOWS AND ARROWS

THE LATE STONE AGE AND EARLY IRON AGE

Change of tools and their results

LATE STONE AGE EARLY IRON AGE

THE GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE

Origins of the State

Factors leading to the rise of Great Zimbabwe

• Good Agricultural and Grazing Lands

• Enough Mineral Wealth

Reasons for building the Great Zimbabwe

The Great Zimbabwe

• Hunting and Gathering

Social and Religious organisation

Decline of Great Zimbabwe

• Shortage of food supplies, minerals and grazing lands

• Out breaks of epidemics killed a lot of people.

THE MUTAPA EMPIRE

• Accessibility of the area to international trade

• Presence of politically ambitious leaders

• Decline of Great Zimbabwe

PORTUGUESE PENETRATION OF THE MUTAPA

Reasons for penetration

• After the death of Matope there were quarrels over leadership.

How they took over Mutapa State

• However the Mutapa :

Decline of the Mutapa State

THE ROZVI STATE

Uses of cattle in the Rozvi State

¯ To provide draft power

¯ To provide meat, milk, skins and manure

¯ Cattle were killed at religious ritual ceremonies

¯ It was a symbol of wealth

¯ Were used in trade

¯ Cattle skins were used to make drums

• Hunting and Gathering

Decline of the Rozvi State

• Hunting and Gathering

• Competition for trade with Portuguese

• Discouragement of early marriages