CHAPTER I.

NATURE OF RESEARCH

Objectives: At the end of the unit, the students should have been able to:

1. conclude that research is of value to every educator in order to improve educational practices;
2. explain the differences of the types of research;
3. identify the process of research, sources of research problems; and
4. explain the ethics to be observed in conducting educational researches.

A. Definition of Terms

What is research?

Research is a systematic inquiry that investigates hypotheses, suggests new interpretations of

data or texts, and poses new questions for future research to explore (UC San Diego).

A process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a
topic or issue (Creswell, 2012).

Research is the persevering, thorough study into a subject that requires time and effort on your
part. It is a cyclical process that is presented as a step-by-step activity. It is usually associated
with careful investigation of many different resource tools and visits to a library (UST).

Educational Research is the application of scientific approach to the study of educational

problems. The way in which people acquire dependable and useful information about the
educative process (Ary, Jacobs, and Sorensen, 2010).

What does research involve?

✔ Asking a question that nobody has asked before;

✔ Doing the necessary work to find the answer; and

✔ Communicating the knowledge you have acquired to a larger audience.

What is a Research Proposal?

A research proposal is a written plan for a project that will be submitted to others for
evaluation. Writing the research proposal can be the most crucial and exciting step in the
research process. At this stage, the whole project crystalizes into concrete form. The
researcher’s inspirations and insights are translated into step-by-step plans for discovering new
knowledge. In a well-organized and well written proposal, researchers demonstrate that they
know what they are seeking and that they will know how to successfully complete the planned
project (Ary, Jacob, Sorensen, 2010).
A research proposal is a concise and coherent summary of your anticipated research.
It sets out the questions that you intend to address. Generally, it includes the introduction,
conceptual framework, research questions, research methodologies, bibliography/literature
cited.

B. The Purpose of Educational Research

Why Use or Engage in Research (Lauer, 2006)

An understanding of research can help educators and policymakers make evidence-

based decisions about education, such as school programming and teaching practice.
Information from research is more reliable than information from other sources such as stories,
personal experiences, opinions, or logical arguments because research is based on systematic
gathering of empirical information. Without access to information from research about
education practices, educators and policy makers are more likely to make decisions that are
ineffective or even harmful.

Educators and policy makers judge the accuracy of information different studies and
evaluate research that researchers or developers of education materials and programs claim
as scientific support for their points of view or products. In other words, policy makers and
 educators can better determine whether there is scientific evidence that an education program,
intervention, or practice is effective.

C. Types of Research Based on the Specific Purpose

Research is a systematic inquiry used to describe, explain, predict or control some observed
phenomenon - the research topic. Research can be classified into four main forms based on the
specific purpose (Patton,1990, cirt.gcu.edu, 2016):
1. Basic Research - This research is descriptive in nature and is used to understand and explain
a phenomenon. This type of research is often conducted for the sake of increasing and
advancing a knowledge base.

2. Applied Research - The purpose of this research is to provide information that can be used
and applied in an effort to help people understand and control their environment. This type of
research is more prescriptive in nature and seeks to offer potential solutions to problems.

3. Evaluation Research - The purpose of evaluation research is to examine the processes and
outcomes associated with a particular solution to a problem. The research may be formative in
that it attempts to improve the intervention or solution or it may be summative and attempt to
evaluate the effectiveness of solution or program.

4. Action Research - This research is often conducted within a program, organization or

community and the researchers are involved in gathering data and studying themselves.
According to Fraenkel, Wallen, and Hyun (2013), action researchers (often teachers or other
education professionals, rather than professional researchers) focus on getting information that
will enable them to change conditions in a particular situation in which they are personally
involved.

Regardless of the purpose of the research, the process is similar. Researchers begin
by selecting a broad research topic and conducting a literature review to build up the
researcher's knowledge base and to ensure the significance of the research. The researcher will
then develop a research problem related to the topic and create a specific question. The
research design will then be developed and the procedures for analyzing the data will be
identified. The results of the research will hopefully lend themselves to the publication of a
scholarly article.

D. The Research Process

Stages of conducting a research study (North Hennepin Community College, 2017):

Step 1 – Identify a significant research problem. In this stage, find out the research questions that are
significant and feasible to study. Select a topic for which you can find a manageable amount of
information.

Step 2 – Get Background Information

Step 3 – Focus and Refine Your Topic

● Think about how you want to explore the topic.

● Ask yourself:

o Is my research intended for a general group or class or is it more specialized?

o Can or should I limit my topic by time period or place?

Step 4 – Research Tools

● Find the right tool for the study.

● Ask yourself:

o What types of materials do I need?

o How recent should my materials be?

o How long do I have to do my research?

Step 5 – Select Your Tool and Begin
● Use the library’s resources to find journal articles, eBooks and videos.

● If you are using websites, make sure they are quality resources.

Step 6 – Gather Your Materials

● Resources may include books, journals or websites

Step 7 – Evaluate Your Resources

● Analyze and carefully select resources.

Step 8 – Stay organized

Step 9 – Write and Review Your Paper

● Make sure your paper is formatted correctly.

● Check to make sure all of your sources have been cited and your research is properly listed at
the end of your paper.

CHAPTER II. WRITING RESEARCH QUESTION

Objectives: At the end of the unit, the students should have been able to:

1. explain what makes up a good question in a research; and

2. conclude that a background of a study provides the rationale for the conduct of the study.

A. Qualities of a Researchable Problem

Characteristics of Good research questions:

1. Research questions should be feasible

Research process feasibility is influenced by:

⮚ Time requirement

⮚ Cost

⮚ Hazards and hardships(be prepared)

⮚ Availability of facilities

2. Clear

⮚ Use appropriate and unambiguous keywords

3. Significant ( contribute important knowledge)

Three important questions should be asked:

1. How might answers to this research question advance knowledge in my field?
2. How might answers to this research question improve educational practice?
3. How might answers to this research question improve human condition?

4. Ethical

⮚ Does not involve physical or psychological harm

5. Research question often (although not always) suggest a relationship to be investigated. The
term relationship, as used in research, refers to a connection or association between two or
more characteristics or qualities.
B. Writing the research questions
Some measures to consider in writing research questions:
1. Problem Characteristics

⮚ Novelty and originality

⮚ Practical value

⮚ Availability of data

2. Researcher’s Characteristics
⮚ Special qualification (field of specialization)
⮚ Interest (motivation)
3. Statement of the Problem
⮚ General/major problem should be brief and with few but precise and clear
sentences.

⮚ Sub problems/specific problems should also be clearly and briefly stated and their
order should show their relative importance in support of the major problem.

⮚ Not answerable by yes or no but indicative of researchability.

Here are more ideas for research questions. Which ones do you think are
researchable? Please check.

___1. What are the qualities of a good father?

___2. Are children more engaged when taught by a teacher of the same
gender?
___3. Does high school achievement influence the academic achievement of
university students?
___4. What is Outcomes-Based Education (OBE)?
___5. At what age is it more helpful to introduce phonics to children – age 5, age 6, or age 7?
___6. Do students engaged social networking sites develop better social skills than students
not engaged?
___7. Are some people born bad?
___8. What are the struggles and coping mechanisms of call center agents?

Common Mistakes in Formulating Research Problem (Batani, R.,2015)

1. Collecting data without a well-defined research problem or from hoping to make
sense out of the collected data afterwards.
2. Defining objectives in such general or ambiguous terms that interpretations and
conclusions will be arbitrary and invalid.
3. Pursuing research topic without reviewing the existing professional literature on the
subject.
4. Doing research that makes no contribution to knowledge or understanding.

CHAPTER III. ACTION RESEARCH

At the end of the chapter, the students should have been able to:

1. compare and contrast the types of action research;

2. discuss the steps in conducting an action research; and
3. propose an action research.

Action Research is conducted by one or more individuals or groups for the purpose of solving a
problem or obtaining information in order to inform local practice. Those involved in action research
generally want to solve some kind of day-to-day immediate problem, such as how to decrease
absenteeism or incidents of vandalism among students, figure out ways to use technology to improve
the teaching of mathematics, or increase funding (Fraenkel, J.R., et al., 2013).

Types of Action Research

1. Practical action research. Intended to address a specific problem within a classroom, school, or
other “community.” It can be carried out in a variety of settings, such as educational, social
service, or business locations. Its primary purpose is to improve practice in the short term as
well as to inform larger issues. It can be carried out by individuals, teams, or even larger
groups, provided the focus remains clear and specific. To be maximally successful, practical
action research should result in an action plan that, ideally, will be implemented and further
evaluated.

2. Participatory action research. This type aims to empower individuals and groups to improve
their lives and to bring about social change at some level such as school, community, or
society. Accordingly, it deliberately involves a sizable group of people representing diverse
experiences and viewpoints, all of whom are focused on the same problem. The intent is to
have intensive involvement of all these stakeholders, who function as equal partners.
Achieving this goal requires that the stakeholders, although they may not all be involved at the
outset, become active early in the process and jointly plan the study. This includes not only
clarifying purposes but also agreeing on the other aspects, including data collection and
analysis, interpretation of data, and resulting actions. For this reason, participatory action
research is often referred to as collaborative research.
STEPS IN ACTION RESEARCH

Action research involves four basic stages (Fraenkel, J.R., et al., 2013):

1. Identifying the research problem

2. Obtaining the necessary information to answer the question/s
3. Analyzing and interpreting the information that has be gathered, and
4. Developing a plan of action
Identifying the research question. Clarifying the problem is the initial stage in action research. An
individual or group needs to carefully examine the situation and identify the problem. Action research is
most appropriate when teachers or others involved in education wish to make something better, improve
their practice, correct something that is not working.

Gathering the necessary information. Once a problem has been identified, the next step is to
decide what sorts of data are needed and how to collect them. Experiments, surveys, causal-
comparative studies, observations, interviews, analysis of documents, ethnographies – all are possible
methodologies to consider.

Major categories of data collection involves observation, interviewing, examination and analysis of
documents. Examination and analysis of documents may involve inspection of attendance records,
minutes of meetings, counselor records, student journals, lesson plans, suspension lists, seating charts,
student portfolios, etc.

Action research allows for the use of varied types of instruments such as questionnaires, checklists,
rating scales, etc. Some action research uses more than one instrument or other forms of triangulation.
Thus, asking students to respond to carefully prepared interview questions might be supplemented by
video recordings; data obtained though the use observational checklists might be checked against audio
recordings and others.

Analyzing and interpreting the information. After collecting and summarizing the data gathered
in step 2, the data need to be analyzed and interpreted. Data should be examined in relation to resolving
research question or problem. Analysis of action research data is usually much less complex and
detailed than other forms of research.

Developing an action plan. Fulfilling the intent of an action research study requires creating a plan
to implement changes based on the findings. The study indicates clear directions for further work on the
original problem or concern.

Action Research differs from traditional research in two essential ways:

1. It is not an add-on activity. It is embedded in the regular ongoing work of the class; and

2. It makes the complete cycle from formulating relevant questions to making changes in the
practice of teaching.

Differences between traditional and action research:

TRADITIONAL RESEARCH ACTION RESEARCH

Purpose To draw conclusions. Focus is on To make decisions. Focus is on the
advancing knowledge in the field. improvement of educational
Insights may be generalized to practice. Limited generalizability.
other settings.

Context Theory: Hypotheses/research Practice: Research questions derive

questions derive from more general from practice. Theory plays
theoretical propositions. secondary role.

Data Analysis Rigorous statistical analysis. Focus on practical, not statistical

significance.
Sampling Random or representative sample. Students with whom they work.
CHAPTER IV. LOCATING AND REVIEWING THE LITERATURE
▪ Writing the Background of the Study
▪ Variables and Hypotheses
▪ Conceptual Framework

Objectives: At the end of the unit, the students should have been able to:

1. conclude that related literature provides theories, concepts and framework for a research study;
1. construct the background of the study;
2. synthesize a literature for a chosen research;
3. contrast independent from dependent variable and moderating from intervening
variable; and
4. construct diagrams to show relationship of variables.

A. Role of Related Literature

1. Literature review is an assessment of a body (or bodies) of literature that pertains

to a specific question. A literature review is helpful in
several ways:
i. Helps researchers glean the ideas of others interested in a particular research
question;
ii. Researchers read about the results of similar/related studies (review and critique);
iii. Provides a rationale/justification for doing the proposed study, indicating how it
will be different to that which has been published.
iv. Literature reviews also give researchers ideas about areas where more research
need to be done (to identify a gap, a problem, a need) in the research literature.

Subsidiary functions of Related Literature (cte.hawaii.edu)

Review published literature

⮚ Identify the relevant theories
⮚ Identify the research in the field
⮚ Summarize the literature (theory & research)
⮚ Synthesize the literature (theory & research)

Critique the literature

⮚ Identify the arguments for theories/ideas
⮚ Identify the arguments against theories/ideas
⮚ Assess/weigh the value of research claims, research design & method
⮚ Identify limitations in previous research

Identify literature gaps

⮚ Determine where the gap in knowledge/research lies
⮚ Identify what areas have only been partially researched

Inform proposed research

⮚ Provide background/context for proposed research
⮚ Provide a direction/plan for proposed research
⮚ Provide a rationale (importance/significance) for proposed research

B. Sources of Related Literature

Three basic types of information sources for your literature review. These apply both to
computerized searching (online or electronic) as well as manual searching.
1. General reference tools. These resources include articles, books, reports, abstracts
and other documents that deal directly with the research questions.
 2. Primary sources. Publications which researchers report the results of their studies
directly to the reader. Ex. Education journals
3. Secondary sources. These refer to publications in which authors describe the work
of others. Example: Textbook in educational psychology, educational encyclopedia,
handbooks, research reviews (usually reviewed journals that publish literature reviews
on specific topics), and yearbooks.

Steps Involved in Literature Search

1. Define the research problem as precisely as possible. State the research question
as specifically as possible.
2. Look at the relevant secondary sources (these can include research reviews). Get
some idea of what is already known about the problem and of some of the other
questions that are being asked. Researchers may also get an idea about how to
revise or improve the research question.
3. Select and examine one or two appropriate general reference works.
Researchers should have a clearer idea of exactly what to investigate. Researchers
can select one or two general references to help identify particular journals or other
primary sources related to the question.
4. Formulate search terms (key words or phrases) pertinent to the problem or question
of interest. You will need these to locate primary sources.
5. Search for relevant primary sources using appropriate general reference tools.
An online search of the literature can be performed in databases available through the
Web sites of almost all university libraries. The database most commonly used by
educational researchers is ERIC (available at https://eric.ed.gov/), which can be
searched electronically.
6. Obtain and read relevant primary sources, and note and summarize key points in the
sources.

Working Paper 6:

⮚ Identify references and conduct literature review to address research problems. Make a note
and summarize key points in the sources.

C. Writing the Background of the Study

The background of the study provides situational analysis that portrays the problem in the
international, regional and local context. It describes the problematic situation which leads into a clear
statement of the problem. It give rationale for investigating the problem (why it is an important problem
to investigate). It also includes the importance of the study. It discusses the relevance of the study to
existing conditions, presents who are to be benefited and how they are going to be benefited, and
presents possible contribution to the fund of knowledge.

Working Paper 7:

Write your Research Background

Follow this guide:

1. What is the problem about?
2. Why is it a problem? or
What are the gaps or issues about your problem? Cite research findings from international to
local.
3. Is there a legal basis regarding your problem?
4. What are your objectives and what are the significance of your study?
D. Variables and Hypotheses

What is a Variable?

A variable is a concept—a noun that stands for variation within a class of objects,
such a s chair, gender, eye color, achievement, motivation, or running speed. Notice that the
individual members in the class of objects, however, must differ or vary to qualify the class as a
variable.

If all members of a class are identical, we do not have a variable. Such characteristics
are called constants, since the individual members of the class are not allowed to vary, but
rather are held constant. In any study, some characteristics will be variables, while others will
be constants.

Quantitative versus Categorical Variables

Quantitative variable can often be subdivided into smaller and smaller units. Length,
for example, can be measured in miles, yards, feet, inches, or in whatever subdivision of an
inch is needed. By way of contrast, categorical variables do not vary in degree. Amount, or
quantity but are qualitatively different. Examples include eye color, gender, religious preference,
occupation, and the like.
Activity: Which ones are quantitative variables and which ones are categorical variables? Write
Q before quantitative variables and write C before categorical variables.
___ Learning ability
___ Ethnicity
___ Heartbeat rate
___ Gender
___ Leadership style
___ Income

Researchers in education often study the relationship between or among

1. two or more quantitative variables;
2. one categorical and one quantitative variable; or
3. two or more categorical variables

Examples:
1. Two quantitative variables
a. Age and amount of interest in school
b. Reading achievement and mathematics achievement
c. Classroom humanism and student motivation
d. Amount of time watching television and aggressiveness of behavior.

2. One categorical and one quantitative variable

a. Method used to teach reading and reading achievement
b. Counseling approach and level of anxiety
c. Nationality and liking of school
3. Two categorical variables
a. Ethnicity and father’s occupation
b. Gender of Teacher and subject taught
c. Administrative style and college major
d. Religious affiliation and political party membership

Independent Versus Dependent Variables

Independent variables are those that the researcher chooses to study in order to
assess their possible effect/s on one or more other variables.
An independent variable is presumed to affect (at least partly cause) or somehow
influence at least partly cause) or somehow influence at least one other variable. The variable
that the independent variable is presumed to affect is called a dependent variable.
The dependent variable “depends on” what the independent variable does to it, how it
affects it.
Give examples of dependent and independent variables? Write them inside the box.

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DEPENDENT VARIABLE

Independent variables may be either manipulated or selected. A manipulated

variable is one that the researcher creates. Such variables are found in experimental studies.
Whenever a researcher sets up experimental conditions, one or more variables are created.
Such variables are called manipulated variables, experimental variables, or treatment variables.

Sometimes researchers select an independent variable that already exists. In this

case the researcher must locate and select examples of it, rather than creating it. Selected
independent variables are not limited to studies that compare different treatments; they are
found in causal-comparative and correlational studies.

Examples of some possible relationships between a selected independent variable

and a dependent variable:

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DEPENDENT VARIABLE

Gender (categorical) Musical aptitude (quantitative)
Mathematical Ability (quantitative) Career choice (categorical)
Gang membership (categorical) Subsequent marital status (categorical)
Test anxiety (quantitative) Test performance (quantitative)

Moderator Variables

This is a special type of independent variable. It is secondary independent variable

that has been selected for study in order to determine if it affects or modifies the basic
relationship between the primary independent variables and the dependent variable. Thus, if an
 experimenter thinks that the relationship between variables X and Y might be altered in some
way by a third variable Z, then Z could be included in the study as a moderator variable.

Examples:

INDEPENDENT MODERATOR VARIABLE DEPENDENT VARIABLE

VARIABLE
Anxiety level Test-taking experience Test performance
Instructional method Grade level Performance on critical
thinking tests

Working Paper 8:

⮚ Structure the research framework/paradigm of your proposed study.

E. Structuring the Conceptual/Theoretical Framework

The Conceptual/theoretical framework are theories/models and/or literature review that can
provide conceptual underpinnings of the study. It Covers research gaps and paradigm of variables.
A conceptual framework is not merely a collection of concepts but, rather, a construct in which
each concept plays an integral role. According to Miles and Huberman (1994) as cited by Jabareen
(2009), a conceptual framework “lays out the key factors, constructs, or variables, and presumes
relationships among them”.

Working Paper 9:

⮚ Write the Conceptual Framework of the study.

o Present pertinent concepts/theories/models/literatures that provide conceptual

underpinnings of your proposed study

o Incorporate the paradigm of your proposed study (Figure 1). This constitutes the
interrelationships of variables used in the study. Discuss the variables and their
interrelationships.

F. Organizing the Introduction of the Study

WRITING THE INTRODUCTION OF THE STUDY

This section presents to you Introduction of your research proposal following the BSU
approved format for nontechnical researches. After you have identified your research topic and
gathered necessary literature reviews/supports, you will now organize your Introduction.

The INTRODUCTION is presented comprising the following parts:

▪ Background of the Study,

▪ Conceptual Framework,
▪ Problems of the study; and
▪ Research hypotheses (as necessary)
 What does each part encompass?
Background of the study
– The background of the study provides situational analysis that
portrays the problem in the international, regional and local
context
– It describes the problematic situation which leads into a clear
statement of the problem
– Includes the importance of the study
⮚ Discusses the relevance of the study to existing
conditions
⮚ Presents who are to be benefited and how they are
going to be benefited
⮚ Presents possible contribution to the fund of knowledge.

Conceptual/theoretical framework
– theories/models and/or literature review that can provide
conceptual underpinnings of the study
– Covers research gaps; paradigm of variables

Statement of the Problem

– Feasible (investigated with undue amount of time energy,
money)
– Clear
– Significant ( contribute important knowledge)
– Ethical (not involve physical/psychological harm)

Hypothesis of the Study (as necessary)

– presume factual or observational underpinning
– formed on the basis of experiential data- the factual or
observational stratum
– underlies a research problem
– most efficient way in solving a scientific problem

Working Paper 10:

⮚ Organize your research INTRODUCTION following the required format:

INTRODUCTION

▪ Background of the Study

▪ Conceptual Framework
Includes paradigm of the Study (Figure 1)
▪ Problems of the Study
▪ Research Hypotheses (as necessary)