RESEARCH PROPOSAL ON

ENHANCED ENERGY SAVINGS STRATEGY FOR THE CONTROL OF

TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY IN A MULTI-CIRCUIT AIR
CONDITIONING SYSTEM

BY

OLEOLO IBRAHIM OLAKUNLE

PKM183038

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF PHD DEGREE IN

MECHANINCAL ENGINEERING
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction and Background

The world's energy use is increasing significantly due to an increase in energy

consumption and a growing population. Due to the increased demand for energy and
the depletion of existing sources of fossil fuel, more efficient use of energy is needed
to balance the energy requirements of the world (Özahi et al., 2017). Researchers
have made attempt that lead to the energy utilization efficiency. About half of the
total energy usage of our modern society is consumed in buildings, which makes it
one of the largest energy consumer throughout the world, the major part is for
Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning (HVAC).

Air-conditioning has increasingly become a requirement with rising living

standards and demands for thermal comfort. This can be seen from the increasing
prevalence of the number of air conditioning systems used. As a result, the increased
use of air conditioning system has had a significant impact on the total energy
consumption. The air-conditioning systems functions by transmitting heat from air in
the air-conditioned space to the air outside. The heat is transferred to the refrigerant
in the evaporator and then transferred out of the refrigerant in the condenser. The
compressor plays an important role here by pumping the refrigerant to the condenser
from the evaporator. The compressor is the main energy consumer in the refrigerated
air conditioning and the blowers consume far less energy(Tojo et al., 1984)
 In the design and further improvements on Air-conditioning system, what
must be considered is excellent thermal comfort and minimal energy consumption.
The thermal comfort will make the people inside the space very comfortable while
the low energy consumption will meet up the present need of energy management.
Air Cooled Package Unit is increasingly replacing water cooled package Unit in the
centralized configuration method in offices and commercial buildings, but the
popular on/off method of control is not efficient in the aspect of thermal comfort and
energy management, in many situations, no suitable energy conservation control
system is used, the choice of such systems for most applications is based primarily
on the capital cost of the equipment and the use of the energy conservation control
systems is not of primary importance. One of the methods that has been investigated
and used to sustain thermal comfort of a conditioned space while reducing energy
consumption is the Variable Frequency drive of the compressor (Behrooz, 2017).

The variable frequency drive technology allows HVAC system to adjust its
output capacity according to the temperature demand of the conditioned space, this
has given a lot of opportunities for better temperature control and saving in energy
consumption. HVAC systems can be very useful for the energy saving. It was
estimated that a smart control could reduce the energy consumption of HVAC
systems by 25-35% (Siyu and Jian-Qiao, 2012). Many variable frequency drive
technology focuses on a single-circuit air-conditioning systems such as domestic and
small-scale office applications comprising only tests on a laboratory rig. Very little
work is done on medium or large-scale multi-circuit package air conditioning
systems (Jonsson, 2015). It is also of utmost importance to research further on
intelligent control method of Multiple Input Multiple Outputs (MIMO) system to
adjust the many parameters that needed to be controlled in the large scale multi-
circuit package unit for better thermal comfort and energy management

Therefore it is the intent of this study to further research and address the
concept of variable frequency drive of compressor in the Multi-Circuit Centralized
Air Cooled Package Unit (MCACPU). Data driven approach of input and output
parameter of a real plant was used to derive a good dynamic model in system
identification that can be used to design a MIMO controller for the control of
temperature and humidity by varying the speed of compressor and fan speed,
consequently, controlling the temperature and humidity, simultaneously reducing the
energy consumption of the system.

1.2 Problem Statement

The major role of the air conditioning system is to provide healthy,

comfortable internal comfort for the occupant, otherwise known as the thermal
comfort. The thermal comfort is very fundamental but this must be achieved with the
best energy efficiency. The general consideration of minimum energy efficiency is
important as it is a global concern (Xinmin and Wei, 2017). Despite the fact that
there has been a lot of work on energy efficiency in the HVAC industry, there are
still needs to further research in this field. Energy consumption in air conditioning
system has been achieved with the application of variable frequency drive of the
compressor. This method is an advancement of the on/off controller and it has
proven to be more effective in the area of energy management and thermal comfort. .
In traditional air conditioning systems where only the temperature is considered as
the only control variable, the proportional integral derivative (PID) control was
mainly used for its simple structure and good performance and was suitable for less
complicated A / C systems.(Jingyun and Ping, 2018)

Nowadays the comfort in the conditioned space is at least the control of

temperature and humidity. In achieving this, without compromising the energy
management aspect of the system, it requires more complex facilities and more
robust controller, the coupling nature of temperature and humidity makes the A/C
system a very difficult and challenging one and thus need an effective solution for
MIMO and multivariable coupled A/C system control (Qi and Deng, 2009)
 Most work on capacity-load matching technology focuses on small-scale
single-circuit air-conditioning systems such as domestic and small-scale office
applications comprising just laboratory scales experiments. Very little work is carried
out on multi circuit package unit centralized air-conditioning systems of medium or
large scale. Literature has shown this as some limitations in the area of variable
frequency drive application in the HVAC industry (Ko and No, 2015). One study has
shown the implementation of the Advanced Thermal Control System (ATCS) in the
Water Cooled Package Unit, a technology that uses the concept of variable frequency
drive (Hayati, 2017). Nevertheless, this technology still has a lot of limitations which
necessitate some further works, examples is that it only consider temperature control
without considering humidity. Similarly, the Automatic Thermal Control System still
has a lot of control issues, such as the PID used is not suitable for nonlinear MIMO
and complex system (Behrooz, 2017), PID tuning parameter is very cumbersome (),
inappropriate selection of the PID gains can destabilize the whole system and result
in energy wastage (song et al 2013).

Therefore a controller that has a characteristic of auto tuning, slow moving

dynamics, a controller that can integrate disturbance rejection, constraint handling,
prediction model and energy conservation strategies is needed to cater for these
limitations

1.3 Research Question

On the basis of the problem statement, the research questions are as follows:

1. What is the effect of ATCS on energy consumption when it is installed to

the Air Cooled Package Unit type of Centralized Air Conditioning System
2. What model can be used to predict the behavior of the Air Cooled Package
Unit
3. What would be an innovative controller for the control of temperature and
humidity considering the coupling nature of the two parameters
 4. Can the controller be optimized to improve the performance of the Air
Cooled Package Unit
1.4 Research objectives

1. To determine the energy consumption and the COP of the ATCS Air cooled
Packaged Unit and compare with that of the conventional ON/OFF system
2. To develop dynamic model for the Air Cooled Packaged Unit type of
Centralized Air Conditioning System
3. To design and optimize a temperature and humidity controller based on the
dynamic model
4. To determine the effect of the new controller on the performance of the Air
Cooled Packaged Unit type of Centralized Air Conditioning System

1.5 Research Scope

The work in this research is limited to the already installed centralized multi-
circuit air cooled package unit at block D06 in Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
The system is consisting of two direct expansion refrigeration circuit unit. The
data will be collected in the conditioned space which architectural layout is
attached to this thesis. Some data will also be collected in the air handling unit
and the outdoor environment around the conditioned space. The data will be
collected between the operating hours of 8:00 am and 5:00 pm Sunday to
Thursday daily. Therefore the modeling approach is limited to Blackbox/Data
Driven approach
The inverter to be used to retrofit the motor of the compressor and the blower
is the ACS355 ABB inverter. The PSR ABB soft starter will be used to replace
the autotransformer. Data collection will be limited to the Easylog digital logger
that will be monitored through the cloud. Power transducers will be used to track
energy consumption which is limited to compressors and blower. The modeling
and simulation will be carried out in Matlab/Simulink.
1.5 Research outcome

The expected outcome of this research will be to design a Model Predictive

Controller, that will;

1. Decrease the energy usage of the multi circuit package unit of the centralized
air cooled package unit of the centralized air conditioning system as a part of
HVAC system in building automation systems (BASs)

2. Employ the MPC controller as a soft, intelligent control method on the multi
circuit package unit of the centralized air cooled package unit of the centralized
air conditioning system to achieve a hybrid nonlinear robust control method on
the system, and at the same time solve the coupling nature, the tuning issues,
high overshoot, rise and settling time.

3. Obtain the desired air humidity and air temperature of the direct expansion
multi circuit air cooled package unit air conditioned space by considering the
coupling effect of humidity and temperature from the evaporator
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The air conditioning system are usually found in residential and commercial
buildings and some other enclosed structures that needs it for some special purposes,
it plays a very important role in ensuring thermal comfort of the indoor space. About
half of our modern society's total energy consumption is used in building either
residential or commercial, making buildings one of the world's largest energy users,
the highest proportion being HVAC. Air conditioning system consume a large
amount of energy, and larger percentage is used by compressor (Marwan, 2004).
The HVAC industry is struggling to improve the management of the thermal comfort
in spaces and concurrently achieving energy efficiency in the operation of the HVAC
system.

In building, it is essential to control indoor temperature and humidity at an

appropriate level, as this directly affects indoor comfort and air quality. (Mazzei,
Minichiello and Palma, 2005). Nonetheless, indoor air temperature is frequently
regulated by the on/off cycle of the compressor for most applications with different
types of air conditioning systems. Therefore, while the sensible indoor load is
satisfied by varying the cycle of the on/off controller, dehumidification is the result
of the cooling procedure, humidity is not controlled directly and it varies as a result
of altering match between the latent and sensible output capacities of the direct
expansion unit and sensible and latent heat of the space, humidity will increases. In
addition, to improve the regulation of indoor thermal environments in buildings, it is
very important to improve on new control approach that allow simultaneous control
of indoor temperature and humidity without sacrificing the aspect of energy
management (Qi, 2009). Air-conditioning demand has been found to have increased
significantly across the world, this means more energy demand, hence the need to
further work in this area of research

Lida., et al (1992) reported that the output cooling power of the residential
split-type AC system could vary between 50% and 100% of its full capacity without
compromising indoor comfort and ensuring energy reduction. One way that was
reported very effective in controlling the thermal comfort and still maintains energy
savings is Variable frequency drive of compressor (Qureshi and Tassou, 1996,
Behrooz, 2017). With fast progress of variable speed drive technology, the direct
expansion air-conditioning system will be able to adjust the speed of compressor and
supply fan of the air conditioning system resulting in energy savings and better
thermal comfort

Lida et al (1992) performed an experiment on the investigation of a heat pump. The

heat pump is being installed by 4hp hermetic rotary compressor and variable speed
compressor were tested and the result shows 20% energy savings after using the
variable speed compressor.

2.2 DX A/C System Descriptions

Direct expansion air conditioning system has a lot of advantage like the simple
structure and configuration, easy to maintain, energy efficiency etc. it is been used as
different types of A/C system like the split, window and package unit. The DX A/C
system consist of two main section, DX refrigeration plant (refrigerant side) and Air
distribution System (Air side) (Qi and Deng, 2009).
 Figure 2.1 Direct expansion Air Conditioning System (Qi, 2009)

The direction expansion refrigeration plant consists of, but not limited to the
following

a. Direct Expansion Evaporator

The direct expansion evaporator does not need a secondary refrigerant, it act
as a heat exchanger that allow the compressed refrigerant to vaporize from
liquid to gas, simultaneously absorbing heat from the cooling environment. It
is a direct expansion air cooling coil which simultaneously cool and
dehumidify the air passing through it (Qi and Deng 2008). It is an important
component in the refrigeration system. This is the point where the refrigerant
is expanded and evaporated, when it enters into the evaporator and revolves
round the coil, it quickly reaches its saturation temperature and is converted
from liquid to vapor, using the latent heat from the cooling space.\
b. Condenser

A condenser is an air conditioning device that is used to transfer heat

absorbed by the refrigerant in the evaporator and undergone compression, to
the cooling tower in the case of water cooled package unit and the
surrounding or outdoor air in the case of air cooled package unit. Vapour
from the evaporator enter the condenser at a high temp and it cools gradually
reaching a saturation temperature, condenses into liquid and thereby realease
the heat into the secondary fluid of either the cooling tower or the outdoor air

c. Electronic expansion valve

This is a component in refrigeration and air conditioning systems that

controls the amount of refrigerant released into the evaporator thereby
keeping superheat, that is, the difference between the current refrigerant
temperature at the evaporator outlet and its saturation temperature at the
current pressure, at a stable value, ensuring that the only phase in which the
refrigerant leaves the evaporator is vapor, and, at the same time, supplying
the evaporator's coils with the optimal amount of liquid refrigerant to achieve
the optimal heat exchange rate allowed by that evaporator.

d. Compressor

Compressor increases the pressure in gases or other compressible fluids. Its

major function is to transfer energy to gases thereby raising its pressure. In
HVAC system, compressor serves as a refrigerant gas pump, the low pressure
of gaseous refrigerant from the evaporator is being increased by the
compressor. After going through compression, the temperature and pressure
of the vapor are increased. The high pressured gaseous refrigerant is
transferred to the condenser, where condensation occur at an appropriate
temperature. The various type of compressor are shown figure …. below
 Figure 2.2 Types of Compressor

Those compressors that are powered by electric motor can be controlled with the
application of variable frequency drive. The application of variable frequency drive
to the motor of compressor is discussed in the next section

2.3 Variable Frequency Drive of compressor

For commercial buildings, directs expansion or bundled A /C systems are commonly

used. These systems common practice is to set the compressor to run at the full
speed. This results in maximum capacity for cooling at all times. Nevertheless, the
heated room is overcooled in the situation that the cooling load is small as in the
morning, night, and when it rains, resulting in excessive energy waste. A typical
package A / C system used in commercial buildings consists of a refrigeration unit
and air distribution system. In the refrigeration facility, the evaporator is used
directly in the air distribution system to cool the air going through the cooling coil.
The air distribution system consist of network of supply duct that link the
refrigeration unit to the condition space, cool air is then sent through this duct to the
conditioned space. The centralized package unit is considered very effective, but the
major problem is the inability to match the cooling output capacity through the duct
to the constantly changing cooling load in the conditioned space. Majorly most
centralized package A/C system uses the on/off control method which can only
operate the compressor in a constant speed mode, even if the cooling load is almost
zero, this as highlighted earlier result in energy wastage and indoor thermal
discomfort.

As technology advances and different changes continue to occur in the

development of compressors relating to variable frequency drive technology, it is
now possible to operate compressors on a variable speed mode with the use of
inverters. The inverters ensure that the supply of electricity to the motor is such that
what is needed by the system according to the feedback is actually supplied in order
to save energy. Variable frequency drive works by using the rectifier to convert the 3
phase AC signal input to DC signals. This is then stabilizes by the capacitor before it
is send to the inverter which converts it back to AC signal and produces the required
voltage and current.

According to Qureshi and Tassou, (1996) there are some conditions that
must be met for the application of variable frequency drive technology on a
compressor, and stated as follows

 Considering the basic concept of speed range, the efficiency of the

selected compressor must not decrease within this speed range.

 The speed range should be varied directly with the capacity of the
compressor

 For fixed speed compressors the valves is design to operate at fixed

speed and is not always suitable for variable speed technology,
therefore when applying variable frequency drive technology, it must
 be applied on compressor whose valve is not design for constant
speed, so that the stresses on the discharge valves will increase
unnecessarily.

 Lubrication, suitable enough for low and high speed must be ensured.
When the compressor is not well lubricated, it may reduce efficiency
and life cycle of the compressor

 The support framework for compressors should be designed in such a

way that the resonance frequencies are above the operating frequency.
A fixed velocity compressor applies vibration on its frame at a range
of frequencies. Normally the framework is designed in such a way
that its real frequency differs from the frequency imposed. The design
of a variable speed compressor will be more complex, as each speed
imposes different frequencies.

Aprea et al (2005) embark on a study involving variable speed compressor, the

control technique of the compressor motor is the application of fuzzy logic
controller. A 20% energy savings were recorded after the application of the fuzzy
logic controller on the variable speed compressor, which shows a better improvement
over the constant speed compressor

Alkan et al(2009), performed energy and exergy analysis of a compressor in an air

conditioning system, the experiment was carried out on two operation mode of
compressor, the constant speed compressor mode and the variable speed operation
mode. The result of the experiment shows that the coefficient of performance was
higher for the application of variable speed compressor, than that of constant speed
compressor.

Itami et al (1982) recorded an improvement between 20% - 40% is SEER after the
application of variable frequency drive on the compressor as compared to the
conventional on/off
2.4 Multi-Circuit Air-conditioning system

It is more efficient for a centralized air conditioning system of a commercial building

such as offices, Malls, Hospitals etc, to have a multi-circuit refrigerant configuration
rather that a single circuit refrigerant unit, to provide and supply sufficient capacity
to meet the required cooling demands and backup. Multiple refrigerant circuit
systems provide some degree of flexibility in modifying the efficiency. An additional
circuit (or circuits) is always given for a multi-circuit refrigerant network to provide
a degree of overcapacity with respect to the usual demand for a building to cool.
Figure 2 below describe different configuration of Multi circuits refrigerant unit

Figure 2.3b. Two refrigerant circuits

Figure 2.3a. Two refrigerant circuits units
units with two blower
with one blower

Figure 2.3c. Three refrigerant Figure 2.4d. Four refrigerant circuits

circuits units with two blower units with two blower
 Figure 2.5e. Five refrigerant circuits units with
two blower

One or more refrigerant circuits might be shut down at times of normal cooling
demand with the remaining circuits having sufficient capacity to meet the cooling
demand. The additional refrigerant circuit is triggered when required, such as on
extremely hot and humid days, whereby the device can now meet the increased
cooling demands. The two independent refrigerant circuit, provide partial capacity in
case of failure of any of the compressor and each one is a vapor compression cycle.
But to provide the required contingency power, it is costly to install a separate
refrigerant circuit with its attendant components. In addition, capacity control is
provided through a step increase, not a desired continuous variable increase, and one
or more refrigerant circuits must be selectively and periodically activated or
deactivated

2.5 Dynamic Modeling in HVAC system

The appropriate control operations in the HVAC system can go a long way in saving
a lot of energy without compromising the indoor thermal comfort (Fasiuddin et al
2011). Therefore proper energy management in the HVAC system largely depends
on the control system and optimization parameters (Zakia et al, 2017). This has also
been confirmed by several study on efficient energy management in HVAC, that
energy efficiency in HVAC can be improved through advance control algorithm
(Zeng 2015). A good control algorithm which makes energy consumption reduction
possible is dependent on accurate dynamic modeling and accurate optimization
techniques(18). It is a very challenging task to develop an accurate and effective
model for HVAC systems, even with its similarities with other process control, there
are some features that makes it more challenging like non-linearity of the system,
time-varying disturbances, set-points etc, this points to the reality why modeling
techniques continue to become more advanced in HVAC system control (19 zakia).

Homod (2013), presented a study on the review of the types of HVAC system
modeling and gave shortcomings on the application of each. Afram and Janabi
(2014), reviewed different modeling methods for HVAC system, in their studies,
they divided HVAC modeling techniques into three which are Data driven based
modeling, physics based modeling, and grey box modeling, their studies also stated
further that model can aslo be classified into linear and nonlinear, static or dynamics,
explicit or implicit, discrete or continuous, deterministic or probabilistic, in which
data driven models can be linear or nonlinear, static or dynamic, explicit or implicit
models. Okochi and Yao (2013), did analysis on a review of variable air volume
(VAV) systems‟ the dynamic modeling and simulations, analysis on energy
consumption and its various application Trčka and Hensen (2010) published a study
of the available methods for designing and analyzing HVAC systems, modeling
approaches and simulation techniques.

2.5.1 Classification of HVAC modeling techniques

HVAC modeling techniques can be divided into three categories:

a) Physics-Based (White Box/Mathematical/Forward),

Wu and Sun (2012) suggest a physics-based linear parametric ARMAX room

temperature model in an office building where thermodynamic equations are
used to determine a linear regression model's structure and order.
b) Data-Driven (Black Box/Empirical/Inverse),

Black box models are always the choice due to the complexities in
thermodynamic models (Scotton, 2012). Yiu et al. (2007) researches on the
identification of black box model in air conditioning system, an
approximation was made of a MIMO ARMAX model, the parameters of
which were assessed using the Recursive Extended Least Squares Method
(RELS) and compared with the SISO ARMAX model. The MIMO ARMAX
model was also identified by Yiu and Wang, (2007) using black-box method.
The model is use in estimating the efficiency of an office building's air
conditioning system in Hong Kong. They use the Recursive Extended Least
Squares (RELS) to estimate the parameters. The MIMO ARMAX model is
then compared to the ARMAX configuration of a single input (SISO).
Mustafaraj et al. (2010) also identified ARX, ARMAX and BJ models for
effective regulation of temperature and humidity by using the black-box
approach, it was concluded in his study that the BJ models perform well than
the rest of the model. In both temperature and humidity models, the orders
and input delays are varying throughout the year. He later continues to
identify the room temperature and relative humidity by identifying NoNlinear
AutoRegressive models with eXogenous inputs, i.e. NNARX-models.
Compared to linear ARX models, the NNARX models have been reported to
perform better

c) Gray Box (Hybrid).

A work that focuses on modeling thermal activity in buildings was done by

Maasoumy (2011), to develop an efficient HVAC control algorithm. This is
based on an approximate temperature model defined by the gray box
approach for three different rooms in the same house.
These models can be

 linear or nonlinear

 Static

 Explicit or implicit, discrete or continuous, deterministic probabilistic,

Deductive, Inductive or Floating.

It is well recognized that the dynamic performance of a HVAC system has a major
effect on the use of power, energy, and quality of indoor air (Jonsson, 2015).
Accurate models for system components must be obtained in order to study the
system performance, as good models are required as a basis for control for the
implementation of effective solutions
Table 2.1: A study comparing the three major modelling techniques (Zakia, 2017).

Modeling Technique Disadvantages Advantages

Physics based (white box/

mathematical/ forward)
model  Complex  Easy to analyse
 Completely relies on the knowledge
of the process and the physical laws  Represents the system
governing the process more closely

 Involves assumptions that may not

hold in practice  Requires less training data

 Requires understanding of the

system physics

 Less flexible
Data driven (black box/  Require a significant amount of training
empirical/ inverse) model data.  Simple
 Does not require
 May not always reflect the actual understanding of the
physical behaviour system physics


 Coincides with real-time

 Can give unrealistic or non-physical operation and control
results when the inputs are outside the  Always give good
training range prediction accuracy

 Suffer from the poor generalization
capabilities
 Most of these models cannot ensure
stable performance prediction
 Entirely dependent on the measurement
data of the input and output variables

Gray box (hybrid) model  Requires more effort to develop  Possesses high accuracy
 Accuracy strongly depends on the
richness of data used to train the
mode  Easy to generalize

 Well adapted to perform

optimization
 Comparatively less
complex
 Comparatively less
computational costs
2.5.2 The Data Driven approach

The aim of the data-driven approach is to establish a model for existing systems and to
estimate system parameters using calculated data input and output. The data-driven method has
been widely used in many fields and recent trends have shown that in HVAC applications it has
also gained attention (Xu, 2012).

As shown in Figure 3.1, Afram and Sharifi (2014) categorized data-driven modeling into
nine (9) major techniques. Such techniques include models of the frequency domain, algorithms
of data mining, statistical models, geometric models, fuzzy logic models, state-space models
case-based reasoning models, stochastic models and instant models.

Data-driven models are trying to find a real system approximation. A detailed definition
is not needed in actual practice as it could lead to a complex model and will not be useful for
applications in the real world. To achieve an approximate model, the device identification
process for data-driven modeling is useful for specific applications based on measured data and
previous system awareness.
 Data Driven Models

Frequency Data Mining Fuzzy Statistical State Space Geometric Case Based Stochastic Instantaneous
Domain Algorithm Logic Models Models Models Reasoning Models Models
Models Models

1st/2nd Artificial Support Sub-Space Thin Plate Topological Probability Just In

over- Neural Vector State Space Spline Case Base Density Time (JIT)
damped Network Machine Identification (TPS) Modeling Function Model
process (ANN) (SVN) (4SID) Approxima (TCBM) (PDF)
with dead tion Approximation

Fuzzy Tagaki- Adaptive Network

Adaptive Sugeno Based Fuzzy
Network (T-S) fuzzy Inference (ANFIS)
(FAN) models

Linear and Auto Auto Regression Auto Regressive Figure 3.1 Classification of
Polynomial Regression Moving Average Integrated Data Driven Models
Time Series eXogeneous eXogeneous Moving Average Afram and Sharifi (2014)
Regression (ARX) (ARMAX) (ARIMA)
 Figure 2.1 : Data driven modeling methods (Afram et, al., 2014)

2.5.2.1. Frequency Domain Model

The examples of process like dynamic of zone temperature and humidity which can easily be
modeled with first and second order models with dead time. This process are referred to as slow
moving because of their nature of substantial thermal inertia of the system, Bi et al (2000),
Huang et al (2010), Rehrl et al (2011) for example

First order with dead time is given as

G (s) = = 𝑒

Second order with dead time is given as

G (s) = = 𝑒

Both MIMO and SISO system can use the application of first and second order models as they
both capture dynamic of complexity of HVAC system. Bi et al (2000). Majorly the first order
models with dead time is good for linear process Huang et al (1991), Helevi et al (1991), ,
while second order with dead time is suitable for more advancement in control system Bi et al
(1999),

2.5.2.2. Data Mining Algorithm

Data mining algorithm is broadly classified into artificial neural network and support vector
machine, studies has shown its application in the HVAC system. They are basically applied to a
complicated, complex and nonlinear system (Afram et al 2014). Artificial neural network has
been applied in different studies on the control of temperature and humidity (Mba et al 2016),
and energy consumption reduction. Ascione et al (2017), Karatasou et al (2006), Neto et al
(2008), Mba et al(2016)
Support vector Machine on the hand is suitable for nonlinear prediction, it uses the nonlinearly
separable data, transforming such into a linearly separable data (Afram et al 2014). The SVM
has been applied in HVAC to predict building energy consumption (Dong et al 2005, Zhao et al
2010), fault diagnostic and detection of HVAC system. (Liang et al, 2007)

2.5.2.3. Fuzzy Logic Model

These Fuzzy Logic models can be subdivided into fuzzy adaptive network (FAN), Takagi–
Sugeno (T–S), and adaptive-network-based fuzzy inference system (ANFIS). Models built with
FL are typically very basic and easy to understand. Nevertheless, because FL integrates the
experience of the operator in model design, operators need to have extensive plant edge
awareness and the various operating states. Additionally, creation of the FL model requires a
significant volume of output data for T – S, FAN, and ANFIS testing. For several HVAC compo-
nents, the necessary information and data for FL model production are not always available and
thus it is difficult to model these components using FL.

2.5.2.3. Statistical Model

Statistical models are developed by observing a specific pattern on the basis of how a
sample of data can be produced from a large dataset. Single and multivariate regression,
autoregressive moving average exogenous (ARMAX), autoregressive exogenous (ARX), finite
impulse response (FIR), output error (OE), box-jenkins (BJ), autoregressive integrated moving
average (ARIMA), are examples of these models (Okochi et al, 2016).

Statistical models have many benefits, such as requiring short computation time,
performing well under time shifting process noise, scale of model creation with minimal data.
These models do have certain significant drawbacks, such as low accuracy, inability to capture
the system's nonlinear dynamics, which limits the use of these types of models in a small HVAC
environment
2.5.2.4. State Space Model

State space models are representation of the dynamics of an Nth order system as a first
order differential equation in an N-vector, which is called the state. It uses state variables to
describe a system by a set of first-order differential or difference equations, rather than by one or
more nth-order differential or difference equations. This kind of model may be used to analyze
the system's dynamic features across a wide variety of environments that are critical for the
design of the control system (Zakia 2017). There are very few literatures on state space model
applied in the HVAC system. Kulkarni and Hong (2004) suggested a state-space modeling
approach for the building system and therefore defined the dynamic characteristics by
developing the building simulation by implementing the MATLABTM simulation code. They
treated a city as a thermal grid

2.5.2.5. Geometric model

Geometric models use mathematical methods to use computer graphics and computer-
aided design (CAD) to model actual objects [22]. We describe a structure by using abstract two-
dimensional (2D) or three-dimensional (3D) forms such as curves, surfaces, and volumes
(Okochi et al, 2016; Afram et al 2014). It is referred to as Thin Plate Spline (TPS) TPS has the
smooth design and the strong extrapolation capabilities. TPS models input output data using a
function that involves the weighted sum of Green's equation and linear terms of regression
[AFRAM49].

2.5.2.6. Case-Based Reasoning

Case-based reasoning models make use of similar historical cases to construct the
models. Topological case-based modeling (TCBM) is a special CBR methodology in which the
simulations are based on a subset of data rather than the whole data. The TCBM algorithm finds
the cases whose inputs are the most similar to the new inputs and averages the outputs of the
similar cases. Topological case-based modeling (TCBM) is a distinctive CBR methodology in
which the simulations are constructed on a subset of data rather than on the entire data (Afram et
al 2014). Nishiguchi et al.(2010) used TCBM to compact the raw data measured and to reduce
the noise in the calculation

2.5.2.7. Stochastic Model

Stochastic models struggle with phase randomness. Some processes in HVAC

applications behave as random variables, and the probability density (PDF) functions can be used
to model them. One of the essential characteristics of stochastic model is the simplicity of its
implementation to many physical systems, which can be approximated to regular normal and
uniform distributions while a significant volume of data is a prerequisite for that (Okochi et al,
2016; Afram et al 2014). Moreover, if the probability density functions (PDF) are not correctly
modeled, the algorithm cannot make reliable predictions. (Okochi et al, 2016; Afram et al 2014)

2.5.2.8. Instantaneous Model

Instantaneous Model referred to as Just in Time (JIT) is an instant algorithm consisting of

a mathematical and sequence analysis to search for patterns close to current data in previous data
(Afram et al 2014). Lino et al (2009) suggested the "hybrid modeling" method for building
thermal load pre-diction and efficient energy-saving control for the physical and just in time
models.

2.5.3 System Identification

System identification involves the construction of mathematical models of a dynamic

system based on a set of samples of data. System identification can be used in a wide variety of
applications, it gives solutions to analyzing raw data and creating the best model to fit the plant
system. It is widely used in various application including mechanical engineering, biology,
chemistry, meteorology, economics and model based control design. It involves process of
acquiring and preprocessing data, identifying and selecting mathematical models based on the
raw data.

Royer et al (2014) in their studies stipulated that system identification is a versatile

toolbox for modeling in the HVAC system. Mustafraj et al (2010) applied system identification
using linear parametric model to design a dynamic model for HVAC system based on different
weather conditions. Some of the applied models are ARX, ARMAX, Box-Jerkins, and Output-
Error. The nonlinearity of the HVAC systems makes it complex that it is challenging using
system identification to convert to linear models for the application of controller design

Thus there are four steps in the system identification procedure which are data collection,
model selection, model estimation, model validation. Figure –below explain the processes
involve in system identification procedure. It is important to state the purpose of the model as a
first step in the process of system identification. The model's intent affects the choice of
identification methods and the experimental conditions, and therefore it should be stated clearly.
For example, the model could be used for control, prediction, signal processing, error detection
or simulation, there is a huge variety of model applications.

Jiménez et al. (2008) provides tools to use MATLAB's System Identification Toolbox
(SIT) to classify ARMAX models for gray-boxed HVAC systems. One of the key elements is
how to choose correct outputs and inputs and how to estimate MIMO and MISO (Multiple Input-
Single Output) systems is shown in the paper.
 A model can sometimes be derived directly from physical laws. Nevertheless, this model
will most often include unknown parameters that have to be calculated. If certain parameters are
known and some unknown, an estimate can sometimes be made using the values of the known
parameters

2.6 Strategies of HVAC control

HVAC system is one of the most challenging systems to control, it requires a lot of
dynamics to ensure successful control of parameters. Nevertheless automatic control in HVAC is
so important, it makes it achieve a higher degree of accuracy in the area of energy reduction,
temperature, humidity and pressure control. There are several studies in control system that have
been shown to have aided the energy consumption reduction and thermal comfort management
in building. Dounis and Caraiscos (2009) explore the use of advance control system for energy
reduction and thermal comfort management in building. Wang and Ma (2008) reviewed
extensively various existing optimal control for HVAC system. Sheik et al (2014) presented a
review on optimized control system for energy reduction in smart building without
compromising the indoor thermal comfort. Mirinejad et al (2012) worked on the review of
intelligent control technique applied in the HVAC system. Their work is based on data collection
in different period of the year

2.6.1 Classification of HVAC control system

HVAC Control System is classified into different categories, the different categories are
classical control, Hard control, Soft control, hybrid control and other control techniques (Afram,
et al. 2014)

Table 2.2 . Different control methods on HVAC system (Afram and Sharffi, 2014)

HVAC CONTROL METHODS

HYBRID OR
HARD SOFT
CLASSICAL/TRADITIONAL FUSION
CONTROL CONTROL
CONTROL CONTROL

On/Off Optimal Neural Network Fuzzy-PID

PID Robust Fuzzy Logic Neuro-Fuzzy

Genetic
Adaptive Algorithm Adaptive Neuro

Non-linear Adaptive Fuzzy

MPC
2.6.1.1 Classical Control

Classical control theory uses a mathematical model to define the relationship between a
system's input and output (Jin et al, 2011). Upon finding out the device output and matching it
with the desired input, they produce a suitable control signal based on the measured error value
(Perera et al, 2014). Classical controllers are most common control techniques like PID and
on/off controllers. Classical controls in HVAC are used for dynamic control of cooling coil
systems, control of room temperature, control of air pressure supply, control of supply air
temperature , variable volume of air, supply heat control of evaporator

2.6.1.2 Hard Control

Hard control techniques are very popular in the control industry. It comprises of model
predictive control, optimal control, robust control. Non-linear control, gain scheduling PID. Out
the composition of the Hard control strategies, MPC is one of the most versatile due to its ability
to integrate disturbance rejection, constraint handling (Afram, et al. 2014)

2.6.1.3 Soft Control

The strategy of soft control are made realistic by the introduction of digital controllers.
Soft control are basically Fuzzy Logic (Gouda et al, 2001, Homod et al 2012) and artificial
neural network (Reiger 2008, Weiss, 2006). Implementing Fuzzy Logic control requires
comprehensive understanding of the activity of the HVAC plant and its various states (shepherd
2003), while ANN-based control architecture requires training data on a wide range of operating
conditions, which may not be accessible for many systems (Kalogirou 2009). In fact, industry is
typically hesitant to embrace and implement a black box approach.
2.6.1.4 Hybrid Control

Hybrid typically means heterogeneous in nature or in structure. The term hybrid systems
is interpreted to mean behavioral systems described by agents or structures with distinct
characteristics. Hybrid systems of interest are dynamic systems where continuous and discrete
processes combine to determine the action of interest. In the control area, a very well-known
instance of a hybrid system is when a continuous-time linear time-invariant plant represented by
linear differential equations is controlled by a discrete-time linear time-invariant plant defined by
linear differential equations. Hybrid control systems usually emerge from the combination
between discrete planning algorithms and continuous procedures, and as such provide the basic
framework and technique for the study and integration of autonomous and smart systems. The
hybrid control strategy is the combination of soft and hard control or the combination of two soft
control methods (Behrooz, 2017). Naidu and Reiger (2011) stated that higher performance of a
control strategy can be achieved with the use of hybrid methods, rather than using single control
techniques. This example can be shown in Soyguder and Ali (2009) work, where adaptive neuro
fuzzy inference system was used for better accurate prediction and control in the Hvac system.
The result shows a better improvement in the steady state error and the settling time

2.6.2 Control applications in HVAC system

2.6.2.1 On/Off

This is a traditional category of controller which only operates on maximum and

minimum only. It is an accurate type of controller, the simplicity does not accommodate some
level of technical control mechanism. It has a low cost of installation and as does not have a
good quality (Minerajad et al 2008 ). The on/off controller is not able to control process with
time delays. HVAC system with on/off controllers tend to shift with wide margin from the
setpoint (Afram et al, 2013)
2.6.2.2 PID Controller

Proportional Integral Derivative is a control loop process that utilizes feedback

commonly used in industrial control systems and a number of other applications that require
continuously modulated control. This type of controller has been used in the HVAC industry to
control temperature of the air conditioning system, it is been one of the most widely used
controller in the industry. The most serious disadvantages of PID controller is that, it usually
assume the system as linear system and as such not suitable to nonlinear system Erdal et al
(2016). Wemhoff (2102) use PID controller to control temperature of an A/C system, the result
shows a good impact on maintaining the setpoint and about 29% reduction in energy
consumption where recorded

2.6.2.3 Fuzzy-Logic Controller

The simplicity of fuzzy logic controller has made it more relevant in controlling
nonlinear systems. Aglox (2003) stated that fuzzy logic control is increasingly popular in
controlling HVAC system. Its technique for nonlinearity, dynamic and integrated systems is
centred on human reasoning and linguistic template by applying uncomplicated mathematics.
This approach does not include the mathematical model of the system compared to conventional
controls, and is based on human knowledge from the actions of the system (Mirinejad et al.,
2008). Ahmed et al (2001) describe fuzzy logic as the control of system based on knowledge
using linguistic variables. These variables does not have a value, which then form the uses of
traditional human heuristic in designing the system

Although this approach has good records in the case of HVAC systems, there are some
shortcomings such as the need for more fuzzy ratings in order to achieve greater accuracy in the
model (Yam et al., 1999), allowing the system's rules and runtime to rise exponentially
(Bardossey and Duckstein, 1995), and the recommendations obtained for application in the
learning technique could not easily be applied (Park et al., 2000).
2.6.2.4 Artificial Neural Network

Artificial Neural Network are first order mathematical model replicating the nervous
system in human, this model has been widely used to solve various non-linear problems. The
system outputs are determined on the basis of system and network weight inputs and the network
transfer function. Neural networks have been implemented in a variety of fields, including
aerospace, automobile, banking, security, technology, finance, insurance, manufacturing,
healthcare, oil and gas, telecommunications, transport and the environment. The ANN has some
self tuning adaptability features, it is also suitable for multi variable systems, this makes it a
widely applied method for HVAC system control. According to Mirinejad et al. (2008), most
ANN controller in HVAC systems are based on predictive controller which is extracted from the
system model used in the controller regulating the nonlinear systems or direct controller which is
very simple and output feedback controller with no need to train.

2.6.2.5 Adaptive control

Adaptive control methods could be regarded as a particular type of nonlinear control

methods for systems or processes in which dynamical fluctuations change the dynamics under
normal operating conditions. Online system and process information captured during the
implementation of the program by close loop for control problem. The required setpoints for
controlling system performance can be obtained and managed by using the adaptive control
methods.

The adaptive control system has some functionality of regulating itself, this makes it a
good choice for application in building in different climate conditions. One of the most capable
among the adaptive control system is the Adaptive fuzzy controller (Lute and Paassen, 1989).

2.6.2.6 Model Predictive Control

Model Predictive Control is gaining popularity in the HVAC industry because of its
prediction ability of the HVAC system. MPC is a multivariable control techniques that is based
on a prediction model. It operate in a way that the system's past knowledge and future inputs are
used to predict the system's future performance. The system model is used to generate a proper
vector for control to minimize cost function. The cost function is manipulated as tracking error,
power consumption, energy costs, demand costs, indoor thermal control etc. The disturbances
could be regarded as the activities of the occupant, indoor equipment, weather condition etc,
these are also modeled in order to capture them is the controller design. Thus, their predicted
effects are estimated in control vector. The MPC controller is resilient to both time-varying
device parameters and disturbances and can regulate the inthegiven limits of the process
(Behrooz, 2017)
 Table 2.3: Summary of the review of research work in Control of HVAC System
Years and Title of research work Main objective Applied Control Parameter Result Limitation
Names of Controller
researcher
Schuman Digital parameter adaptive To adjust the supply fan speed Direct Humidity
1982 control of an air Digital
conditioning plant Controller
Nesler and Selecting the proportional To control the supply air flows using PI Temperature The results shows
Stoecher and integral constants in the capacity control methods by the effective control
1984 the DDC of discharged air controlling the opening of dampers of the supply air
temperature flow by the PI
controller
Lim and Air conditioning and To control the supply air flows of air P and PI Temperature The result shows
Hang 1985 ventilating control using conditioning system by controlling effective control of
industrial process control the damper opening and comparing the supply air flow
strategy the performance between P and PI and a better
performance of PI
over P
Nesler1986 Automated controller To control the damper using an PI Temperature
tuning for HVAC automated controller, thereby
applications controlling the supply airflow of the
system
Hirano and The scroll compressor
Shegeoka with variable capacity
1990 control mechanism for
automobile air
conditioning system
Huang and A PID –low-comnining PID Fuzzy
Nelson 1991 Fuzzy controller for Logic
HVAC application
Huang and Rule development and PID Fuzzy Temperature The result shows
Nelson 1991 adjustment strategies of a Logic that the strategies
fuzzy logic controller for were able to control
an HVAC system the supply airflow
rate, this controlling
the temperature
Ho 1993 Development and To develop a software that will PID DDC Result shows that
evaluation of a software automatically turne a three term the controller can
package for self tunning of DDC controller be self tuned using
three term DDC controller the software
package
Ling and Expert control of air To control the supply air flow rate PID Fuzzy Temperature
Dexter 1994 conditioning plant through the damper opening using Logic
stipulated control strategies
Krakow et Temperature and humidity To control the temperature of Air- PID Temperature and Result shows that
al 1995 control during cooling and conditioning by varying the Humidity the dynamic model
dehumidifying by compressor speed and control the is effective for the
compressor and humidity by varying the fan speed. control of
evaporator fan speed temperature in Air
variation conditioning system
So et al New HVAC control by To use data driven approach to PID Temperature Result shows that
1995 system identification develop a model for the control of dynamic model is
Air-conditioning system effective for the
control of
temperature in Air
conditioning system
Chen et al Membership function To optimize the HVAC control Fuzzy Logic Refrigrant flow rate Result show
1996 optimization of fuzzy system using Genetic algorithm effective
control based on Genetic optimization
algorithm process of the
control system
using Genetic
algorthim
Tassau and Comparative performance On/off
Qureshi evaluation of positive
1996 displacement compressors
in a variable speed
refrigeration application
Kim et al Modeling on the To develop a medel that will show On/off Temperature Results shows the
1996 performance of an inverter the performance of a scroll simulation of an
driven scroll compressor compressor driven by an inverter inverter driven
scroll compressor
 and the realibility of
the developed
model
Huang and Using Genetic algorithm To control the supply of water flow PI Water flow rate Result show
Lam 1997 to optimize controller rate of a boiler system unit effective control of
parameter for HVAC flow of water in a
system boiler using PI
controller optimized
by Genetic
algorithm
Jeannette et Experimental result of To use neural network to control the PID Water flow rate Result shows that
al 1998 predictive neural network water flow rate in a boiler system Nueral neural network is
HVAC controller and to compare the result with PID Network more effective
controller when applied that
the PID controller
Rock and Performance of fixed, air Indoor air quality control Neural Temperature Result shows neural
Wu 1998 side economizer and Network network
neural network controlled effectiveness in
ventilation in CAV system controlling indoor
air quality
Ho et al An application of fuzzy To control the distribution of Fuzzy Logic Refrigerant Result shows the
1999 logic to control the refrigeration of refrigeration in the effective
refrigeration distribution multi type air conditioning system distribution of
for the multiple air refrigerant in the
conditioner system
Yamada et Development of air To reduce energy consumption in a Fuzzy Neural Energy Result shows
al 1999 conditioning control building using hybrid control system Network management effective control of
algorithm for boiling control energy consumption
energy savings by the application
of hybrid control
system
Singh et al Adaptive control of To ensure indoor thermal comfort Adaptive
2001 multivariable thermal control
process in the HVAC
system
Underwood Analyzing multi variable To simulate the control of a PID Temperature and Simulation result
2001 control of refrigeration multivariable parameter using Humidity shows the
plant using simulink possibility of
matlab/simulink control of
multivariable
parameter
Wen and Effect of thermostat To control the indoor temperature of PI Temperature
Smith 2001 constant on temperature an indoor space with effective
control and energy energy management
consumption

Design of a fuzzy system To control the indoor temperature to Fuzzy Logic Temperature The result show that
for living space thermal esure good thermal comfort without the possibility of
comfort regulation compromising energy efficiency controlling
temperature of a
space to ensure
thermal comfort and
still maintain
energy reduction
Maheshwa Programmable thermostat To configure the thermostat in such Thermsotat
et al 2001 for energy savings a way to control temperature in order
to reduce energy consumption
Koloko Advanced fuzzy logic Indoor temperature control using PID Fuzzy temperature Result shows
2001 controller design and advance fuzzy to compare with PID Logic betttter
evaluation for building controller in ensuring thermal improvement in
occupant thermal visual comfort Fuzzy logic
comfort and indoor air application when
quality satisfaction compared with PID
in achieving
thermal comfort
Koury et al Numerical simulation of Simulation control of compressor On/Off Temprature control
2001 variable speed simulation
refrigeration system
Rentel- Decoupled control of To develop a non linear non PD Temperature and The result shows Limited to a
Gomez et al temperature and relative interacting control system for Humidity the design of a non- simulation
2001 humidity using a VAV temperature and relative humidity in interacting verification
HVAC system and non- a thermal space conditioned by VAV controller that pratical result is
 interacting control HVAC achieves decoupled needed to verify
control of claim
temperature and
humidity
Marwan Energy savings in an air To develop a model that can control P Temperature The result shows
2004 conditioning system using the indoor temperature and that temperature
an inverter and a simultaneously reduces energy was controlled with
temperature speed consumption reduction in the
controller energy consumption
Aprea et al Experimental analysis of To evaluate experimentally the Fuzzy Logic Temperature The result shows a The experiment
2005 the scroll compressor energy obtainable varying the scroll significance energy could not confirm
performance varying its compressor speed to control the savings of about if the compressor
speed refrigeration capacity instead of the 20% when using the velocity decrease
classical thermostatic control variable speed determine the
scroll compressor energy savings
Nasution et Potential electricity To control the temperature of an PID Temperature The result shows The work does
al 2006 savings by variable speed indoor space and reduce the energy that thermal not give accurate
control of compressor for consumption using variable speed comfort of the room correlation
air conditioning system compressor and energy savings between
was achieved frequency and
through proper load imposed to
selection of PID the romm
parameter
Semsar- Nonlinear control and To design an algorithm for Backstepping Simulation result In this study only
Kazeerooni disturbance decoupling of disturbance decoupling and tracking control shows that the pulse like
et al 2008 HVAC system using in nonlinear MIMO systems closed loop system disturnaces are
feedback linearization and has good and fast checked
backstepping with load tracking, offset free
estimation and smooth
response with high
disturbance
decoupling
Alkan et al Comparative performance Fuzzy Logic Temperature
2010 of an automotive air
conditioning system using
fixed and variable
 capacity compressor
Aswani et al Identifying models of
2012 HVAC systems using
semiparametric regression
Szyman Impact of airflows, To analyze how various models of Temperature and Result shows that
Firlag 2012 internal heat and moisture the internal heat and moisture gains Humidity the different in
gains on accuracy of as well as natural airflows between energy need for
modeling energy building zones heating calculated
consumption and indoor using precise and
parameters in passisve simplified methods
building of internal heat
gains determination
was 30%
Pedro et al Experimental research on To show the performance of relative Humidity Result shows there The performance
2012 the influence of the air humidity on the system perfomance was a significant of the air
humidity conditions in an influence when condenser when
air conditioning system comparing high considering
humidity condition relative humidity
with low humidity is not considered
condition in the
experiment.
Afram et al Theory and application of To present a literature review of Review of The review shows Further
2013 HVAC control system-A control methods with an emphasis different how robust and investigation on
review of model on the theory and application of controller important MPC is performance
preductive control MPC for HVAC system to controlling comparison of
parameter In HVAC different MPC
technique needed
Afram et al Review of modeling To present a literature review of _ _ The result identify
2014 methods for HVAC different modeling methods for three broad classes
system HVAC system of models known as
physics based, data
driven, gray box
Perera et al Control of temperature To present a up-to-date application Review of _ The paper helps to
2014 and energy consumption of control techniques different have a
in building – A review controllers comprehensive
understanding about
 the variety of
control techniques
in the field of
HVAC
Ku and Liu Self tunning for air- To control indoor temperature in air PID Temperature Simulation result
et al 2015 conditioning in a room conditioning room to ensure thermal shows that both self
with varying temperature comfort while reducing energy tuning controllers
and impertfectly mixed air consumption perform well in the
inherent non linear
model
Yazeed et al Design and development To investigate and evaluates the use Fuzzy Logic Temperature result shows
2015 of advanced fuzzy logic of fuzzy logic controller in HVAC effective control
controllers in smart system and light controllers for energy savings in
buildings for institutional smart building in subtropical building and to
buildings in subtropical australia minimize its
Quensland negative impact on
environment
Sultan et al An overview of solid To analaze the comparison between _ Temperature and Result shows that
2015 desiccant DAC and conventional vapor Humidity standalone DAC
dehumidification and air- compression air-conditioning can be operated by
conditioning system solar thermal
energy for moderate
humid climates
 CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter describe the steps involve in implementing the various stages of the project. The
data driven model will be used to develop a control strategy for the control of temperature and
humidity. Data driven model is formed from a process of data collection from a real practice.
There must be an input and output situation which is then used to establish a relationship
between the input and output variables (Zakiah et al 2017). Research studies have established the
ability of data driven approach in modeling HVAC system (kusiak et al 2014, He et al 2014,
Afram et al 2014).

The data driven modeling approach is very suitable for existing HVAC system performance
where there is possibility of getting enough data. Studies have also shown that indoor
temperature and humidity can be simultaneously controlled by varying compressor speed and
fan blower speed respectively. This therefore is a MIMO based control strategy, with the input
data being the power of the compressor and fan blower, the output data being the indoor room
temperature and humidity

In this research, an approach will be taken to obtain input and output data from the operational
building air-conditioning system by non-intrusive data collection.
3.2 Research Plan

This research was conducted in the following four phases:

 Phase I:
 Literature review
 Problem identification
 Phase II:
 Data collection
 Coefficient of performance for ON/OFF and ATCS
 Energy consumption difference for ON/OFF and ATCS on Multi
circuit Air cool package Unit
 Phase III:
 Model development using System Identification
 Controller design
 Phase IV:
 Testing and Validation
 Conclusions and recommendations

In phase 1, a thorough review of energy efficiency management through capacity control

was done, the different control strategy that has been applied in the HVAC industry was
identified. The pros and cons of each strategy was well stated. The research gap was identified
and stated in chapter 2. The absence of literature on the enhanced energy savings strategy for
temperature and humidity control in a multi-circuit air conditioning system formed the basis of
the research gap.

In phase 2, data on the real case scenario of the AC system will be collected, The data
collection process will be in two fold for certain period of time and for the different parameters,
it will be collected in two different conditions of operating the air conditioning system, the
on/off, which is conventional method of air conditioning system which is installed with a
thermostat always located in the AHU and the second data collection on will be after the
installation of the ATCS which is the application of the Variable Frequency drive of the
compressor. The coefficient of performance and the energy consumption is then calculated for
both for the purpose of comparison

In phase 3, the acquired data is used to estimate a model for the plant. The raw data will
be preprocess by using different data preprocessing techniques, which enhance model estimation,
which is the process of fitting a model with a specific model structure. The model will then be
analyzed further to obtain some information such as frequency response about the model and
investigate model estimation result. The model is finally validated to determine how accurately
the model describe the system. The accurate model is then used to design a controller

In phase 4, the controller can now be validated through simulation in Matlab software to
execute the concluding part of this research. The conclusions of this research and
recommendations for further research will be composed in this phase. The research task
sequence of this study is translated in a flowchart, which is shown in Figure 3.1. below

3.2 Research Flow Chat

 Literature Review

PHASE 1
Research Gap Identification

Selection of research tools

Data Collection for on/off convectional method

ATCS installation
PHASE 2

Data collection for the ATCS Method

COP and Energy consumption calculation and

analysis for conventional method as compared to
ATCS for the Multi-circuit Air conditioning system

Data collection after installation of VFD for the

blower fan speed, varying the speed of the
compressor and blower
PHASE 3

Model Structure Selection

Model Validation and Estimation

Use Model to design a MPC

Compare the effect of the new controller on the

performance system
PHASE 3

Conclusion Discussion and Recommendation

3.3 System description

3.3.1 The Air Conditioning Plant System

The ACPU consist of

a) Two independent refrigerant circuit
The multicircuit configuration is unique and provide alternative capacity when there is failure of
one of the refrigerant circuit. Each refrigerant circuit consist of a direct expansion
 Evaporator coils
 Air cooled condenser
 Electronic expansion valve (EEV)
 A compressor

b) Air Distribution Subsystem

The air distribution subsystem consist of
 Air distribution duct network with supply, return and outdoor air dampers.
 Blower section with centrifugal supply fan
 Air conditioned space

c) Power/Control Panel
The power /control panel houses the electrical wiring to power the system. It has an auto
transformer connected to the two compressors to reduce the starting torque. It also have the
thermostat that regulate the on/off of the compressor

3.3.2 Field work description

The field work will be carried out at, Block D06, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru,
Johor. An air-cooled sealed air conditioning unit (ACPU) housed in an Air Handling Unit (AHU)
space cools the indoor space. The indoor space is an office environment majorly for official
activities and the average occupants is around 30 people. It is operated between 8:00 am -
5:00pm Sunday to Thursday. The air-conditioning system (AHU) set point temperature was
24oC and 50% for humidity

Figure 3.2 Design Layout of the indoor space environment

The aim and focus of this research is to develop a model and control strategy for the control of
temperature and humidity in a multi circuit air cooled centralized air conditioning system, thus
reducing energy consumption while still maintain indoor thermal comfort. This will be based on
the strategy of combining the function of the automatic thermal control system (ATCS) and MPC
MIMO controller. The air cooled package unit of D06 is to be used as a case study, the initial
on/off control system will be augmented with the installation of ATCS which is expected to
reduce energy consumption and bring about a better coefficient of performance.

Just like the aim of the study is to develop a model for the control of humidity and temperature,
the accurate control of the two can be achieved by compressor and supply fan speed variation.
The process includes modeling of the behavior of ACPU in terms of the relationship between
office space temperature, humidity and power consumption. The models for control of
temperature and humidity will be constructed using system identification procedure which
consist of four main steps, data collection, choosing a model structure, model estimation and
validating the model. In this study the black box approach will be used because there is no prior
information regarding the system dynamics

3.4 Data Collection

The data collection process for the different parameters stated below will be collected in two
different conditions of operating the air conditioning system

3.4.1 Conventional on/off

This is a situation whereby the compressor is controlled by thermostat with just on and off
mode depending on the set point for the indoor space
 Temperature, Humidity and Power consumption readings will be taken for 2 month at 1mins
interval. Both compressors is in “on and off mode” and the supply fan speed is constant making
it a constant air volume configuration

3.4.2 Air Conditioning System installed with Automatic Thermal Control System (ATCS)

This is a situation whereby one of the compressors is retrofitted with the variable frequency
drive, which is an interface between the utility inputs, and the compressor motor speed by
varying the magnitude of the voltage, current or frequency. The other compressor is installed
with a soft starter to reduce maximally the starting torque. Temperature, Humidity and Power
consumption measurement for indoor, outdoor, supply air, mix air, return air will be taken for 2
month at 1 minutes interval

3.5 Research Tool

The research tools that will be used in this research work is as follows:

1. Matlab software will is being used for dynamic modeling using system Identification, and the
Simulink toolbox will be used for controller design.

2. Internet of things cloud based eazy log data loggers will be used to collect data for
temperature, and humidity.

3. Clamp-on Power Analyzer CW240 was used to collect data readings for power consumption
for both compressors

5. Airflow meter
3.6 Measurment of Parameters

3.6.1 Temperature Measurement

Temperature measurement is considered important in this study, the instrument for the measure
of the dry bulb temperature is the EasyLog wifi Temperature Data Logger. It can remotely monitor
an environment of temperature range value between -20 to +60°C (-4 to +140°--F). Data is
uploaded periodically using a standard WiFi network to the EasyLog Cloud or a single host PC.
EasyLog Cloud gives access to each data logger, and data collected from any internet-enabled
device. Change data logger settings remotely, receive email alerts of alarm conditions. The
device will store data internally if it loses WiFi connection and automatically uploads it to the
Cloud once reconnected.

3.6.2 Relative Humidity Measurement

Relative humidity is the amount of moisture in the air compared to what the air can hold at that
temperature. The hotter the air is, the more water it can contain. A reading of 100 percent relative
humidity means that the air is totally saturated with water vapor and cannot hold any more.
Relative humidity is an important factor to consider in building thermal comfort, the
recommended range in air conditioned building is between 30%-60%. The instrument used to
measure the relative humidity is the EasyLog wifi Humidity Data Logger. It can remotely
monitor an environment of humidity range value between 0-100%. Data is uploaded
periodically using a standard WiFi network to the EasyLog Cloud or a single host PC. EasyLog
Cloud gives access to each data logger, and data collected from any internet-enabled device

Temperature and relative humidity measurement for AHU and air distribution side were
considered during the measurement. The following readings were taken for both temperature and
humidity.
3.6.3 Mixed Air

The mix air is the mixture of the outdoor air and the return air at the evaporator side before
cooling, the dry bulb temperature and the humidity is measured at the evaporator side.

Figure 3.3 Mixed air measurement

3.6.4 Return Air

This is the air returned from an air-conditioned space to the AHU for processing and
recirculation. It is the air that is circulated through the indoor space as supply air which is
returned through the return air duct to the AHU, in order to reduce the energy consumption by
the system when using only fresh as the source of air

Figure 3.4 Return air measurement

3.6.5 Indoor air

The indoor air which is the cooled air supplied to conditioned space is measured in five different
location in the office space. One reference location is chosen

Figure 3.5 Indoor measurement at different location

3.6.6 Supply air

This is the cooled air containing the mixture of the outside air and the return air. It is transferred
to the indoor through the supply duct
3.6.7 Outdoor air
The outdoor air is an important factor when considering the thermal comfort of an indoor space.
Outdoor air affects the heat transfer through external walls and roof and the heat transfer by
ventilation

Figure 3.7 Outdoor air measurements

3.6.8 Supply air flow rate measurement

Air velocity transducer 8455 series was used to measure the cooled air volume flow rate been
supplied to the indoor space. It has a probe attached to a 5m cable connected to the control
module. A linear signal is sent out allowing output to a variety of data loggers or data acquisition
system. It has a fast response time with air velocity range of 0.125m/s to 50m/s

Figure 3.8 Supply air measurement

3.6.9 Compressor measurement

The power consumption of the compressor is always the highest in the air conditioning system,
thus proper measurement of the compressor power consumption is very paramount to this
research.. the system was installed with two scroll type compressor . the cw240 power
transducers was used to measure and analyzed the power output of the compressors. This
transducers is effective in data collection, it has a display which provides measurement for
voltage, current and electric power.

It measures maximum power demand required from the start of logging measurement and the
time it occurs, active power, reactive (lag), power factor and active power quantity
(consumption, regeneration), reactive power quantity (lagging/leading)
The CW240 also provides a demand feature that can be used to measure peak power usage over
a specified time period. The table below shows the specification of the two compressor installed
the multicircuit system used in this research, while figure shows the Yokogawa Clamp-on
Power Analyzer IM CW240E model.
 Figure 3.9 Power Transducer to measure energy consumption
Table 3.1 . Parameter measurement with instrument and accuracy

Parameter to be Measuring
No Symbol Type/Model Accuracy
measured Instrument
Clamp-on
Power input to Yokogawa
1 Power 0.5% of full scale
compressor 1(kw) IM CW240E
Analyzer
Clamp-on
Power input to Yokogawa
2 Power 0.5% of full scale
compressor 2(kw) IM CW240E
Analyzer
EasyLog
Lascar
Temperature of wifi
3 Tsupply electronic EL- ±0.3°C / ±0.6°F
Supply Air Temperature
WIFI-TH
Data Logger
EasyLog
Lascar
Temperature of wifi
4 Tmix electronic EL- ±0.3°C / ±0.6°F
Mix Air Temperature
WIFI-TH
Data Logger
EasyLog
Lascar
Temperature of wifi
5 Treturn electronic EL- ±0.3°C / ±0.6°F
Return Air Temperature
WIFI-TH
Data Logger
Indoor EasyLog
Lascar
wifi
5 Temperature (5 Tindoor
Temperature
electronic EL- ±0.3°C / ±0.6°F
locations) WIFI-TH
Data Logger
EasyLog
Lascar
outdoor wifi
6 Toutdoor electronic EL- ±0.3°C / ±0.6°F
Temperature Temperature
WIFI-TH
Data Logger
Air velocity ±2.0% of reading
Supply Air Air flow
7 V transducer ±0.5% of full scale
Volumetric flow rate meter
8455 series of selected range
Relative EasyLog
Lascar
wifi
8 Humidity of RHsupply
Humidity
electronic EL- ±2% RH
Supply Air GFX-2
Data Logger
Relative EasyLog
Lascar
wifi
9 Humidity of Mix RHmix
Humidity
electronic EL- ±2% RH
Air GFX-2
Data Logger
Relative EasyLog
Lascar
wifi
10 Humidity of RHreturn
Humidity
electronic EL- ±2% RH
Return Air GFX-2
Data Logger
 Relative EasyLog
Lascar
Humidity of wifi
11 RHindoor electronic EL- ±2% RH
indoor Air (5 Humidity
GFX-2
locations) Data Logger

Relative EasyLog
Lascar
wifi
12 Humidity of RHoutdoor
Humidity
electronic EL- ±2% RH
outdoor Air GFX-2
Data Logger

3.7 Variable frequency drive installation

A Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) is a type of motor controller that controls the electric motor
by varying the frequency and voltage supplied to the electric motor, such that the speed supplied
matches what is required at a particular point in time, to prevent unnecessary waste of energy. It
is otherwise known as variable speed drive. The VFD system is usually composed of a three-
phase AC induction motor and a variable frequency power supply. The variable frequency power
supply uses solid state components to produce a modulated pulse-width current that varies with
both the voltage and frequency transmitted to the motor. It allows for accurate control over a
wide range of motor speeds. The first stage of a variable frequency drive is the conversion of the
3 phase AC signals to DC signals by a rectifier The next stage is the DC intermediate circuit
which contains the capacitor for filtering the current to produce a smooth and clean Dc signal, in
the last stage the inverter converts the smooth DC current back to AC current and supply to the
motor as required. Figure 3.10 below show the schematic diagram of the working principle of a
VFD
 Figure 3.10 Circuit diagram of the variable frequency drive (ABB user manual)

In this study two ABB drives was installed, one is connected to the motor of the compressor of
one of the refrigeration plant and the other is connected to the blower to vary the volume of air
distributed through the duct network, thus making it a variable air volume(VAV) configuration.

3.8 System Identification of Multiple Input-Multiple Output (MIMO) Air conditioning

system

The implementation of efficient control mechanism for HVAC system is of great importance,
therefore the importance of choosing an accurate dynamic model which is a step towards
achieving this efficiency cannot be over emphasize in the procedure of the control strategy. The
HVAC control system is faced with some peculiarities which makes it control system more
challenging. Some of these features include non-linearity of the system, time varying
disturbance, set points, time varying system dynamics etc (Afram et al 2013)

System identification is a vital tool that helps to obtain a dynamic model, which provides a
mathematical representation of a physical system by measuring several variables of input and
output and then formulating different model structures to relate as close as possible to the
measured data.

System identification is applied to derive the mathematical models and it therefore linearizes and
reduces model complexity. Data were collected during the operating hours of the air conditioning
system at block D06, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia as monitored from the cloud, internet of
things. Furthermore, other system identification modeling procedure were applied on the data
such as data analysis and preparation, like removing trend and means from the data, selecting
range etc. other procedures are Model structure selection, model estimation and model validation
figure 3.11 below highlight the stepwise implementation in the dynamic modeling procedure.
 Fig 3.11

3.8.1 Parametric Model Structures and Estimation

Considering the nature of the experimental process, a multi input multi output system, the input
variables are compressor power and fan speed blower power, while the output are the indoor
temperature and humidity. MIMO systems are difficult and challenging to model, because of the
coupling nature. They can be modeled either by directly using all the measured input and output
or models can be built for subset of the most important input and output. the data series collected
from an identification test is shown as

𝑀𝑛=(𝑢(1),𝑢(2),𝑢(3),……..𝑢(𝑛),𝑦(1),𝑦(2),𝑦(3),…………….𝑦(𝑛) 3.1

Where M is the manipulated input variables, u(t) is the m-dimensional input vector, y(t) is a p-
dimensional output vector and n is the number of samples.

The data as generated is assumed to follow and represented in the equation 3.2 below a linear
process

y(𝑡) = G(𝑞−1)𝑢(𝑡)+𝐻(𝑞−1)𝑒(𝑡) 3.2

The G(𝑞−1) represent the process transfer function, while 𝑞−1 represent the unit delay operator,
the noise model is represented by H(𝑞−1) and the p dimensional white noise vector is 𝑒(𝑡)

The general parametric model structure is represented by equation 3.3 below

A(𝑞)−1y(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡)+ 𝑒 𝑡 3.3

Where (𝑡) is the input and y(𝑡) is the output , while 𝑒(𝑡) is the estimation error. A(𝑞), B(𝑞), 𝐶(𝑞),
𝐷(𝑞), 𝐸(𝑞) and 𝐹(𝑧) represent the polynomials that define the output, inputs and the estimation
error.
The commonly used parametric model structures that can be used to identify a system are, ARX
(Autoregressive with external input) model, ARMAX (Autoregressive moving average with
external input) model, OE (Output error) model, BJ (Box Jenkins) model

3.8.2 ARX (Autoregressive with external input) Model

The ARX model structure is represented by Equation 3.4, as shown below.
G(𝑞−1)=𝑞−𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 H(𝑞−1)= 3.4

Where, A(𝑞−1)= ∑ 𝑎𝑘𝑞−𝑘 and 𝐵(𝑞−1) = ∑ b𝑘𝑞−𝑘 are polynomial matrices

and 𝑑 is the delay of the system. This model can be expressed as:

A(𝑞−1)y(t)= 𝑞−𝑑𝐵(𝑞−1)𝑢(𝑡)+𝑒(𝑡) 3.5

The coefficient of polynomials 𝐴 and 𝐵 are estimated by minimizing the sum of the squared
equation error 𝜀 (𝑡), which is the measured difference between the actual and estimated outputs.

𝜀(𝑡)=𝑦(𝑡)−𝑦(𝑡 𝐼𝜃)=𝑦(𝑡)−𝜑𝑇(𝑇)𝜃 3.6

Where θ is the parameter vector and 𝜑 is the regression vector, which contains all the past inputs
and past outputs. They are defined as:

𝜑(𝑡)=[𝑦(𝑡−1)………..𝑦(𝑡−n𝑎)𝑢(𝑡−1)……𝑢(𝑡−𝑑−𝑛𝑏 )] 3.7

𝜃 = [−𝑎1….−𝑎𝑛𝑎 𝑏𝑜……..𝑏𝑛𝑏]T

3.8.3 ARMAX (Autoregressive moving average with external input) Model

This model structure has a more general structure than the ARMAX shown as follows:

G(𝑞−1)=𝑞−𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 H(𝑞−1)= 3.8

In Equation 3.8, C(𝑞−1)= ∑ c𝑘𝑞−𝑘 is a polynomial, the presence of which means that noise
term is explicitly modeled. This model can be expressed as:

𝐴(𝑞−1)y(t)=𝑞−𝑑𝐵(𝑞−1)𝑢(𝑡) + 𝐶(𝑞−1)𝑒(𝑡) 3.9

The coefficients of the polynomials 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are estimated by minimizing the sum of the
squared prediction error 𝜀 (𝑡), which is defined in Equation 3.10.

𝜀(𝑡)=𝑦(𝑡)−𝑦(𝑡 𝐼𝜃)=𝑦(𝑡)−𝜑𝑇(𝑡,𝑇)𝜃 3.10

Where θ is the parameter vector and 𝜑 is the regression vector which is defined as:

𝜑(𝑡)=[𝑦(𝑡−1)….𝑦(𝑡−n𝑎)𝑢(𝑡−1)…𝑢(𝑡−𝑑−𝑛𝑏 )𝜀(𝑡,𝜃)….𝜀(𝑡−𝑛𝑐,𝜃]𝑇] 3.11

𝜃=[−𝑎1….−𝑎𝑛𝑏 𝑏𝑜……..𝑏𝑛𝑏 𝑐1………c𝑛𝑐]𝑇 3.12

3.8.4 Output Error (OE) Model

The Output Error (or Parallel) model structure is used in the case when the process output is
disturbed by only white measurement noise. It corresponds to the following choice:

G(𝑞−1)=𝑞−𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑞−1)= 1 3.13

This model is expressed as:

y(𝑡)= 𝑞−𝑑 (𝑡) + 𝑒(𝑡) 3.14

Where, F(𝑞−1)=1+∑ F 𝑘𝑞 − 𝑘 3.15

is a polynomial matrix. As in the case of ARMAX models, the polynomial F and B are estimated
by using the prediction error method.
The regression vector 𝜑 and parameter vector θ is defined as:

𝜑(𝑡)=[𝑦(𝑡−1)………..𝑦(𝑡−n𝑓)𝑢(𝑡−1)……𝑢(𝑡−𝑑−𝑛𝑓)]𝑇] 3.16
𝜃= [−𝑓1….−𝑓𝑛𝑓 𝑏𝑜……..𝑏𝑛𝑏]T 3.17

3.8.5 Box Jenkins (BJ) Model

Box Jenkins Model provides completely independent parameterization for the dynamics and the
noise using a rational polynomial function. The equation represents BJ structure:

y(𝑡)=𝑞−𝑑 u(𝑡)+ 𝑒 𝑡 3.18

D(𝑞−1)=1 + ∑ D𝑞−𝑘 3.19

3.8.6 State Space model

State-space model of a multivariable process is described by the following set of difference

equations:

𝑥𝑘+1=𝐴𝑥𝑘+𝐵𝑢𝑘+𝑤𝑘 3.20

𝑦𝑘=𝐶𝑥𝑘+𝐷𝑢𝑘+𝑣𝑘 3.21
3.9 MODEL PREDICTIVE CONTROL (MPC)

The MPC uses a model strategy to forecast possible systems states and produces a control vector
that minimizes the cost function over the predictive horizon in the presence of disturbances and
constraints. It also tries to find the most suitable control signals in order to minimize an objective
function subject to some constraints using a model of the system.

The cost function takes the form of control effort, tracking error, power consumption, energy
cost, demand cost, or a combination of these factors. Constraints can be placed on the rate and
range limits of the actuators and the manipulated and controlled variables

3.9.1 Discrete-time linear system

The discrete-time expression is given by:

𝑑𝑥 𝑘 𝑥 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 𝑥 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑘
{ 3.22
𝑘 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 𝐶𝑥

where k denotes the sampling instant, y(k) the output vector, x(k) the input vector and u(k)
denote the state vector at sampling instant k
Ad(x0,u0) = eA (x ;u )T is the state matrix,
c 0 0 sp

Bd(x0,u0) = ( ∫ eA (x ;u )tdt)Bc(x0;u0) is the input matrix of the discrete system

𝑝
c 0 0

3.9.2 Determination of the Cost function

In model predictive control, the focus is to find the most suitable control signals in order to
minimize an objective function subject to some constraint using a model of the system. In the
centralized Air conditioning system control, the set point temperature and humidity are the main
output of the system to be controlled. It is therefore necessary to determine the cost function for
the indoor temperature and humidity which could be describe as follows

J = α(T-Td)2 + β(W-Wd)2 3.23

s.t. fmin<f<fmax
smin<s<smax

Where, Td and Wd were the set points of indoor temperature and absolute humidity respectively,
α and β were the weight coefficients for the two objectives T and W. fmin, fmax,smin, smax stand for
the minimum and maximum value of fan and compressor speed which was the same as the real
A/C system

3.9.3 Model Predictive Control algorithm for the A/c system

The state-space model can be written in this equation

𝑥(𝑘+1)=𝐴𝑥(𝑘)+𝐵𝑢(𝑘)+𝐵𝑑(𝑑(𝑘)+𝑤(𝑘)) 3.24
(𝑘)=𝐶(𝑘)

Where

𝐴= [ ] 𝐵=[ ] , 𝐶= [0 1], 𝐵𝑑 =[ ]

The first step is to calculate the predicted outputs as a function of the future control signals over
a prediction horizon of Np.
Where the predicted output is given by

𝑌𝑝=[𝑦(𝑘+1) 𝑦(𝑘+2)……..𝑦(𝑘+𝑁)]𝑇 3.25

the future control effort is given by

Δ(𝑘)= [Δ𝑢(𝑘) Δ𝑢(𝑘+1)……..Δ𝑢(𝑘+𝑁−1)]𝑇 3.26

the predicted disturbance effect is

Δ𝐷= [Δ(𝑘) Δ𝑑(𝑘+1)……..Δ𝑑(𝑘+𝑁−1)]𝑇 3.27

Therefore is 𝑌𝑃𝑅 = 𝜑𝑥 (𝑘) ∅ Δ𝑈(𝑘)+ 𝛾𝐸(𝑘) 3.28

 = [𝐶𝐴 𝐶𝐴 2 …. 𝐶𝐴𝑁𝑝] T 3.29

𝐶𝐵

𝐶𝐴𝐵 𝐶𝐵 …

∅ = 𝐶𝐴𝐵 … 3.30

[ … ]

𝐶𝐵

𝐶𝐴𝐵 𝐶𝐵 …

= 𝐵𝑑 𝐶𝐴𝐵 … 3.31

[ … ]
3.9.4 The proposed control strategy installed with MPC

The control strategy is represented in the figure 3.1 below. The digital controller is embedded
with a MPC controller for the control of compressor 1 and the blower, while compressor 2
maintains the on/off system of control

Figure 3.12: Digital temperature and humidity control strategy

3.9.5 Model Predictive Control strategy for the A/c system

The schematic diagram of the framework for the MPC control strategy to minimize energy
consumption in the A/C system is represented in the figure 3.2 below while Figure 3.3 shows the
control block diagram of the MPC control strategy
Figure 3.13: Framework of the proposed control strategy

Figure 3.14: Block diagram of the MPC control strategy

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