energies
Article
Heating Performances of a Large-Scale Factory Evaluated
through Thermal Comfort and Building Energy Consumption
Daehyun Kim 1,† , Hyunmuk Lim 1,† , Jongmin Moon 1,2 , Jinsoo Park 1






Citation: Kim, D.; Lim, H.; Moon, J.;
Park, J.; Rhee, G. Heating
Performances of a Large-Scale Factory
Evaluated through Thermal Comfort
and Building Energy Consumption.
Energies 2021, 14, 5617. https://
doi.org/10.3390/en14185617
Academic Editor: Angelo Zarrella
Received: 1 August 2021
Accepted: 1 September 2021
Published: 7 September 2021
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Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
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distributed under the terms and
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Energies 2021, 14, 5617. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14185617
and Gwanghoon Rhee 1, *
1 Department of Mechanical and Information Engineering, University of Seoul, Seoul 02504, Korea;
kimdh863@kia.com (D.K.); nicezz2@uos.ac.kr (H.L.); jmoon@uos.ac.kr (J.M.); jinsoo@snu.ac.kr (J.P.)
2 Siemens Digital Industries Software, Seoul 06292, Korea
* Correspondence: ghrhee@uos.ac.kr
† Co-first authors.
Abstract: Workshops with a large area and a high ceiling height without compartments, such as
large-scale assembly factories, have an uneven thermal comfort during heating, making it difficult
to establish an effective heating strategy. In this study, we evaluate the heating performance of a
large-scale factory based on thermal comfort and energy flow and discuss effective heating methods.
In addition, an analysis of the heating performance of a large-scale factory is attempted for the
first time. To analyze the heating performance, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and building
energy simulation (BES) were used to confirm thermal comfort distribution and energy flow in a
large-scale factory. Temperature distribution and thermal comfort were evaluated through CFD, and
the temperature of a large-scale assembly factory was compared with experimental data. Based on the
CFD results, the current heating level of large factories was predicted to be 15.4 ◦ C, and the ADPIrev
was 70%. Moreover, the BES results show that the energy losses due to forced ventilation and the
inflow of outside air contributed 35.5% and 27.8%, respectively. The heating strategy proposed in this
study could improve thermal comfort by 79% compared to the same energy consumption. Therefore,
to improve the heating performance compared to the heating energy consumption of large-scale
factory, the imbalance in thermal comfort caused by the inflow of outside air must be resolved.
Keywords: HVAC; thermal comfort; computational fluid dynamics; building energy simulation;
large-scale factory
1. Introduction
In the United States, the energy used for building cooling and heating represents
20% of the total annual energy consumption [1]. To reduce cooling and heating energy
consumptions, there is growing interest in the effective operation of cooling and heating
facilities as well as an improvement in their energy efficiency [2]. However, there are still
uncertainties in the correlation between energy consumption and thermal environment
improvement, which is used in cooling and heating for establishing effective operation
strategies [3]. Thermal comfort through cooling and heating varies depending on the
structure of the indoor space, cooling and heating methods, and the activity level of the
occupants, which makes it difficult to establish standardized cooling and heating strategies.
Therefore, much research has been conducted into cooling and heating methods for various
spaces, such as classrooms, hospitals, offices, and theaters, and the thermal comfort of their
occupants has been evaluated [4–7].
Some studies have been conducted on cooling and heating methods for large indoor
spaces. Ricciardi et al. reported that thermal comfort may differ in large spaces due to
non-uniform cooling and heating performance [8]. Stamou et al. visually presented the
distribution of the thermal comfort for large spaces by evaluating the thermal comfort
in the Galatis Arena through computational fluid dynamics (CFD) [9]. Previous studies
have shown that local overcooling, overheating, and drafts caused by hot or cold air
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2021, 14, 5617 2 of 15

during cooling and heating operation in large indoor spaces may decrease the thermal
comfort of occupants and that non-uniform thermal comfort can easily occur in large spaces.
In addition, the demand for comfortable working environments has been expanding to
workshops beyond offices. In particular, there is a growing demand for thermal comfort
management from workers in large-scale assembly factories that contain many workers.
However, it is difficult to predict the cooling and heating performance of large-scale
assembly factories based on the results of previous studies on cooling and heating in large
spaces because the cooling and heating performance of a building is significantly affected
by the shape and cooling/heating conditions of the building, as described earlier. As
previous studies on workshop cooling and heating [10,11] mostly present cooling/heating
and thermal comfort results for spaces where static activities are performed, they are not
suitable for evaluating the thermal comfort of occupants in buildings such as factories.
In particular, it is difficult to predict the effect of the heating operation method on
the actual thermal comfort in a large-scale assembly factory. Heating methods applicable
to indoor spaces can be mainly divided into two categories. First, the easiest method
is to evenly heat the entire space. This method also leads to a high thermal comfort of
occupants if there is no local temperature difference and no draft caused by air flow [12].
The method of evenly heating ultra-large spaces, such as large-scale assembly factories,
however, requires huge energy cost. Even if it can be implemented, maintaining the
performance requires no inflow of outside air and excellent insulation performance of
the building. Therefore, the method of evenly heating the entire space is not reasonable
in terms of energy efficiency. The second method is to extensively install cooling and
heating devices in some spaces where workers stay. This method is a reasonable choice in
terms of energy consumption because cooling and heating are directly performed in spaces
where heating is required, and this method is applicable in most workshops. However,
a concentrated supply of heated air may increase thermal discomfort due to a draft or
vertical temperature difference [13]. In addition, local heating causes different temperatures
depending on the location in the indoor space. In this case, buoyancy occurs due to the
temperature difference, causing flow inside the factory. In particular, the flow caused
by buoyancy moves to the upper part of the factory, and unheated ambient cold air is
introduced to the areas where occupants are. For heating in large spaces, all factors affect
each other, making it difficult to adopt an effective heating method.
Therefore, in this study, the thermal comfort and energy flow of a large-scale assembly
factory were examined to present effective heating operation strategies. In particular, the
temperature distribution inside the factory during heating in winter was predicted through
CFD. In this instance, the thermal comfort of occupants was evaluated. In addition, the
energy supply and loss in the large-scale assembly factory were quantitatively predicted
by evaluating the energy flow of the building through a building energy simulation (BES).
Computational analysis was conducted considering the operating conditions of an actual
large-scale assembly factory, the structure of the building, and external environmental
factors. In addition, heating strategies to reduce energy loss were presented along with
changes in thermal comfort based on the energy loss rate in the large-scale assembly factory,
confirmed through the energy flow of the building. As shown by the above results, the
methodology to identify both the thermal comfort and building energy flow can indicate
improvement measures for heating operation based on the energy flow calculated through
BES and can evaluate the distribution of the thermal environment and airflow patterns
as well as changes in thermal comfort through CFD. Consequently, the methodology and
quantitative research results presented in this paper can provide useful insights required
to improve the thermal comfort of workers and reduce the heating cost in a large-scale
assembly factory.

2. Description of the Large-Scale Assembly Factory

In this study, research was conducted on the thermal comfort of workers and building
energy flow under heating conditions in winter in a large-scale assembly factory with a
 Energies
Energies 2021,
2021, 14,
14, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 33 of
of 15
15
Energies 2021, 14, 5617 3 of 15

In
In this
this study,
study, research
research was
was conducted
conducted on on the
the thermal
thermal comfort
comfort of
of workers
workers and and build-
build-
ing
ing energy
energy flow
flow under
under heating
heating conditions
conditions in in winter
winter in in aa large-scale
large-scale assembly
assembly factory
factory with
with
length
aa lengthofof
390
390m,m,width
widthofof150
150m,
m, and
and height
height of
of 12.6
12.6 m
m located
located in Ulsan,
in Ulsan, South
SouthKorea.
Korea.The The
length of 390 m, width of 150 m, and height of212.6 m located in Ulsan, South Korea. The
3 , is
entirety
entirety of this factory, with an area of 61,150 m and a volume of 578,000 m an indoor
entirety of
of this
this factory,
factory, with
with anan area
area of
of 61,150
61,150 mm2 and
and aa volume
volume ofof 578,000
578,000 mm3,, is
is an
an indoor
2 3
indoor
space
space composed
composed of
ofone
oneultra-large
ultra-large zone,
zone, and
and 1200
1200 people
people work
work ononthe floor.
the floor.Completed
Completed in
space composed of one ultra-large zone, and 1200 people work on the floor. Completed
1986,
in this factory has 17 large double doors and glass windows on three sides (east, west,
in 1986,
1986, this
this factory
factory has
has 17
17 large
large double
double doors
doors and and glass
glass windows
windows on on three
three sides
sides (east,
(east,
and
west, north) and top windows on the roof. Figure 1 shows the exterior andand
interior of this
west, and north) and top windows on the roof. Figure 1 shows the exterior and interior
and north) and top windows on the roof. Figure 1 shows the exterior interior of
of
large-scale
this assembly factory.
this large-scale
large-scale assembly
assembly factory.
factory.

Figure
Figure 1. Exterior
1.Exterior
Figure1. and
Exterior and interior
interior of
and interior of the
the large-scale
large-scale assembly
assembly factory.
factory.

The
The factory
The factory
factory is is equipped
equipped with
is equipped with heating
heating facilities
heating facilities capable
facilities capableof
capable ofsupplying
of supplyingheated
supplying heatedair
heated airat
air atataaa
flow rate of 2,820,000 m 3 /h,
/h, and
andthey
theyare aredivided
dividedinto intotwo twotypes
typesof ofdevices
devices(furnaces
(furnacesand
3
flow
flowrate
rateofof2,820,000
2,820,000m m3/h, and they are divided into two types of devices (furnaces and
and
hot
hot water
hotwater
waterfan fan coil
fan coil systems),
systems), as
coil systems), as shown
shown in
shown in Figure
in Figure 2.
Figure 2. In
2. In the
In thefactory,
the factory, the
factory, theheating
the heatingfacilities
heating facilitiesare
facilities are
are
operated
operated when
when the outdoor temperature
temperature is
is 7
7 ◦ Cor
°C or less
less from
from November
November totonext
next February.
February.
operated when the outdoor temperature is 7 °C or less from November to next February.
First,
First, the
First, the furnaces
the furnaces
furnaces heat heat up the air
up the air with
with the
the heat
the heat generated
heat generatedby
generated byaaaburning
by burninggas,
burning gas,and
gas, andthe
and theair
the air
air
volume
volume supplied
supplied by
by each
each furnace
furnace is
is approximately
approximately 80,000
80,000 m 33/h.
/h. The
The furnaces
furnaces are
areevenly
evenly
volume supplied by each furnace is approximately 80,000 m /h. The furnaces are evenly
distributed
distributed
distributed inside
inside the factory to
the factory to control
control the
control the overall
the overall temperature
overall temperatureof
temperature ofthe
of thefactory.
the factory.They
factory. Theyare
They are
are
installed
installed
installed atat a 4 m
at aa 44 m height
m height from the floor, and they
height from the floor, and they directly directly supply
supply warm
directly supply warm
warm air air towards
air towards
towardsthe the
the
workshops
workshops without
workshops without
without using ducts. Meanwhile,
using ducts. Meanwhile,the
Meanwhile, thehot
the hotwater
hot waterfan
water fancoil
fan coilsystems
coil systemsare
systems areused
are usedto
used toto
provide
provide heating
provideheating
heatingto to spaces
tospaces
spaces where occupants work
where occupants work at at fixed
at fixed positions.
fixed positions.Fifty
positions. Fiftyfan
Fifty fancoil
fan coilsystems
coil systems
systems
are
are installed
areinstalled inside
installedinside
inside the the factory,
factory, and
and thethe heat
heat source
source is
source is supplied
is suppliedthrough
supplied throughhot
through hotwater.
hot water.The
water. Theair
The air
air
heated
heated through
through the
the hot water fan coil systems
systems provides
provides heating
heating
heated through the hot water fan coil systems provides heating to areas where workers to
to areas
areas where
where workers
workers
stay
stay through
staythrough ducts,
throughducts,
ducts,and heated air
and heated air is
is supplied
is suppliedthrough
supplied throughdiffusers
through diffusersinstalled
diffusers installedat
installed ataaa2.5
at 2.5m
2.5 mmheight.
height.
height.

Figure
Figure 2.
2. Heating
Heating facilities
facilities used
used in
in the
the large-scale assembly
large-scale assembly factory.
assembly factory. (a)
factory.(a) Furnace;
(a)Furnace; (b)
Furnace;(b) Duct
(b)Duct of
Ductof
ofhot water
large-scale
hot
hot water
water fan
fan coil
coil system.
system.
fan coil system.
Inside
Inside the
Insidethe large-scale
thelarge-scale assembly
large-scaleassembly factory,
assemblyfactory,
factory, facilitiestoto
facilities
facilities to release
release
release internal
internal
internal energy
energy
energy or
or intro-
intro-
or introduce
duce outside
duce outside
outside air
air areair are
are
also also present,
also present,
present, in addition
in addition
in addition to the facilities
to the facilities
to the facilities that provide
that provide
that provide energy
throughthrough
energy energy through
heating.
heating.
heating.
In In
In particular,
particular,particular, forced
forced ventilation
forced ventilation facilitiesfacilities
ventilation facilities are
are installed
are installed installed in
in the
in the areas theofareas
areas of
of the
the inspec-
the inspectioninspec-
and
tion
tion and
and repair
repair processes,
processes, where
where toxic
toxic gases
gases are
are generated,
generated, for
for the
the safety
safety of
of workers.
repair processes, where toxic gases are generated, for the safety of workers. The total forcedworkers. The
The
ventilation volume is 1,685,400 m3 /h, which corresponds to three rounds of ventilation per
hour based on the total factory volume. As the heated air is discharged through the forced
 Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 15

Energies 2021, 14, 5617 total forced ventilation volume is 1,685,400 m3/h, which corresponds to three rounds 4 of 15
of
ventilation per hour based on the total factory volume. As the heated air is discharged
through the forced ventilation facilities, a negative pressure is formed inside the factory.
Thus, coldfacilities,
ventilation outside air is introduced
a negative through
pressure the openings
is formed inside theoffactory.
the factory.
Thus, cold outside air
Table 1 lists detailed information on the
is introduced through the openings of the factory. heating and ventilation facilities used in the
factory.
Table 1 lists detailed information on the heating and ventilation facilities used in the
factory.
Table 1. Specification of the heating/ventilation facilities.
Table 1. Specification of the heating/ventilation facilities.
Type Flow Rates (CMH)
Furnace
Type 1,620,000
Flow Rates (CMH)
Heating
Hot water fan coil unit 1,200,000
Furnace 1,620,000
Heating Testfan
process 1 864,000
Hot water coil unit 1,200,000
Test
Test process
process 1 2 122,000
864,000
Ventilation Repair process
Test process 2 1 180,000
122,000
Ventilation Repair process
Repair 1 2
process 180,000
180,000
Repair process 2 180,000
Repair process 3 338,400
Repair process 3 338,400

3. Methodology
3. Methodology
3.1. Computational Fluid Dynamics
3.1. Computational Fluid Dynamics
AAthree-dimensional
three-dimensionalcomputational
computational domain
domain waswas constructed
constructed to investigate
to investigate thethe heat-
heating
ing performance of the assembly factory. The full-scale computational domain
performance of the assembly factory. The full-scale computational domain was composed was com-
posed of a ceiling, walls, openings, heating facilities, ventilation facilities, and internal
of a ceiling, walls, openings, heating facilities, ventilation facilities, and internal structures,
structures,
as shown inas shown
Figure 3. in Figure 3.

Figure3.3.Computational
Figure Computationaldomain
domainof
ofthe
thelarge-scale
large-scaleassembly
assemblyfactory.
factory.

The
Theceiling,
ceiling,walls,
walls,andandinternal structures
internal that
structures constitute
that constitutethe the
exterior and and
exterior entire indoor
entire in-
space of the assembly factory were modeled through the design drawings
door space of the assembly factory were modeled through the design drawings of the of the factory
and a field
factory and survey.
a fieldThe modeling
survey. of the internal
The modeling structures
of the internal was determined
structures considering con-
was determined the
type, height, and area of each. The assembly factory has openings through
sidering the type, height, and area of each. The assembly factory has openings through which outside
air could
which freely air
outside enter, even
could during
freely heating.
enter, even In particular,
during a 4In
heating. × particular,
4 m large automatic
a 4 × 4 m door
large
isautomatic
frequently opened and closed for the movement of materials or
door is frequently opened and closed for the movement of materials the release of or
finished
the re-
products, and mostproducts,
lease of finished of the windows
and most installed
of the in the upper
windows part of the
installed factory
in the upperremain
part open.
of the
Modeling was performed on the computational domain to reflect these
factory remain open. Modeling was performed on the computational domain to reflect conditions.
theseHeating facilities were divided into furnaces and hot water fan coil systems, as intro-
conditions.
duced in the previous section, and they were separately modeled in the computational
Heating facilities were divided into furnaces and hot water fan coil systems, as intro-
domain. In the case of the furnaces, the actual size was reflected in the computational
duced in the previous section, and they were separately modeled in the computational
domain because the outlet of heated air was relatively large. However, for the size of the
domain. In the case of the furnaces, the actual size was reflected in the computational
ducts that supplied heated air in the hot water fan coil systems, a separate assumption
was required because it was very small compared to the size of the entire factory. In this
study, it was assumed that heating was performed with two narrow and long ducts in
the installation space for each of the 50 hot water fan coil systems installed in the factory.
 domain because the outlet of heated air was relatively large. However, for the size of the
ducts that supplied heated air in the hot water fan coil systems, a separate assumption
was required because it was very small compared to the size of the entire factory. In this
study, it was assumed that heating was performed with two narrow and long ducts in the
Energies 2021,installation
14, 5617 space for each of the 50 hot water fan coil systems installed in the factory. The 5 of 15
flow velocity in the ducts was set based on the air volume. The forced ventilation facilities
were modeled under the assumption that air was dumped at the bottom of the computa-
tional domain by reflecting the actual factory environment.
The flow velocity in the ducts was set based on the air volume. The forced ventilation
The numerical analysis was regarded as steady-state and incompressible fluids. The
facilities were modeled under the assumption that air was dumped at the bottom of the
governing equations of mass, momentum
computational and energy
domain by reflecting theare shown
actual as environment.
factory follows; the buoyancy
effect was calculated using the Boussinesq
The numerical analysisapproximation
was regarded asmodel [14]: and incompressible fluids. The
steady-state
governing equations of mass, momentum and energy are shown as follows; the buoyancy
effect was calculated using∇the
∙ 𝑉Boussinesq
=0 approximation model [14]: (1)

ρV ∙ ∇𝑉 = −∇𝑃 + 𝜇 ∇ 𝑉 + 𝜌𝑔𝛽(𝑇
∇·V =−0𝑇 ) (2) (1)
 
ρ𝐶 VρV∙ ·∇
∇𝑇V==𝑘−∇∇P +
𝑇+µe ∅ 2
f f ∇ V + ρgβ T − Tre f (3) (2)
A Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) ρC p Vmodel
·∇ T =was used
ke f f ∇ 2
T +to∅calculate the turbu- (3)
lent flow with the governing equations. To calculate the Reynolds stress term of the equa-
A Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) model was used to calculate the tur-
tions according to the turbulent flow, the realizable k-ε turbulence model [15], which re-
bulent flow with the governing equations. To calculate the Reynolds stress term of the
quires a relativelyequations
small amount of computation and can be widely used for various types
according to the turbulent flow, the realizable k–ε turbulence model [15], which
of problems, was requires
used. The finite volume
a relatively methodofand
small amount the QUICK
computation andScheme
can be was
widely used
usedforfor various
the numerical approach.
types ofInproblems,
addition,wasthe used.
SIMPLE Thealgorithm wasmethod
finite volume adoptedandforthe
theQUICK
coupling Scheme was
between the pressure
usedand velocity
for the in the
numerical steady-state
approach. analysis.
In addition, the The
SIMPLEgrids used forwas
algorithm numer-
adopted for the
ical analysis was regular
couplinghexahedral,
between theand the number
pressure of grids
and velocity in thewas determined
steady-state to beThe
analysis. about
grids used for
numerical analysis was regular hexahedral, and the number of
45,000,000 through a grid dependency test, as shown in Figure 4. The base size of the hex- grids was determined to be
about 45,000,000 through a grid dependency test, as shown
ahedral grids at the computational domain is 30 cm and the grids around the walls are in Figure 4. The base size of
the hexahedral grids at the computational domain is 30 cm and the grids around the walls
finely configured to up to 25% of the base size. Residuals according to the iterative analy-
are finely configured to up to 25% of the base size. Residuals according to the iterative
sis were calculated to be 10−5 or less for all the governing equations. In this study, Siemens
analysis were calculated to be 10−5 or less for all the governing equations. In this study,
star-ccm+, a commercial
Siemens software
star-ccm+,program,
a commercialwassoftware
used. The simulation
program, cases
was used. Thewere com-cases were
simulation
puted in parallel through 16 processors, which took two days for each case.
computed in parallel through 16 processors, which took two days for each case.

Figure 4. (a) Grids

Figureof
4. the computational
(a) Grids domain; (b)
of the computational grid dependency
domain; test results.
(b) grid dependency test results.

Table 2 lists
Table 2 lists the boundary the boundary
conditions usedconditions used for the
for the numerical numericalFor
approach. approach.
the heatedFor the heated
air flow velocity and the forced ventilation flow velocity,
air flow velocity and the forced ventilation flow velocity, the average flow velocity was the average flow velocity was
applied based on the specifications of each facility. For the temperature conditions, the
applied based on the specifications of each facility. For the temperature conditions, the
setting values of the corresponding heating devices were applied. The calculation of the
setting values of theheatcorresponding
loss through theheating
walls and devices
ceilingwere
of theapplied. Thereplaced
factory was calculation
withof the
convective heat
heat loss through transfer
the wallsthatand ceiling
satisfied theofsame
the factory
thermal was replaced
resistance basedwith convective
on the composition heat
of the walls
transfer that satisfied the same
and ceiling. Inthermal resistance
this instance, based air
the outside on temperature
the composition of the walls
and convective heat transfer
and ceiling. In thiscoefficients
instance, thewereoutside
assumed airtotemperature◦
be −3 C and and convective
100 2
W/m ·K, heat transfer The
respectively. co- inflow of
outside to
efficients were assumed airbethrough
−3 °C andthe factory
100 W/m doors
2·K,caused by forced
respectively. The ventilation
inflow ofwas assumed to be
outside
1.2 m/s, which is the average value for the total door
air through the factory doors caused by forced ventilation was assumed to be 1.2 m/s, area, based on experimental data
which is the average measured
value for
forone
the hour.
total For
door thearea,
windows
basedinon theexperimental
ceiling, the pressure outlet condition was
data measured
set because they remained open at all times.
Energies 2021, 14, 5617 6 of 15

Table 2. Boundary condition of the computational domain.

Boundary Condition Value

Duct Velocity 10 m/s
(Furnace) Temperature 40 ◦ C
Duct Velocity 0.4 m/s
(Hot water fan coil unit) Temperature 30 ◦ C
Test line Ventilation Area 1 Velocity −0.14 m/s
Test line Ventilation Area 2 Velocity −0.15 m/s
Repair line Ventilation Area 1 Velocity −0.12 m/s
Repair line Ventilation Area 2 Velocity −0.12 m/s
Repair line Ventilation Area 3 Velocity −0.12 m/s
Heat transfer coefficient 0.58 W/m2 ·K
Roof
Ambient temperature −3 ◦ C
Heat transfer coefficient 0.50 W/m2 ·K
Wall
Ambient temperature −3 ◦ C
Ground Adiabatic -
Velocity 1.2 m/s
Door
Temperature −3 ◦ C
Pressure 0 Pa
Roof window
Temperature −3 ◦ C

Table 3 lists the insulation details of the factory. The insulation details in a building are
essential for the analysis of building energy flow as well as the temperature distribution.

Table 3. Material properties of the insulation of the large-scale assembly factory.

Thermal Specific
Thickness Density
Material Conductivity Heat
(mm) (kg/m3 )
(W/m·K) (kJ/kg·K)
Slate 6 0.58 1004 2240
Glass wool 50 0.03 837 30
Wall
Cement flat board 6 0.25 896 2800
Concrete 150 0.516 836 1922
Slate 6 0.58 1004 2240
Roof Glass wool 50 0.03 837 30
Cement flat board 6 0.25 896 2800
Ground Concrete 150 0.516 836 1922
Window 1 Glass 5 1.022
Window 2 Polycarbonate 10 12.96

3.2. Thermal Comfort

In the large-scale assembly factory equipped with the heating devices introduced
above, heating is performed by spreading warm air into the inside of the target space. The
effect of the flow by the diffuser on the thermal comfort inside the space was evaluated
through the air diffusion performance index (ADPI) considering the characteristics of
the flow from the diffuser, which exhibited the shape of a jet [16]. ADPI is a value that
statistically represents the satisfaction of occupants with the indoor temperature and ranges
from 0 to 100%. ADPI can be expressed as a ratio of the space (VS ), where the airflow
velocity is 0.35 m/s or less and the effective draft temperature (EDT) ranges from −1.5 to
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 15

Energies 2021, 14, 5617 7 of 15

from 0 to 100%. ADPI can be expressed as a ratio of the space (𝑉 ), where the airflow
velocity is 0.35 m/s or less and the effective draft temperature (EDT) ranges from −1.5 to
1.0
1.0 °C,
◦ C, to
to the
the entire
entire space (VT).). IfIfthe
space (𝑉 the ADPI
ADPI is
is 80%
80% or
or higher,
higher, the
the space
space can
can be
be considered
considered
comfortable.
comfortable.
𝐴𝐷𝑃𝐼(%)
ADPI ⁄𝑉T ×
(%) ==VS𝑉/V × 100
100 (4)
EDT
EDT for for the
the measurement
measurement point
point isis an
an index
index that
that can
can be calculated
calculated using
using the
the airflow
airflow
velocity
velocity (𝑣
(v p),), average
average temperature
temperature ofof the space (𝑇 ), and
(T), and temperature of the measurement
point (𝑇
point (Tp).). Liu
Liu and
and Novoselac
Novoselac [17]
[17] devised
devised an an EDT
EDT calculation
calculation method
method and
and the
the range of
EDT that can be used for
EDT that can be used for ADPI ADPI under heating conditions, expressed as follows:
𝐸𝐷𝑇== T𝑇 −−T𝑇
−−9.1
EDT 9.1 v𝑣 −−0.15
0.15
(5)
(5)
p p

−−2.2 ≤ 𝐸𝐷𝑇 ≤ 2
2.2 ≤ EDT ≤ 2 (6)
(6)
In the case of a large-scale factory, the ratio of the space where workers do not remain
In the case of a large-scale factory, the ratio of the space where workers do not remain
to the space where workers remain, is high, and the height of the building is high. Thus,
to the space where workers remain, is high, and the height of the building is high. Thus,
the imitation of the thermal comfort experienced by actual workers can be difficult if ADPI
the imitation of the thermal comfort experienced by actual workers can be difficult if ADPI
is evaluated based on volume. Therefore, in this study, ADPI was calculated based on a
is evaluated based on volume. Therefore, in this study, ADPI was calculated based on a
plane at a height of 1.5 m from the ground surface; this is also the height of the stream of
plane at a height of 1.5 m from the ground surface; this is also the height of the stream of
breath. The modified ADPI condition is formulated as follows:
breath. The modified ADPI condition is formulated as follows:
𝐴𝐷𝑃𝐼 (%) = 𝐴 ⁄𝐴 × 100 (7)
ADPIrev (%) = AS /A T × 100 (7)
3.3.
3.3. Building
Building Energy
Energy Modeling
Modeling Simulation
Simulation
BES
BES isis mainly
mainly usedused for
for designing
designing heating,
heating, ventilating,
ventilating, and and air-conditioning
air-conditioning(HVAC)(HVAC)
systems that meet the loads of a building and predict the building
systems that meet the loads of a building and predict the building energy consumption. energy consumption.
Among
Among various
various building
building energy
energy simulation
simulation software,
software, EnergyPlus
EnergyPlusisisused usedby by the
the USUS De-
De-
partment of Energy and has been used by many researchers to analyze
partment of Energy and has been used by many researchers to analyze the building energy the building en-
ergy flow [18]. This software can simulate the surface heat balance, air
flow [18]. This software can simulate the surface heat balance, air heat balance, and energy heat balance, and
energy performance
performance of a building
of a building based based on various
on various databases
databases regarding
regarding time time and seasons.
and seasons. It is
It is possible
possible to predict
to predict the equilibrium
the equilibrium betweenbetween the energy
the energy generated
generated in the in the factory,
factory, includingin-
cluding
the inputthe inputfor
energy energy for air conditioning
air conditioning and the heatand the heat
elements elements
such such asand
as machinery machinery
lighting,
and
and lighting, and theofmetabolism
the metabolism the workers, of and
the workers,
the energy and the energy
dissipated dissipated
through through
the exterior the
walls,
exterior walls, openings, and ventilation exhaust. For building energy
openings, and ventilation exhaust. For building energy analysis, the shape and zone of the analysis, the shape
and zonewere
building of the building
modeled werea modeled
using using aAtDesign
Design Builder. Builder.
this time, At this time,
the conditions the condi-
reflected in the
tions
BES arereflected
shownininthe BES 5.
Figure areThe
shown in Figure
conditions 5. The
given conditions
to the given to
HVAC system ofthe HVACcategory
Building system
of
andBuilding
Product category
Schedule and Productare
category Schedule
the same category
as those areentered
the same as those
in CFD, andentered in CFD,
the remaining
input
and theconditions
remainingare indicated
input in Table
conditions are4.
indicated in Table 4.

Figure 5.
Figure Building models
5. Building models with
with analysis
analysis condition
condition of
of building
building energy
energy simulation models.
Energies 2021, 14, 5617 8 of 15

Table 4. Input conditions and values for building energy simulation models.

Input Categories Input Conditions Values

Roof Heat transfer

0.5/0.58/1.02
Building
Wall coefficient (W/m2 K)
Windows Ambient
−3
Temperature (◦ C)
Location,
Environmental direction, Weather, Using winter data for 20 years
Ulsan, Korea
Conditions Humidity and from 1980
Temperature
HVAC system Fan flow rate (CMH) 80,000
Furnace Natural gas
Gas consumption
combustion until 30 ◦ C
HVAC system Water flow rate (CMH) 380
Product Hot water fan coil with heat temperature (◦ C) 80
Schedule exchanger Heat exchange fan flow rate (CMH) 1,200,000
Exhaust fan Fan flow rate (CMH) 1,685,400
Worker Num. of workers 1200
Turn on cycle Operation
Light and machines
Heat input(kW) 286.26
Door Opening Opening time factor 0.1

As external conditions are additionally applied in this study, not only information on
the geographic location and material properties of the building, but information on the
heating device operating time, number of occupants, and lighting equipment operating
time according to the production schedule of the assembly factory were reflected in the
BES. In addition, external environmental data, such as climatic conditions (solar radiation,
cloud amount, rainfall, temperature, and humidity) according to the time and season, were
reflected, and the Korea Meteorological Administration data for the Ulsan area were used.
To confirm the internal heat except for the ventilation equipment, the worker’s metabolic
heat was added [19] and the lighting and machine were input according to the calendar
work cycle. The total heat generation by the machine in the factory were considered to be
about 40% of the electricity used, because it was considered to be equivalent to the energy
efficiency rating of a typical electric machine. The calculation time for BES was simulated
from November to February, which is the winter season, in units of one hour, and the
ventilation energy cost and heat loss in each component were predicted in this way.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Temperature and ADPIrev Distribution of the Operating Condition
The temperature distribution inside the large-scale assembly factory under heating
conditions was calculated through numerical analysis. To analyze the numerical results,
the internal space of the factory was divided into seven zones according to the process
and usage, as shown in Figure 6a. As for the zones, the main assembly zone was located
in the center of the large-scale assembly factory. In the main assembly zone, the density
of workers is high, and heating is performed through hot water fan coil systems. As
shown in the figure, the material storage zone is located on the right side of the assembly
zone, and the test zone is located on the left. Repair zones to respond to defects during
assembly are located above and below the test zone. Because these spaces have different
environmental characteristics, such as the amount of heated air supplied, exhaust amount,
distance to the door, and density of workers, the heating results were analyzed based
on the characteristics to establish new heating strategies. In addition, to compare the
numerical temperature distribution and the actual temperature data, 20 data loggers (Testo
175-H1) that can measure the temperature and humidity were installed throughout the
factory and were measured once a minute for 24 h, as shown Figure 6a. The data loggers
were then installed. The measurement result of the data logger was verified to be within
 characteristics to establish new heating strategies. In addition, to compare the numerical
temperature distribution and the actual temperature data, 20 data loggers (Testo 175-H1)
Energies 2021,that can measure the temperature and humidity were installed throughout the factory and
14, 5617 9 of 15
were measured once a minute for 24 h, as shown Figure 6a. The data loggers were then
installed. The measurement result of the data logger was verified to be within 0.5 degrees
of temperature deviation through the temperature measurement result of the K-type ther-
0.5 degrees of temperature deviation through the temperature measurement result of the
mocouple (OMEGA) and the thermometer (Fluke 52-2). Furthermore, the data loggers
K-type thermocouple (OMEGA) and the thermometer (Fluke 52-2). Furthermore, the data
were installed as loggers
shown were
in Figure 6b at
installed as ashown
height
in of 1.5 m
Figure 6bfrom the ground,
at a height of 1.5 mwhich can
from the be
ground, which
assumed to be thecanbreathing linetoofbethe
be assumed theworkers.
breathing line of the workers.

FigureFigure 6. (a) Virtual

6. (a) Virtual suband
sub zone zone and temperature
temperature measurement
measurement points of points of the large-scale
the large-scale assembly
assembly factory; (b)fac-
Installed
tory; (b)
temperature andInstalled
humiditytemperature
data logger atand humidity data
the measurement logger
point 15. at the measurement point 15.

Figure 7 shows the Figure 7 shows thedistribution

temperature temperature distribution
at the 1.5 mat the 1.5 m
plane onplane
the on the in
floor floor
thein the large-
scale assembly factory during heating, which was obtained through numerical analysis.
large-scale assembly factory during heating, which was obtained through numerical anal-
The average temperature of the factory confirmed through the computational analysis
ysis. The average results
temperature of the factory confirmed through the computational analy-
was 15.4 ◦ C, and it was found that the temperature significantly dropped due to the
sis results was 15.4 °C, and of
infiltration it was found
outside that
air. In the temperature
particular, the cold airsignificantly
introduced intodropped due through
the building
to the infiltrationthe of large
outside air. In particular, the cold air introduced into the building
door of the factory was not easily dissipated, and it decreased the temperature
through the largein door of theareas.
the work factory was not easily
In addition, dissipated,
large unheated areasand it decreased
were formed aroundthe tem-
the walls near
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
perature in the work the doors.
areas.InIn
such areas, hot
addition, water
large fan coil systems
unheated areas wereare not installed
formed because
around work10isofnot
the
15

walls near the doors. performed

In suchthere on a hot
areas, regular
waterbasis.
fan coil systems are not installed because
work is not performed there on a regular basis.

Temperatureand
Figure 7. Temperature andEDT
EDTdistribution
distribution
in in a large
a large assembly
assembly factory
factory under
under present
present heating
heating con-
ditions in winter
conditions assembly
in winter factory.
assembly factory.

In the case of the material storage zone, lower temperatures were formed compared
to the main workshop because the installation of furnaces was difficult due to the internal
space problem. As can be seen from Figure 6, the air flow of the entire factory was gener-
ated toward the test line due to forced ventilation. Therefore, the unheated air in the ma-
Energies 2021, 14, 5617 10 of 15

In the case of the material storage zone, lower temperatures were formed compared
to the main workshop because the installation of furnaces was difficult due to the internal
space problem. As can be seen from Figure 6, the air flow of the entire factory was generated
toward the test line due to forced ventilation. Therefore, the unheated air in the material
storage space affected the main assembly line. This caused low temperatures on the right
side of the assembly line, where relatively unheated air was introduced.
The EDT distribution for ADPIrev calculation was visualized for areas that satisfied
−2.2 < EDT < 2. EDT was generally calculated to be −2.2 or less for areas where the
temperature was 8 ◦ C or less. In particular, the ADPIrev of the sub assembly, repair 1, and
material storage zones could not satisfy the 80% threshold, as they were 62%, 71%, and
59%, respectively.
The analysis results were compared with the average values of the temperatures
measured inside the factory, as shown in Figure 8. When the temperature of the entire
factory was examined, the lowest temperature was 7.3 ◦ C, and the highest temperature
was 18 ◦ C. The difference in temperature measurements between points was found to
be smaller in the experimental results than in the analysis results. The analysis results
confirm that the main factor that affects the temperature distribution is the outside air
that penetrated through the doors. However, there was a difference in the infiltration of
outside air between reality and the analysis. Although the analysis was conducted using
the corrected flow velocity by examining the opening and closing time of the doors, the
pattern between the intermittently incoming flow and the continuously supplied flow
caused a difference between reality and the analysis. The temperature measurements
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 ofat
15
each point can represent the average temperature of the factory.

Figure8.8.Experimental
Figure Experimentaland
andnumerical
numericaltemperature
temperaturedata
dataof
oflarge-scale
large-scaleassembly
assemblyfactory.
factory.

4.2.
4.2.Building
BuildingEnergy
EnergySupply
Supplyand
andLosses
Losses
The
The causes of the
causes of thesupply
supplyandandloss
loss
of of heating
heating energy
energy andand the proportions
the proportions of cause
of each each
cause were examined. The amount of natural gas consumed in the large-scale
were examined. The amount of natural gas consumed in the large-scale assembly factory assembly
factory for heating
for heating can be obtained
can be obtained through through the factory
the actual actual factory operation
operation data.5 Table
data. Table 5 lists
lists the nat-
the natural gas consumption for heating for four months. A total of 1,831,223 Nm 3 was
ural gas consumption for heating for four months. A total of 1,831,223 Nm was consumed
3
consumed over four
over four months, andmonths, and
the total thefor
cost total cost for
heating washeating was 1254
1254 million KRW. million
As forKRW. As for
the monthly
the monthly gas consumption, the consumption of the furnaces was larger
gas consumption, the consumption of the furnaces was larger in December and January, in December
and
whenJanuary, when the temperature
the temperature of the entireoffactory
the entire factorydue
dropped dropped
to thedue
lowtooutside
the lowairoutside air
tempera-
temperature.
ture.

Table 5. Energy consumption of the large-scale factory in the winter season.

Usage (Nm3) Cost

Type
’20.11 ’20.12 ’21.1 ’21.2 Total (Mill. KRW)
Furnace 132,108 254,610 443,149 170,071 999,938 685
HWFU 141,556 224,363 284,096 181,270 831,285 569
Total 273,664 478,973 727,245 351,341 1,831,223 1254
Energies 2021, 14, 5617 11 of 15

Table 5. Energy consumption of the large-scale factory in the winter season.

Usage (Nm3 ) Cost

Type
’20.11 ’20.12 ’21.1 ’21.2 Total (Mill. KRW)
Furnace 132,108 254,610 443,149 170,071 999,938 685
HWFU 141,556 224,363 284,096 181,270 831,285 569
Total 273,664 478,973 727,245 351,341 1,831,223 1254

The heat supply and heat loss were predicted through BES based on the amount
of heat supplied to the large-scale assembly factory and the conditions on the thermal
environment of the factory, as shown in Table 6.

Table 6. Heat supply and losses with results of building energy simulations.

Type Value (kW) Rate

Furnace 3775.42 51.88%
Hot Water Fan Coil Unit 2872.73 39.47%
Light 286.26 3.93%
Heat supply
Human 181 2.49%
Solar radiation 162.26 2.23%
Total 7277.67 100.00%
Mechanical ventilation 2583.6 35.50%
Roof 1429.55 19.64%
Opening 1353.51 18.60%
Leak 673.93 9.26%
Heat losses
Ground 668.5 9.19%
Wall 540.66 7.43%
Window 27.92 0.38%
Total 7277.67 100.00%

The analysis results revealed that the amount of heat supplied to the indoor space by
lighting, people, and solar heat, in addition to the amount of heat supplied for heating, did
not significantly affect the temperature distribution, as it was evaluated to be less than 10%
of the total amount of heat. As for heat loss, the amount of heated air discharged through
mechanical ventilation exhibited the highest proportion of 35.5%. The heat loss through the
ceiling, walls, and floor of the factory was calculated to be 36.26%. The heat loss through
the openings, such as doors, was 27.86%. The heat loss through the windows was less than
0.5%, because the windows are very small compared to the overall factory size, and most
of them are double glazed.
Based on the building energy analysis results, improvement methods to reduce the
heat loss of the building can be suggested. The analysis results showed that overall
insulation performance reinforcement is required for the building. In particular, the
proportion of heat loss through the roof showed that the most important part for insulation
performance reinforcement is the roof. However, there are limitations in improving the
insulation performance of this 35-year-old building. It was also found that mechanical
ventilation, which represented the highest proportion of total energy loss, is a factor that
increases the heating cost inside the factory due to energy drain. In this instance, it is
difficult to recover energy from the discharged air because its temperature is not high
and reducing the amount of ventilation is impossible because it may cause the spread of
pollutants inside the workshop. Accordingly, there is a need to design a space that can
reduce the energy loss caused by mechanical ventilation and prevent the inflow of outside
air caused by ventilation.

4.3. Evaluation of Thermal Comfort for Improved Heating Strategies

The building energy simulation results confirmed that the factors with the highest
improvement effect on energy loss are the forced mechanical ventilation and inflow of
 Energies 2021, 14, 5617 12 of 15

outside air (opening and leak). Two strategies for improving heating performance were
applied in this study. Strategy 1: The installation locations of the furnaces were changed
to improve the discharge directions of the heating devices towards the ventilation area.
Strategy 2: the operation method of the automatic door was improved to inhibit the inflow
of outside air. The reason why it was excluded from the heat loss through the roof in the
heating performance improvement strategy establishment is that the only way to reduce
the heat loss of the roof is to reinforce the insulation performance, and it is difficult to apply
this to the already aging target large-scale factory.
As shown in Figure 9, the installation locations and heated air discharge directions
of seven operational furnaces were modified. The non-heated areas distributed in the
upper part of the main assembly zone and sub assembly zone were improved. The seven
furnaces used for the improvement were located in the repair 1 zone, the upper part of the
main assembly zone, and the sub assembly zone. The furnaces were installed in the areas
where their position and direction could be easily adjusted, and significant temperature
drops could occur due to outside air. For better understanding, the installation locations
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 1
and discharge directions of the furnaces were marked with arrows on the temperature
distribution image.

Figure9.9.Heating
Figure Heatingperformance
performance of of furnace
furnace location
location revision
revision andand blowing
blowing direction
direction (a) standard con
(a) standard
dition; (b)
condition; (b)revised
revisedcondition (strategy1).1).
condition (strategy

The average
Figure temperature
10 shows of the factory
the heating by adjusting
performance the installation
improvement locations
results when theandinflow o
discharge directions of the furnaces was calculated to be 16.7 ◦ C, which represents an
outside air into the factory was reduced. When the amount of air introduced was reduce
improvement, and ADPIrev increased by 9% to 79%. In addition, as shown in Figure 9a,
by half through the proper use of double doors and air curtains, the average temperatur
the temperature reduction in the main assembly zone due to air flow in non-heated zones
insideby
caused the factory
outside roseimproved.
air was to 18.4 °C,
Thisand the internal
method temperature
can improve was increased
the draft caused by outside by 3 °C
compared to the reference model. An increase in average temperature
air while increasing the temperature of the entire factory. In particular, the sub assembly was observe
throughout
zone exhibitedthe
ansub zone,temperature
average and an increase in the average
improvement effect of ◦
temperature
3.6 C throughof the material stor
heating
age zone andand
improvement, a reduction
ADPI rose in the momentum
to 76%. Modifying the oflocations
outside and
air led to an directions
discharge increase inof the tem
the furnaces was effective in solving the non-heated area formed in the upper part
perature of the main assembly line located in the center of the factory. The ADPIrev of th of the
main assembly
entire factoryzone.
was 79%, which is close to the 80% comfort threshold. However, low tem
Figure 10 shows the heating performance improvement results when the inflow of
peratures were still predicted in the large non-heated area of the sub assembly line, an
outside air into the factory was reduced. When the amount of air introduced was reduced
ADPI was also found to be at a similar level.
by half through the proper use of double doors and air curtains, the average temperature
inside the factory rose to 18.4 ◦ C, and the internal temperature was increased by 3 ◦ C,
 dition; (b) revised condition (strategy 1).

Figure 10 shows the heating performance improvement results when the inflow o
outside air into the factory was reduced. When the amount of air introduced was reduced
Energies 2021, 14, 5617 13 of 15
by half through the proper use of double doors and air curtains, the average temperatur
inside the factory rose to 18.4 °C, and the internal temperature was increased by 3 °C
compared to the reference model. An increase in average temperature was observed
compared
throughout to the
the sub
reference
zone,model.
and an An increase
increase in average
in the averagetemperature
temperature wasof observed
the material stor
throughout the sub zone, and an increase in the average temperature
age zone and a reduction in the momentum of outside air led to an increase of the materialin the tem
storage zone and a reduction in the momentum of outside air led to an increase in the
perature of the main assembly line located in the center of the factory. The ADPIrev of th
temperature of the main assembly line located in the center of the factory. The ADPIrev
entire factory was 79%, which is close to the 80% comfort threshold. However, low tem
of the entire factory was 79%, which is close to the 80% comfort threshold. However, low
peratures were
temperatures werestill
still predicted
predicted ininthe
the large
large non-heated
non-heated area area
of theof the
sub sub assembly
assembly line, andline, and
ADPI was also found to be at a similar
ADPI was also found to be at a similar level. level.

Figure10.
Figure 10.Heating
Heating performance
performance on revised
on the the revised condition
condition (strategy
(strategy 2) ofrates
2) of inflow inflow rates ofair.
of outside outside air

Table
Table7 summarizes
7 summarizes the the
average temperature
average and ADPI
temperature andrev of each
ADPI sub zone for three
rev of each sub zone for thre
cases (present, strategy 1, and strategy 2). Based on the average temperature and ADPI,
cases (present, strategy 1, and strategy 2). Based on the average temperature and ADPI, i
it was confirmed that more than 80% can be secured for the ADPIrev of the entire factory
was
by confirmed
improving that more
heating in the than 80% can zone,
sub assembly be secured for the ADPI
while maintaining rev of the entire factory b
the current heating
capacity, and the inflow of outside air is a factor that interferes with anthe
improving heating in the sub assembly zone, while maintaining current
increase heating ca
in the
pacity, comfort
thermal and theinside
inflow offactory.
the outside air is a factor that interferes with an increase in the ther
mal comfort inside the factory.
Table 7. Average temperature and ADPI at the sub zone.

Temperature ADPIrev
Sub Zone
Present Strategy 1 Strategy 2 Present Strategy 1 Strategy 2
Main assembly 17.4 17.1 21.7 91% 95% 96%
Sub assembly 10.3 13.9 11.4 62% 76% 63%
Test 19.6 20.1 21.0 89% 92% 90%
Repair 1 14.5 15.1 17.8 71% 67% 79%
Repair 2 12.8 12.2 16.1 84% 82% 88%
Material 9.9 9.7 14.2 59% 52% 78%

5. Conclusions
In this study, the heating performance of a large-scale assembly factory was inves-
tigated. The heating performance was evaluated by performing CFD and BES. These
numerical results show the heating performance by the distribution of temperature and
thermal comfort (EDT) inside the factory and the causes of energy loss in a large-scale
factory. Furthermore, the numerical results of the air temperature are compared with exper-
imental data. The studies confirm that the average air temperature of large-scale factories
was calculated to be 15.4 ◦ C, and the ADPI was 70%. Moreover, the BES results show that
the energy losses due to forced ventilation and the inflow of outside air contributed 35.5%
and 27.8%, respectively. The heat loss due to the insulation performance of the building
mainly occurred in the ceiling, accounting for 19.6% of the total heat loss.
Therefore, we suggest two strategies to improve heating performances. First, the
location and discharge direction of the heating facilities were adjusted so that the heating
performance was uniform. Second, measures to block outside air such as double doors and
air curtains were applied. The issue of thermal insulation performance was excluded from
Energies 2021, 14, 5617 14 of 15

the discussion. The results show that the average temperature and thermal comfort inside
the factory when applying these strategies were increased at the same energy consumption.
If the inflow of outside air is reduced by 50%, the average temperature inside the factory can
rise by 3 ◦ C, thereby securing an ADPIrev of up to 79%. This suggests that forced ventilation
and outside air inflow management are important for improving heating performance in a
large-scale factory.
Based on these results, it was concluded that additional studies and methodologies
are needed, from a large-scale factory design to energy flow in buildings where heating is
considered. In particular, it was found that there is a need for co-simulation studies between
CFD and BES that can predict the internal temperature distribution considered with energy
loss due to outside air. This approach could also suggest efficient HVAC strategies and
energy efficiency improvement of the building before the factory construction.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.K., H.L., J.P. and G.R.; methodology, D.K., H.L. and
G.R.; software, D.K., J.M. and J.P.; validation, D.K. and H.L.; formal analysis, D.K.; investigation, D.K.
and J.M.; data curation, D.K.; writing—original draft preparation, D.K. and H.L.; writing—review
and editing, H.L., J.M. and G.R.; supervision, G.R.; project administration, G.R. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The study did not report any data.
Acknowledgments: Thank you to everyone who has cooperated with the factory investigation.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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