Chapter II. Resultants of Force Systems é i 2-1. Introduction The effect of a system of forces on a body is usually expressed in terms of a resultant. The value of this resultant determines the motion of the body. As we shall see, if the resultant is zero, the body will be in equilibrium and will not change its original state of motion. This is the province of statics. If the resultant of a force system is not zero, the body will have a varying state of motion, thereby creating a problem in dynamics. In this chapter we shall consider the technique for determining the resultant effect of various types of coplanar force systems. When these coplanar types are mastered, it is only a simple step to the more general case of non- coplanar or space systems of forces which is discussed in Chapt VI. 2-2. Forces and Components Consider the example of a car driven due east for 4 miles, then turned sharply and driven due north for 3 miles. What resultant distance has the car covered? The answer can be obtained by drawing the vectors of the travel as in Fig. 2-1a, from which the resultant distance is 5 miles. 4 miles ® Fig. 2-1, — Components. In the illustration just cited, the 4-mile and 3-mile distances may be called the components (meaning parts) of the resultant. Since these com- ponents were at right angles to each other, their resultant was easily computed by means of the Pythagorean theorem. If the car travels the 3 miles in a northeasterly direction, the resultant distance cannot be 50 readily computed, although the resultant can be scaled from the vector addition shown in Fig. 2-1b. In this case, the 4-mile and 3-mile distancesArt, 2-2] Forces and Components 15 are also components of the resultant distance although not mutually Perpendicular. A resultant may be resolved into any pair of components, but it is generally most convenient to use rectangular components. In engineering, forees are not generally at right angles. While the resultant of such forces may be found graphically, it is not always con- venient to do so. It is frequently desirable to resolve each force into a pair of right-angle components for analytical calculation. Consider Fig. 2-2 in which force F acts upon the given body. The effect of the force is to move the body rightward and upward. Choosing these directions as the positive directions of perpendicular X and Y reference axes, we project the force F upon them to obtain the perpendicular com- ponents F, and F,. The relations between these components and F is de- termined by the basic definitions of sine and cosine of the angle 8. between F and the X axis, i.e., sin 0. = a and cos 6, = & which are usually rewritten in the following form: (2-1) The components F, and F, are considered pusitive if they act in the positive directions of the X and Y axes, and negative if directed in the negative sense of the reference axes. ‘The choice of the X and Y axes is arbitrary; they may be in any convenient position; the rela- ane tions given above are indepen- ‘ dént of the orientation of the X axis. If desired, the angle between F and the ¥ axis, dex ignated as @,, may also be used; whence the components are then given by F.=F sin 0, and F, = F cos 6, It is obvious that the mag- nitude, inclination, and direction i of a force ean be derived when 7» ~ Reetangular components, its rectangular components are known. For example, assuming values of F, and F, to be known, we obtain from Fig. 2-2 the following equations: F=V(F.)? + (Fy)? Re (2-2) F ‘The direction of F is determined by the signs of its components; this is, clearly explained in the table which follows. Free vector of E Free vector of F tan16 Resuvrants oF Force SYSTEMS [Chap. IT q Direction of F Sign of pect to Diagram Re + Up to right Ba sa Down to right is in Up to left, a ee Down to leftArt. 2-2} Forees and Componente 7 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS 201. A force of 200 Ib is directed as shown in Fig. 2-3. Determine the X und ¥ components of the force. oy Solution: By projecting the force upon 1 the axes, we discover that the sign of F, is minus and of F, positive. Applying Eq. (2-1), we obtain [Fe = Feos6,] Fz = —200 cos 30° = 200 X 0.866 FP, = 173.2 1b Ans. Ff, = Fsin@] Fy = 2008in 30° = 200 X 0.5 F, = +100lb Ans. Fig. 2-3. 202. Determine the components of the 300-Ib force directed down to the right at a slope of 2 to 3 as shown in Fig. 2-4a. Solution: The major difference between this problem and the preceding one is that the direction of the force is defined by its slope instead of its angle. We can compute 6, from its tangent and then substitute its sine and cosine functions into F=3001b ®) Fra. 2-4, Eq. (2-1), but it is simpler and more direct to compute the hypotenuse of the slope le as \/(2)? + (8) = +/13 = 3.61 and then apply the definitions of sine and cosine as follows: 3 300 sy = 249 Ib 2 [Fy = F sin 6.) Fy = — 300 X 55; = —166 1b An even better procedure is to note the similarity between the slope triangle and the force triangle in Fig. 2-4b whose corresponding sides re proportional to each other. This gives {F. = F cos 6.)18 Resvurants or Force SysTems (Chap. II whence : F.=29lb and F, = —166lb 208. The components of a certain force are defined by Fz = 300 lb and F, = —200 Ib. Determine the magnitude, inclination with the X axis, and pointing of the force. Solution: The magnitude of the force is found by applying the first of Eq. (2-2). [r -vErFoy] F=/@OFF OW =F = 3011 Ans. ‘The inclination with the X axis is determined by the second part of Eq. (2-2). [ten 6. = z| tan 0 = 208 = 0.067 6, = 33.77 Ans. Note particularly that by neglecting the given signs of the components the angle found is the acute angle between the force and the X axis. The direction of the \y force is found by sketching a tip-to-tail summation of the components as shown in Fig. 2-5, or by visualizing it mentally. Note that the minus sign of F, indicates it to be directed downward. Hence the force F points down to the right. ‘This technique of determining a force eliminates the necessity of remembering certain arbitrary conventions. For ex- ample, a mathematical convention de- ele fines an angle as always measured in a ‘ie counterclockwise sense from the X axis. Accordingly in the given example, 0, might be defined as —33.7° or as +326. PROBLEMS 204. Determine the X and Y components of each of the forces shown in Fig. P-204. Ans. T, = —307 lb; T, = —257 1b ¥ Fe390Ib |¥ T=722lb P=2001bArt. 2-3] Resultant of Three or More Concurrent Forces 19 206. Compute the X and Y components of each of the forces shown in Fig. » P-205. Ans. T, = —400 lb; T, = +600 lb 206. The triangular block shown in Fig. P-206 is subjected to the loads P = 1600 lb and F = 600 tb. If AB = 8 in. and BC = 6 in., resolve each load into com- ponents normal and tangential to AC. Ans. Py = 1280 Ib \,; Pe = 960 lb 7; F, = 360 Ib \,; Fe = 480 Ib 207. Rework Prob. 206 if @ = 60°. 208. ‘The horizontal and vertical components of several forces are: (a) Px = —200 Ib and P, = 100 Ib; (b) Fx = 300 Ib and F, = —200 tb; (c) Ta = —50 Ib and 7's = —90 Ib. Deter- mine each force. Ans. (a) P = 224 lb up to the left at 0 = 26.6° 209. Repeat Prob. 208 if (a) Ps = 150 Ib and Py 200 tb; (b) F, = —240 Ib and F, = 360 pee epee ane Ea 1b; (c) T, = —500 Ib and T, = —300 Ib. Ans. (c) T = 583 Ib down to the left at , = 31° 210. In Fig, P-210, the X component of the force P is 140 Ib to the left. De- termine P and, its ¥ component. eee Fro. P-210. Fie, P-211, 211. The body on the 30° incline in Fig. P-211 is acted upon by a force P in- clined at 20° with the horizontal. If P is resolved into components parallel and perpendicular to the incline and the value of the parallel component is 400 Ib, com- pute the value of the perpendicular component and that of P. 2-8, Resultant of Three or More Concurrent Forces ‘The determination of the resultant of three or more concurrent forces that are not collinear requires determining the sum of three or more vectors. ‘There are two ways of accomplishing the addition of three or more vectors: graphically and analytically. Graphically. Two vectors can be added to give a resultant; this resultant in turn can be added to a third vector, ete., until all the vectors have been added together to give an overall resultant. These vectors can be added in any order.20 Resvwtants or Force Systems {Chap. II Consider the system of three concurrent forces shown in Fig. 2-6. If the parallelogram method of vector addition is used, forees F and P may be combined to give a resultant R; as shown in Fig. 2-6b. Since Ry is eqyiva- Fic, 2-6. — Resultant determned by parallelogram law. lent to and replaces F and P, the original system of three forces now consists of only two: 2, and Q. These may also be combined by the parallelogram method to give the final resultant R. If the original system consists of more than three forces, this same technique can be extended to include the addi- tional forces. ‘The same result can be more readily obtained by the use of free vectors and the application of the triangle law. ve Thus in Fig. 2-7, by using the free vec- tor P, the resultant of F and P (i.e., R)) is easily obtained. To this result- ant the free vector Q is added to give the final resultant R. Observe that R, need not be drawn at all, the total re- sultant of the system being obtained by joining the tail of the first vector (F) with the tip of the last vector (Q). The same result would be obtained if the Pic, 2-7,— Resultant determined by order of addition had been P, F, and Q. triangle law. In fact, any convenient order of tip- to-tail vector addition may be used. Analytically.. The vectors can be resolved into components that coin with wbitrarily chosen axes. The components of each vector with respect to these axes can be added algebraically, and the resuiting additions will be the components of the overall resultant vector.Art. 2-3] Resultant of Three or More Concurrent Forces 21 Figure 2-7 can be redrawn as in Fig. 2-8 to show the X and Y components of each force by projection upon the reference axes. It is apparent that Rz, the X component of R, is equivalent to the algebraic sum of the X com- ponents cf F, P, and Q; also that Ry is equivalent to the algebraic sum of Fia. 2-8. — Rectangular components of resultant. the ¥ components of F, P, and Q. Denoting such algebraic summations of the components of the forces by 2X and ZY respectively, we have - R, = EX R, = ZY. Having thereby computed the components of the resultant R, we can now determine its magnitude and inclination by using the method discussed in Art. 2-2. Doing this transforms Eq. (2-2) into R= V@XPF GPP @3) tan 0. = EY (4) ‘The pointing of R is determined by the signs of its rectangular components 2X and ZY as described in the table on page 16. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 212. Determine completely the resultant of the concurrent force system shown in Fig. 2-9. ‘Solution: We first determine the components of the resultant from the algebraic summations of the components of the given forces. Knowing the rectangular components of the resultant, we can easily find R.22 Resvutanrs or Force Systems [Chap. II Since the X component of a force F is given by F cos. and the ¥ component by F sin 62, we obtain [R, =2X] EX = 200 cos 30° + 100 cos 45° — 400 cos 0° — 300 cos 60°, = 173.2 + 70.7 — 400 — 150 2X = —306.1 lb [Ry =ZY] ZY = 200 sin 30° + 300 sin 60° — 50 sin 90° — 100 sin 45° = 100 + 259.8 — 50 — 70.7 ZY = +239.1 lb ‘The magnitude and inclination of R Ke are now found from [ze - vexr+ery] = V 06.1) + 239.1) R= 388lb Ans. 2001b follows that 0. obtained from a mental tip-to-tail addition of =X and ZY. Since SX is minus Gie., directed left) and ZY is positive (i.e., directed up), & points up to the left at an angle of 38° with the X axis. If desired, a check may be obtained graphically by plotting the given forces to scale in tip-to-tail fashion. PROBLEMS 213. Determine the resultant of the concurrent forces shown in Fig. P-213. Ans. R = 486 lb up to the left at 0 = 70.5° ie 40001b2 Rxsuttants or Force Systems {Chap. II 361 1b Fic. P-219. 220. The resultant of a certain system of forces has the X and Y components shown in Fig. P-220. Determine the components of this resultant with respect to N and T axes rotated 30° counterclockwise relative to the X and Y axes. Ans. Rn = 500 tb; Re = 266 Ib 221. The resultant of the coneur- rent forces shown in Fig. P-221 is 300 Ib pointing up along the Y axis. Com- pute the values of F and 0 required to give this resultant. ‘Ans. F = 512 tb up to the right at 0, = 55.2° 222. Repeat Prob. 221 if the result- | 240 Ib * Fie. P-29t and P-292, ant is 400 Ib down to the right at 60° with the X axis. 223. The block shown in Fig. P-223 is W=200Ib acted upon by its weight W = 200 Ib, a horizontal force Q = 600 Ib, and the pressure P exerted by the inclined plane. ‘The result- ant R of these forces is up and parallel to the incline thereby sliding the block up it. De- termine P and R. Hint: Take one axis parallel to the incline. Ans. R = 293 lb 224. Two horses on opposite banks of a canal pull a barge moving parallel to the banks by means of two horizontal ropes. The tensions in these ropes are 200, Ib and 240 Ib while the angle between them is 60°. Find the resultant pull on the borge and the angle between each of the ropes and the sides of the canal. Ans. R = 382 lb; @ = 33°; = 27° 2-4. Moment of a Force The moment of a force about an axis or line is the measure of its ability to produce turning or twisting about the axis. The magnitude of theArt. 2-4) Moment of a force 25 moment of a force about an axis which is perpendicular to a plane con- taining the line of action of the force is defined as the product of the foree and the perpendicular distance from the axis to the line of action of the force. For example, in Fig. 2-10, the moment of the horizontal force F Ps about the vertical axis Y equals F times dor Fd. The distance d is frequently called the moment arm of the force. In our present discussion of coplanar forces, the paper represents their plane of action. Consequently the axis of mo- ments, which is perpendicular to .the plane of the forces, appears as a point eommonly called the center of moments. ' ‘Then the moment arm of the force be- ly comes the perpendicular distance from this moment center O to the line of ac- tion of the force. It should always be remembered, however, that the Fic. 2-10. — Moment of a force. iB center of moments is really the intersec- eden tion of the axis of moments with the plane t of the forces. 1 Another method of defining the mo- dal ment of a force is to say that the moment | is equal to twice the area of the triangle ES formed by joining the center of moments ° with the ends of the force, as in Fig. 2-11.! Fic. 2-11. — Moment equals twice Take F as the base of the shaded triangle; a ae the altitude, measured from the moment center O, is equal to the moment arm d. The area of the shaded triangle is the product of oneshalf the base mul- tiplied by the altitude; ie., the area equals Fd. Obviously Fd, which is the moment of F about 0, is twice this area. This concept of the moment of a force can be used to demonstrate the principle of transmissibility, namely, that the external effect of a force is independent of where it is applied along Fic. 2-12, —The moments of F, Fi, and its line of action. Thus in Fig. 2-12, Fi abdut O,are all equal. ‘This is a graphic interpretation of the “‘cross-product” used in vector analysis. The product 47 = Px ¢ (the X is read as cross) is there defined as equal to the area of the parallelogram formed on the sides of the vectors; in this instance F and d. The triangle mentioned above is one-half of this parallelogram.26 Resvtrants or Force Systems [Chap. 1 the rotational effect of force F upon a body free to rotate about its axle O is the moment Fd which equals twice the area of the shaded triangle. How- ever, an equal force F}, applied along the action line of F but actingat the right edge of the body, produces the same turning effect about the axle O and so does the equal foree F; acting as shown on the left edge. The mo- ments of these three applications of the same force are equal inasmuch as the areas of the triangles joining the ends of F; and Fs with O are each equal to the area of the shaded triangle. Units and Signs. Because a moment is the product of a force and a distance, the unit of moment is correspondingly the product of the dimen- sional units of force and distance. Expressing force in pounds and distance in feet, the unit of moment is pound-feet (Ib-ft).2_ With other dimensional units, moments are expressed differently, for instance as pound-inches (b-in.), gram-centimeters (gram-em), ton-fect (ton-ft), ete. Since a force can cause rotation about an axis in either of two directions, a convention is necessary to describe the direction of rotation. Some engineers take counterclockwise tendency to rotate as the positive sense of moment and others consider clockwise moment effects as positive. Both are correct; they are merely selecting the convention that best suits their purpose. In this book, we shall assume to be positive whichever direction (clockwise or counterclockwise) that happens to be more con- venient. We must be careful, however, to use only one convention through- out any particular problem: To avoid confusion, it will be helpful to indicate the positive sense of moments in a particular case by a curved arrow; thus if moments about a center A are considered positive clock- wise, the moment sum may be indicated by @ 2M. The curved arrow to indicate positive moment will be used whenever confusion about signs might arise. 2-5. The Principle of Moments. Varignon’s Theorem It is almost self-evident that the moment of a force is equivalent to the sum of the moments of its components, This statement is known as Vari- gnon’s theorem and is demonstrated as follows: Let the resultant R of two concurrent forces P and F be determined by the parallelogram law as in Fig. 2-13. With any point O as a moment center, it is required to show that the roment of R is equal to the sum of the moments of P and F. Join the ends of the force vectors to the moment center to form the triangles oab, oac, and oad. The preceding article showed that the moment * It makes no difference whether the unit of force or the unit of length is stated first: it would be equally correct to use foot-pounds (ft-lb) as the unit of, moment If desifedArt. 2-5] The Principle of Moments. Varignon’s Theorem 27 of a force is equal to twice the area of the triangle formed by joining the ends of the force vector with the moment center. Hence the theorem is proved if we can show that the srea of Aoad equals the area of Aoab plus the area of Aoac. ' Fig, 2-13. — Varignon’s theorem. ‘These triangles all have the common base oa; their altitudes are laid off on line of drawn perpendicular to line oa. We now have Area of Aoad = 30a X of Since cd is equal and parallel to ab, its projection ef is equal to og whence Area of Aoab = 40a X og = 40a X ef Also, Area of Aoac = 40a X oe Moreover, of —0c tof ‘whence by multiplying by 4 0a we obtain 40a X of = 40a X 0c + ha X of or Area Aoad = Area Aoac + Area Aoab which proves the theorem. If R were the resultant of more than two forces, the theorem could be applied to the resultant R, of two of the forces, whence the procedure is applicable to R; and the next force, ete. Note carefully that the action line of the resultant and its components must intersect at a common point. Thus although we have proved that28 Resuttants oF Force Systems [Chap. IT the moment of R is equal to the moment sum of P and F, the principle of moments would not apply to the moment sum of F and the free vector cd of P because, even though their vector tip-to-tail sum is R, the areas of 4Aaco plus Acdo is obviously not equal to that of Aado. Applications. In some cases it is more convenient to determine the moment of a force from the sum of the moments of its components rather than from the force itself. For example, in Fig. 2-14 suppose a force F, making an angle @ with the X axis, passes through a point A having the /" ae Fy F. ee z 2 es B ne E, VO ae dates pp sca Fic. 2-14. — Applications of the principle of moments. coordinates (z,y). In this case it is inconvenient to calculate the moment arm d. By resolving the force into its components F, and Fy at A, the mo- ment arm of F, about 0 is the coordinate distance y, and the moment arm of F, about O is the coordinate distance z. Then the moment of F is ex- pressed by Mo =F-d=Fi-y— Fy (@) from which the value of the moment arm d may be computed if desired. The intercepts of the line of action of F with the X and Y axes may also be computed from the principle of moments. Replacing F by its com- ponents at B and at C in Fig. 2-14, we have €Mo = eet ® vee €Mo = Fy- iz Note that F, at B and F, at C both have zero moment about O since they both pass through O and therefore have zero moment arms. Having al- ready determined the moment of F by means of Eq. (a), the intercepts %, and i, are now readily computed from Eq. (6).| Art. 2-5] The Principie of Moments. Varignon's Theorem 29 Another example is shown in Fig. 2-15. Suppose it is desired to find the [moment about point A of the force P acting on the roof truss. At a point B (on the action line of P, resolve the force into its components P. and P,. Fia, 2-15. — Moment of a force in terms of its components. Applying the principle that the moment of a force is equal to the moment ‘sum of its components, we have CMs =P-d = Py: AB (ce) Note that P, intersects the moment center A and therefore has no moment arm. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 225. In Fig. 2-16, a force F passing through C causes a clockwise moment of 120 ft-lb about A and a clockwise mo- ment of 70 ft-lb about B. Deter- mine the force and its intercept i. Solution: By resolving the force into its components at C, we observe that since F, passes through A, the moment of F about A is due only to F,, which must act leftwards as shown in order to ereate clockwise moment about A, The magnitude of F, therefore is {©=M, = F.-y] 120 = F, (2) F, = 60 Ib left Fia. 2-16. Considering again the components at C, we see that with respect to B, F, causes a counterclockwise moment, and hence F, must uct upwards in order to ereate the specified clockwise moment of 70 ft-lb about B. By applying the principle of moments, the value of Fy is [CMe = Fy x — F.-y\ 70 = F, (5) (60)(3) F, = 50\b up30 Resuvrants or Force Systems [Chap. 11 Now that the components of F are known, we apply Eq. (2-2) to obtain [e-voyror)] F-VOOrF OF FF = 782 up td the lett iy 50 [tno = Fe. tan 0, = 6 0, = 39.8° To determine the z intercept of F, at D where F crosses the X axis, resolve F into its components. Since F; at D causes zero moment about B, the specified clockwi moment about B can be created only by placing F, to the left of Basshown. Then we obtain [@Mp = F,- 2] 70 = 50¢ e=14ft whence the x intercept from Ois i, = 5 —e = 5 —14=3.6ft Ans. Query: How can i, be found directly from the moment of F about O? ‘This procedure illustrates the application of Varignon’s theorem, but it would be simpler in this instance to determine 4, directly, using the slope of the action line of F as specified by its components. Doing this yields ey 3 _ 50 3 - 60 (E-# a7 or t= 3X Fh 86ft Ans. PROBLEMS 226. In Fig. P-226 assuming clockwise moments as positive, compute the mo- ment of force F = 450 Ib and of force P = 361 lb about points A, B, C, and D. Ans. For F: Mp = 810 ft-lb; for P: Mc = mee —1200 ft-lb 227. Two forces P and Q pass through a point A which is 4 ft to the right of and 3 ft T above a moment center 0. Force P is 200 Ib directed up to the right at 30° with the hori- Fe zontal and force Q is 100 lb directed up to the left at 60° with the horizontal. Deter- mine the moment of the resultant of these two forces with respect to 0. re RG we Pp 4 228. Without computing the magnitude Dhisl B of the resultant, determine where the resultant of the forces shown in Fig. P-228 intersects the X and Y axes. 229. In Fig. P-229, find the y coordinate of point A so that the 361-Ib force will have a clockwise moment of 400 ft-lb about O. Also determine the X and Y inter- cepts of the action line of the force. Ans. ya = 2.67 ft; 4, = 1.33 ft above O; ¢, = 2 ft left of O, Fra. P-226.Art. 2-6] 31 ¥ | 5” 5” g 361 1b Fro. P-228. Fro. P-229, 230. For the truss shown in Fig. P-230, compute the perpendicular distance from E and from @ to the line BD. Hint: Imagine a force F directed along BD and compute its moment in terms of its components about E and about G. Then equate these results to the definition of moment M = Fd to compute the required per- pendicular distances. 231. A force P passing through points A and B in Fig. P-231 has a clockwise moment of 300 ft-lb about 0. Compute the fy value of P. d | 232. In Fig. P-231, the moment of a certain 4 force F is 180 ft-lb clockwise about O and 90 ft- Ib counterclockwise about B. If ite moment 3° about A is zero, determine the force. Bi ‘Ans. F = 75\b down to the right at 0. = 36.9° —@]—- gr 7 233. In Fig. P-231, a force P intersects the PE bra et Ate to therightol 0.) ifite manent fe Peet See nod oa, ‘about A is 170 ft-lb counterclockwise and its moment about B is 40 ft-lb clock- wise, determine its y intercept. 2-6. Resultant of Parallel Forces A parallel force system is one in which the action lines of all the forces are parallel. The resultant of such a system is determined when it is known in magnitude, direction and pomtion. One of the outstanding differences32 Resuttants oF Force Systems (Chap. II between a concurrent and a parallel force system is that in the former the position of the resultant is known by inspection whereas in the latter it is not. , For example, consider the wheels shown in. Fig. 2-17. In Fig. 2-17a the resultant force acts through the axis of rotation; the wheel does not rotate. me fi wa @ (b) Fro, 2-17. — Rotational effect of parallel forces. In Fig. 2-17b the same forces applied to the rim of the wheel cause rotation. The resultant of the parallel forces in Fig. 2-17b must be so located as to produce the equivalent moment effect of the system; the position of the resultant must be determined to produce this effect. At this point wo shall restrict ourselves to the analytical determination of the resultant of a parallel force sys- tem; ina later chapter we shall consider graphic methods of solution for the present case as well as for others. Consider the system of parallel for- ces P, Q, and S shown in Fig. 2-18. Select reference axes as shown, with the Y axis parallel to the forces so that none of the forces have an X compo- nent and the Y component of cach force is its own magnitude. Conse- quently, 2X = 0 and ZY = ZF where =F is the algebraic summation of the forces. Using the methods of Art. 2-8, we have 8 = V(X)? + ZY} which reduces to R==F (2-6) Fic. 2-18. — Resultant of parallel forces.