Chapter IV. Analysis of Structures ieee ama 4-1. Introduction ‘The analysis of a structure is the process by which we determine how the loads applied to a structure are distributed throughout the structure. Al- though there are many kinds of structures, we limit ourselves here to pin- connected types, ic., those that consist of assemblages of bars fastened together by smooth bolts. Our purpose is to determine the forces acting in the bars and upon the pins or hinges of the structure. In subsequent courses we shall learn how to determine the dimensions of the various parts of a structure so they can safely resist these forces. ‘Two types of structures will be studied — pin-connected trusses and pin- connected frames. The essential difference between these types is that in trusses, the internal force in a bar is directed along the axis of the bar, whereas in frames, the members are. subjected to bending action. Occa- sionally a structure is composed of members some of which are subjected to axial forces while others are subjected to bending action; these are also called frames. After we have learned how these types of structures are constructed, we shall see that the internal forces holding their various mem- bers in equilibrium create concurrent or non-concurrent systems af forces in cquilibrium, Consequently a force analysis of a structure consists of applying the conditions of equilibrium studied in the preceding chapter to determine the internal forces that act in or upon its various members. 4-2. Construction of Simple Trusses ‘A truss is a structure composed of members fastened together in such way as to resist change in shape; it is a rigid structure." The purpose of « truss is to support a larger load or span a greater distance than any indi- vidual member from which the truss may be built. To make a structure rigid, its members must be fastened together in such a way us to prevent \The term rigid is used in the sense of having no deformation. Actual members arc, of course, subject to elastic deformation which ean be neglected if small compared with the dimensions of the truss, There are, however, some types of trusses in which the ‘leformations must be taken into account; they must be solved by considering the elastic {eformation of themembers themselves. ‘These types are beyond the scope of thi. book: for their analysis, the student is referred to Structural Theory by Sutherland and Bowman, ‘or Theory of Structures by Timoshenko and Young. 82Art. 4-2) Construction cf Simple Trusses 83 any movement between them. A pin-connected structure meeting this condition is shown in Fig. 4-1. This structure is composed of three bars. ‘A pin-connected structure composed of four bars arranged as shown in Fig. 4-2 is not inherently rigid; it will collapse as indicated under the action of the applied forces. B Jos Fia. 4-1. — Rigid frame. Fig, 4-2. — Non-rigid frame. In the construction of trusses, the basic design is three bars arranged to form a triangle. To this base triangle, ABC in Fig. 4-3, two more bars may be added to locate a joint D which is rigid relative to the other joints. Since A and D are now fixed relative to each other, two more bars may be ided at these joints to fasten together at B, after which two additional ars determine,F. Thus by continuing to add bars at joints rigid to one nother, additional joints can be determined and a truss consisting of many embers may be constructed. Trusses built up in this manner are known s simple trusses. B D E A Fig. 4-3. — Formation of a simple truss. ‘russes are usually supported by anchoring one joint to the foundation but this hinge, additional support is necessary. This is supplied by’ nting another joint, say A, on rollers in such a way as to prevent that tion. Then the truss is completely constrained against any movement. ssumplions in Simple Trusses. ‘The members of a truss are joined to- x by means of pins at their ends (actually large bolts known as pins h act as pivots) or by riveting or welding them to a common plate4 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES [Chap. IV known as a gusset plate. If due care is taken to assemble the bars so that, the centerlines of the members intersect in a common point at each joint, the forces in the members may be calculated as if they were pin-connected, even though their ends are actually riveted or welded to a gusset plate. ‘Trusses are so constructed that all applied loads act at the ends of the members. This construction is illustrated in Fig. 4-4 for a simple bridge. Fig. 4-4, — Simple bridge. Loads are carried by the flooring which is supported by stringers. The stringers in turn are supported by crossbeams which are fastened to the joints. The net effect is that all loads are applied at the joints of the truss. Further, it is usually assumed that the weight of the truss members is negligible in comparison with the applied loads. In case the weight is not negligible, calculations. are made on the assumption that the weight of each member is divided equally into two forces which act vertically downward on the end pins of the member. Since the space position of a truss member is fixed by the rigid construc- tion of the truss and the loads are applied only at the joints, a free-body diagram of a typical member would show it acted upon by only two equal, oppositely directed forces exerted by the pins at its ends. These forces must be axially directed along the member; otherwise we could not satisfy ‘Axiom 2 (see p. 5) that two forces are in equilibrium only when equal in magnitude, opposite in direction, and collinear in action. Such members held in equilibrium by only two forces are called two-force members. The {act that the internal force in a two-force member is axial is important be- cause it determines the action line of the force although its magnitude ms y be unknown. Review now the discussion concerning rod AB in Fig. 3-2. ‘on p. 52,| Members which are stretched are said to be in tension, while those that shortened are said to be in compression. In a typical truss, Fig. 45a, the member CE were in tension, isolating it from the truss would give the ree-body diagram shown in part (b), and its effect on the joints of the truss yould appear as forces T which pull away from these joints. Another mber, BD, assumed to be in compression would be isolated as shown in (©) Compression B (©) Original truss (b) Teasion 4-5. —A tensile member exerts from its end joints while » compreesi meml rte pulle sway from its end joints while a compression free-body diagram of part (c) while its effect on the joints of the truss Id be represented by. forces © which push toward the joints. From diagrams, we deduce the following rule: A member in tension causes ces which pull away from its end joints whereas a member in compres- n causes forces which push toward its end joints. Method of Joints assumption that all members of a truss are two-force members es ee a ie she’ frex boty 'dingeam ofsantetd a eae oa Tre! in equilibrium. Since only two independent equation _ ‘bum e written for a concurrent system, we must with see ae two members. The unknown forces in these mem- are determined by using any of the methods previously discussed in . 3-3 and 3-4. Ona thers ange ote alee their effects on cent joints are known, and we continue solving the concurrent force tems acting at successive joints until the unknown forces in all members e been found. At no time should there be more than two unknown tees at a joint. : The method of joints may be summarized in the following steps; thes: Il then be applied to an illustrative problem. 1. Choose a pin (i.e., joint) on which no more than two members act6 Axairere oF Srxucrones Chap. IV Vhen the force in each member has been determined, it is indicated on the russ diagram by arrows at each end of the member. ‘These arrows act in he direction appropriate to the force, i.e., toward the pin for com] i and away from it for tension. When the force in a member is determined ind appropriate arrows are marked on the original truss diagram, the mem: ter is called a marked member. 2. Draw the free-body diagram of the pin having only two unmarked embers, assuming the forces in the unmarked members to be either ten- fon or compression. Solve the resulting equilibrium problem of concurrent ‘orces for the unknown forces. If a negative value is obtained for any ee result will be correct in magnitude, but opposite in action to that 3. After determining the forces at a pin, mark the original truss diagram with appropriate arrows at each end of the member whose force you have found. Remember that the arrows act away from the pins for tension and toward them for compression. ‘4. From the original truss diagram, select the next pin at which there are only two unmarked members. Draw a new free-body diagram and de- termine the forces. Continue this procedure until you have marked all the members, thereby indicating that the internal forces in all members have been found. 5. In many cases it is preferable to work from one end of the truss to the middle member, and then from the other end of the truss back toward the fame mid-member. A check on the accuracy of the calculations is obtained #f the forces in the mid-member agree as determined with these two in- dependent methods of analysis. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM ar. A Fink truss is loaded as shown in Fig. 4-6- ‘Determine the force in each ber of the truss assuming them to be pin-connected. Mise 1000 Ib # ‘3500 1b 2000 1b 200015| Art. 4-3] Method of Joints 87 | Solution: ‘The given truss is, symmetrical and also symmetrically loaded so that the forces need be found in only one-half of it. | After determining the reactions from symmetry, consider joint A which has only. _ two unmarked members (AB and AC) acting upon it. As shown in Fig. 4-7, we _ may use either the FBD of the joint or the equivalent FBD of the pin. Of the two, _the FBD of the pin is preferred since it is simpler to draw. In either diagram, it is evident that AB denotes compression, i.¢., is directed toward the pin, in order that. Y AB x | or bra ai eee AC t 35001 3500 Ib h (a) FBD of joint A (©) FBD of pin A P Fic. 4-7. -—— Free-body diagrams of joint and pin. ts vertical component may balance the upward reaction.’ Hence AC must be in ten- jon and pull away from the pin to balance the leftward component of AB. Select ag the X axis to coincide with the unknown force AC, we obtain =o 8500 — AB sin 30° = 0 AB = 7000 Ib C Ans. =0 AC — 7000 cos 30° = 0 AC =.6062 lb T Ans. e positive values obtained for AB and AC confirm the original assumption con- g the direction of these forces. The action of members 4B and AC on their pins, indicating respectively compression and tension, may now be drawn as n in Fig. 4-8. (In an actual problem the arrows would be placed on the 2000 1b 35001b — Truss marked to show effect of members AB and AC on their end pins.Anatysis or SraucruREs [Chap. IV 100016 original diagram of the truss, but to indicate the ¥ -7® marked and unmarked members more Sah the so Lai “aD. truss is here redrawn.) From Fig. 4-8, thenext pin at which no more than two unmarked members appear is seen to be B. Re- peating the technique used at pin A, equilibrium of AB=70001b 6 BC pin B can be achieved by assuming BD and BC to be ‘Fro. 4-0,—Free-body die in compression and therefore acting toward the pin ‘gram of pin B. ‘as shown in Fig. 4-9. Rotating the X axis to coin- cide with the unknown force BD, we obtain [2¥ = 0) BC — 1000 cos 30° = 0 BC = 8661bC Ans, (2X = 0} 7000 — 1000 sin 30° — BD = 0 BD = 6500IbC Ans. The positive values obtained for BD and BC confirm the fact that these forces are compressions. The action of BD and BC upon their end pins may now be marked on the original truss diagram as in Fig. 4-10. Ib 20001 ‘2000 1b ‘35001b Fro, 4-10. — Truss marked to show effect of members BD and BC on their end pins. ‘The next pin at which two unmarked members appear is C. Assume both CD and GB to be in tension. ‘The FRD of pin C ean now he drawn aa in Fig. 4-11. Selecting the X axis to coincide with CE, we have [ZY = 0] CDsin 60° — 866sin 60° — , 4 20000 CD = S175IbT. Ans. BC=8061b tr cD exr-q CE + 3175 cos 60° + 866 cos 60° — 0062 = 0 CE = 40401bT Anz. 60/ 60" truss are symmetrical so that the forces in all 4c-9962Ib [© CE olution would be continued by proceeding to 2000 3b the next unmarked pin. ‘This pin is D, but an- 6 aga ety Ge eee ee aoArt. 4-3) Method of Joints 89 mee erento estar eee Es ea ee acting upon it iis pin G. It is preferable to avoid pin D, start anew from pin G, anc determine the fforces in FG and EG. After the action of FG and EG upon their end pins is indicated in the original truss diagram, the next pin to be selected for analysis is pin F. From the FBD of F, the forces DF and-EF can be found. Next, the FBD of pin E will enable us to find the forces in DE and CE. The force in CE will then have been determined from the FBD at C and, again independently, from the FBD at F. A check on the accuracy of the work is thus obtained if the force in CE as found from pin C agrees with that found from pin E. ‘The final appearance of the original truss diagram after all the forces have been | Fra. 4-12. — Orcler free-body di: . All bers marked indi: that E> Of aking Sree enna Sal pee indicates | ed is shown in Fig. 4-12, This figure also indicates the order in which th body diagrams of the various pins would be drawn if the truss or the loading not symmetrical. | PROBLEMS 402. Joint B of the truss shown in Fig. P-402 is subjected to the forces exerted by three members AB, BC, and BD. Members AB and BD are in the same straight but BC is imelined at an angie of @ degrees with this straight line. Show that the in BC must be sero. Generalize this result and then show that the force in CD, DE, EF, FI, HI, HK, and JK is also zero. [Ans.given on page 90.} FrArt. 4-3] Method of Joints 91 408. Compute the force in each member of the Warren truss shown in Fig. P-408. Ans. AB = 4910 lb C; AC = 2455 lb T; BC = 2600 lb T; BD = 3755 lb C; CD = 2020 Ib T; CE = 2745 lb T; DE = 5480 Ib C 2000 1b 30001690 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES {Chap. IV Ans, At a joint subjected to the action of three members but no other load, if two of the members are collinear, the force i in the third member must be zero. 403. Determine the force in each bar of the truss shown in Fig. P-403. Hint: First determine which bars carry no load using the principle developed in Prob. 402. Ans. CD = DE = 0.577P C; BF = 0.280P T 404. Determine the forces in the members of the roof truss shown in Fig, P-404. ‘Ans. AB = 100 lb C; AC = 86.6 Ib T; BC = 100 Ib T; CD = 86.6 Ib T; BD = 200 lb C 405. Determine the force in each bar of the truss shown in Fig. P-405 caused by lifting the 120-Ib load at a constant velocity of 8 ft per sec. What change in these forces, if any, results from placing the roller support at D and the hinge support at A? 406. ‘The cantilever truss in Fig. P= 406 is hinged at D and E. Find the force in each member. ‘Ans. AB = 2000 lb T; AC = 1732 Ib C; BC = 866 lb C; BD = ~ 2500 Ib T; DC = 20201b T; CE = 31751bC 407. In the cantilever truss shown in Fig. P-407, compute the force in mem- bers AB, BE, and DE. Ans. AB = 1732\bT;BE = DE = 1000 1b 1000 Ib 1154 Ib C ‘Fro. P-406.92 Anatysts oF StructurEs [Chap. IV 409. Determine the force in members AB, BD, BE, and DE of the Howe root truss shown in Fig. P-409. 410. Determine the force in each member of the Pratt roof truss shown in Fig. P-410. 411. Determine the force in members AB, AC, BD, CD, and CE of the canti- lever truss shown in Fig. P-411. If the loads were applied at C and E instead of at B and D, specify which members would have their internal force changed. Ans. BD = 180 lb T; CD = 250 lb T; CE = 300 Ib C 412. Compute the force in each member of the truss shown in Fig. P-412. Ifthe loads at B: D are shifted vertically downward to add to the loads at C and £, will there be any change in the reactions? Which members, if any, would undergo a change in internal force? Ans. AB = 985 lb C; AC = 440 lb T; BD = 492 Ib C; BC = 700 lb T; CD = 1120 lb C;CE = 1440 lb T; EF = 1440 lb T; DE = 200lb T; DF = 1610 bce418. Determine the force in each member of the crane shown in Fig. |P-413. | Ans. AB = 12,000 lb C; AC = 13,100 Ib T; BC = 6000 Ib C; BD = 10,400 lb C; CD = 0 Fig. P-414 and P-415, Solve for the force in members FH, DF, and DG of the truss shown in ‘P44. Ans. FH = 1270 lb-C; DF = 947 lb C; DG = 375 IbTArt. 4-4) Method of Sections 95 | ally a moment summation is best, the center of moments being chosen at, the intersection of the unknown forces to be eliminated from the moment summation, Thus in Fig. 4-14a, if the force in DF is desired, select E as L- Cutting Plane R,=2500 Ib 10001b 1000 Ib 1000 Ib 1000 1b 1000 Ib Ry=2500 lb : (a) (b) @. 4-14. — Each it of the truss is held ii libri by fc to the segment of 1c ue ee ben in eaulli rium by forces equal center of moments. To determine the force in EG, select the center of noments at the intersection of DF and EF. This will be at a point F” having the location of the original point F with respect to the left section. lowever, the moment, method cannot be applicd to determine EF because DF and EG, being parallel, intersect at infinity. Nevertheless, a vertical mation of forces may be taken to climinate KG and DF from the ealeu- _The procedures just described constitute the method of sections. This ethod usually permits us to determine the force in any desired member out the necessity of finding the forees in the other members. It is ly necessary that the cutting plane passes through the member whose is desired. It is essential, however, not to pass the plane so as to cut ore than three members whose internal forces are unknown, because the ethod of sections is based on the equilibrium of non-concurrent forces for hich no more than three unknowns can be determined. An exception is ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM Find the force acting in members BD, BE, and CE of the Bowstring truss in Fig. 4-15, using the method of sections. In each case determine the force of an equation which does not involve the other unknown forces. n ents into which it is divided by a cutting plane will also be in equilibrium4 ANALYs1s or SrrucTuREs [Chap. IV systems may also be applied to truss analysis; the procedure is known as the method of sections? Its use permits us to determine directly the force in almost any member instead of proceeding to that member by a joint-to- joint analysis. In the method of sections, a cutting plane is passed through the entire truss, separating it into two parts without cutting more than three mem- bers. If this plane actually severed the members, the truss would collapse. But suppose, at the instant of severing the members, that an external force is applied to each side of the cut members exactly equivalent to the load being transmitted by the members. We shall then have two parts of the truss, each constituting a non-concurrent system of forces in equilib- rium under the action of the known loads that act on each part and the unknown forces (stresses) that the members of one part exert on the other- (ar Plane D Fr H Jy B R,=2500Ib 10001b 10001b 10001 10001b 10001b R= 2500 Ib Fi. 4-13, — Section through a truss. For example, consider the truss shown in Fig. 4-13. If a section cuts through the members DF, EF, and BG, the truss may be separated into two parts, each of which is held in equilibrium by unknown forces equiva- lent to the loads being transmitted by these members. These two parts are shown in Fig. 4-14. Each part in this figure constitutes a system of non-concurrent forces in equilibrium. Since the unknowns in either system are the same, it is generally best to determine the unknowns from the equations of equilibrium applied to the simpler system. Here part (a) is obviously the simpler system since it involves fewer forces. The forces in the uncut members are internal to the free bodies shown. Consequently the forces in these uncut members occur in equal opposite pairs at their joints and hence cancel out of any calculation involving the entire free body. ‘To simplify the calculations, we use a condition of equilibrium that de- termines each unknown force independently of the other unknowns. Usu- i really a variation of the method of sections, traditional, r, to use the expression ‘method of joints to apply to the equilibrium of concurrent forces at a joint, and the ex- Lom pg ie ere ear pea aber tipo aa {96 AnaLysis oF STRUCTURES (Chap. IV A, =18001b 12001b Fre. 4-15. if the loads carried by the cut members are replaced by external forces equal to these loads. ‘These external forces are shown in Fig. 4-16 acting on the FBD of the left segment of the truss because it involves a smaller number of forces than the right segment. ‘BD, eres ——BE, Le 12+ A, =18001b 12001b BE, Fra, 4-16. — Free-body diagram of left section. ‘To determine the value of CE we use an equation of equilibrium which eliminates BD and BE. Since BD and BE intersect at B, theee forces have no moment about B; hence we apply the equation [(DzMz = 0} 8 CE — 12 x 1800 = 0 CE = 27001bT Ans. ‘The member CE i tension since the force pulls away from the pin C. ‘The value of BD is found by taking moments about E which thereby eliminates BE and CE since their lines of action, if prolonged, intersect at F. As a rule, the ‘center of moments is chosen at the intersection of the two unknown forces to be eliminated. ‘Note that here the spatial position of the moment center # is de- termined from the dimensions of the original truss. "The moment of BD about F is most easity found as the sum of the moments of itsArt. 4—4] Method of Sections 97 horizontal and vertical components. It is convenient to replace BD at D (located on line of action) by the horizontal and vertical components shown dashed in Fig. 16. This eliminates the vertical component BD, from the moment summation lsbout E. We therefore obtain [Dzm = 0) 12 BDs + 12(1200) — 24(1800) = 0 BDx = 2400 Ib hence, using the proportionality between the force and slope, triangles, we have Be = BBs BPs _ 2400 4 BD, = 800lb and BD = 25301bC Ans. | To solve for BE independently of BD and CE, we follow the rule of taking mo- nts about the intersection of the forces to be eliminated. In this instance, the on of BD and CE is not at once evident, but it is easily located by observing tthe slope of BD is euch that it drops one foot vertically in each three feet hori ntally. Hence the point O must lie three times as far to the left of C as B is above i.e., 3 X 8 = 24 ft, which locates O as shown on Fig. 4-16. In taking moments bout O, replace BE by its horizontal and vertieal components acting at , thereby aiminating the horizontal component BE} from the moment summation. ‘Thua we Mo = 0) 36 BE, — 24(1200) + 12(1800) = 0 BE, = 2001b ence, from the proportionality between the force and slope triangles, we get BE _ BE, _ BE, _ 200 Wis 3 27 «OF BEx=300lb and BE = 361IbC Ane. We can now check the accuracy of our computations by taking horizontal and tical summations of the forces acting on the FBD of Fig. 4-16. Thus, H=0] CE —BE,—BD,=0 or 2700 — 300 — 2400 =0 Check =O) BD, + 1800 — 1200 = 0 or 200 — 800 + 1800 — 1200 = 0 Check PROBLEMS 7. Using the method of sections, determine the force in members BD, CD, d CE of the roof truss shown in Fig. P-417. Ans. BD = 160 lb C; CD = 200 Ib C; CE = 3201bT98 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES {Chap. 1V 418. ‘The Warren truss loaded as shown in Fig. P-418is supported by « roller at ( anda hinge atG. By the method of sections, compute the force in the members BC DF, and CE. ‘Ans. BC = 448 lb C; DF = 800 lb C; CE = }00ibT 800 Ib 400 Ib 1000 Ib Fro, P-418. 419. Use the method of sections to determine the forces in members BD, CD ‘and CE of the Warren truss described in Prob. 408 and Fig. P-408 on page 91. 420. Determine the force in the members DF, DG, and EG of the Howe truss shown in Fig. P-420. Ans, DF = 28001bC; DG = 15001bC; EG = 4000 1b T A,#1900 Ib H=21001b Fic. P-420. 421. ‘Use the method of sections to compute the foree in the members DF, EF, ‘and EG of the cantilever truss described in Prob. 411 and Fig. P-411 on page 92. 422. Refer to the truss described in Prob. 412 on page 92, and compute the force in members BD, CD, and CE by the method of sections. 423. Use the method of sections to determine the force acting in members DF, EP, and E@ of the Howe truss described in Fig. P-409 on page 91. 494. For the truss shown in Fig. P-424, determine the force in BF by the method ‘of joints and then check this result using the method of sections. Hint: To apply“Art. 4-4] Method of Sections 99 ‘the method of sections, first obtain the “value of BE by inspection. Ans. BF = 2500 Ib C | 425. In the Fink truss shown in Fig. 'P-425, the web members BC and EF are pendicular to the inclined members at their midpoints. Use the method of sec- ns to determine the force in members DF, DE, and CE. | Ans. | DF = 5.82 kips C; DE = 2.00 kips T; CE = 4 kips T 426. Show that the method of joints nnot determine the forces in all bars of the Fan Fink truss in Fig. P-426. ‘Then e the method of sections to compute he force in bars FH, GH, and EK. “Ans. FH = 1100 lb C; GH = 520 Ib T; EK = 693 lb T100 Awatysis or StrucTURES [Chap. IV Fe ee cee 427. Determine the force in bars BD, CD, and DE of the nacelle truss shown in Fig. P-427. 600Ib —12001b 1200Ib 1200Ib* 428. Use the method of sections to determine the force in members DF, FG, and GI of the triangular Howe truss shown in Fig. P-428. Hint: First determine by in- spection the forces in the web members of the right side of the truss. Ans. DF = 2.51 kips C; FG = 2.24 kips T; GI = 0.455 kips T 2kips ¢ K eee eels Ap ldlagie tesa Fra. P-428, 429. For the cantilever truss shown in Fig. P-429, determine the forces in members DF, Fi, FI, Gl, and FG.Art. 4-4] Method of Sections 101 430. The loads on the Parker truss shown in Fig. P-430 are in kips. One kip juals 1000 Ib. Determine the forces in members BD, BE, CE, and DE. Determine the force in the members DF, DG, and EG for the Parker truss in Fig. P-430. Ana. DF = 162 kips C; DG = 32.7 kipe T; EG — 140.6 kipe T ‘Use the method of sections to compute the force in members AB, AD, BC, BD of the truss shown in Fig. P-432. ‘Ans. AB = 5910 Ib C; AD = 3000 Ib T; BC = 6400 Ib C; BD = 5000 lb T 2400Ib = 9600Ib ra. P4323. Compute the forces in bars AB, AC, DF, and DE of the scissors truss shown. P. »-433. . AB = 70.8kipsC; AC = 48.0kipsT; DF = 42.5kipeC; DE = 9.6 kipsC ‘Compute the force in bars GI, GH, EH, and HI for the scissors truss shown. P-433. _ For the transmission tower shown in Fig. P-435, determine the force in CJ. Hind: First use section o-a to find the force in BC. Ans. CJ = 250 Ib«102 ANALysis opr STRUCTURES [Chap. IV |_| ached gleank old ‘ Peis Bh a7 Fro. P-433 and P-434, Fie. P-435. 4-5. Redundant Members; Counteer Diagonals In trusses subjected to movingg loads, such as railroad bridges, the diagonal members may undergo a reversal of stress; that is, a diagonal normally in tension may become ssubject to a compressive load. If the diagonal is composed of eyebars or is otherwise so slender compared with its length that it will buckle under cc ompressive loads, an additional diagonal sloping in the opposite direction nnust be provided in the truss panel to prevent collapse of the structure. Additional diagonals of this type nmight be called redundant, i.c., unneces- sary; but as only one of these diagoonals acts at a time, the term redundant does not apply in this case, althoughsh it is frequently used. These additional diagonals are usually known as counnter diagonals or, more briefly, counters. ‘They are generally represented by cdashed lines on a truss. In considering the action of counters, it is conveniient to regard them as wires which can support tension but will buckle insttantly if subjected to compression. ‘As an example consider the truss shown in Fig. 4-17. It is required to determine which of the tension diaagonals AD or BC in the third panel is acting under the given loading. Thiis is accomplished by passing the section a-a through the truss. Considering the part of the truss to the left of section a-a, we see that the upwaard effect of 2; must be balanced by a downward component of the force iin the diagonals. In order to have a downward cormponent, the forces in the diagonals act as shown. If BC were acting, the : arrow toward pin C indicates that the member would be in compression eand hence buckle. On the other hand,Fic. 4-17. — Counter diagonals. row away from the pin at A indicates AD to be under tension and AD he tension member acting. From the dimensions of the truss and by ting a vertical summation of forces to zero, we find the force in member = 0) 600 -ADXi# =0 AD = 10001bT Ans. PROBLEMS 6. In Fig. P-420, page 98, assume that counter diagonals act from B to E and E to F in addition to the counter diagonals CD and DG shown in the figure. ng that these counter diagonals can support tension only, determine which nals are acting and the force in each. B D Fria. P-437. _ The center panel of the truss in Fig. P-437 contains two flexible cables. oad P will cause a compressive force of 2000 Ib in BD? Then determine nsion diagonal BE or CD is acting and the force in it. d Ans. CD = 1414 1b T | The center diagonals of the truss in Fig. P-438 can support tension only. the force in each center diagonal and the force in BC, DE, and FG. , Ans. BE = 1050 lb T; DG = 175 ib T104 ANAtysis oF StrucTUREs (Chap. IV 200 Ib 600 Ib 600 Ib 4-6. Definition and Characteristics of Three-Force Members A three-foree member is one subjected to three or more forces applied at different positions. It is essentially subjected to bending loads; in fact, according to the above definition, any beam is a three-force member. Consider the beam shown in Fig. P 4-18, which is supported by a hinge at one énd and a roller at the other. It is easy to see that the reactions are vertical, since the roller permits the ends of the beam to approach each Roller Hinge: other as the beam flexes. If both ends of the beam are hinged to rigid sup- f 3, ports asin Fig. 4-19, the flexing action ia ; of the bending load will be’ restrained, RRA sr Ragan mepeertt PEAS. ca eaat eauedig: hd aostucitlal Bornd ponents of the end reactions shown, ‘This effect occurs in all members which are hinged at both ends and subjected to bending loads. In Fig. 4-19 the total hinge force at A is shown by the dashed force A inclined at an unknown angle @, with the horizontal. A similar force andFrames Containing Three-Force Members 105, igle exist at B. There are therefore four unknown elements. They may esented by the two unknown forces A and B plus the two unknown ahagnitudes of their components, i.e., . ‘The three equations-of equilibrium are not sufficient e for all four of these unknowns. it is important to note that in the characteristic action of a three-force mber, the end forces are not directed along the axis of the member as 4-18 and 4-19 show. Consequently a sectign passed through a | Method of Members Applied to Frames Containing Three-Force Members © or all the members of a pin-connected structure are subjected to ig action, the structure is called a frame. Since it is not feasible to & section through the members of such structures, they are analyzed n g the separate free-body diagram of each three-farce member; ocedure is called the method of members. essential principle involved in drawing the free-body diag:ums of the members of a frame is that of action and reaction, When separating nbers for analysis, the forces (usually represented by their compo- exerted by the connecting pins must be consistently represented as opposite’ directions on the separated members. If either compo- 8 force is incorrectly assumed in direction, the solution will still }gorrect magnitude but with @ negative sign. This would mean that ponent of the force on both separated members acts in the opposite on to that originally assumed. Further discussion of the method of is given in the following illustrative problem. 3 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM ‘The A-frame shown in Fig. 4-20 supports n 600-Ib load and has the given on: The roller at A compele the reaction to be vertical. Since no horizontal ‘acting, the reaction at must also be vertical. These reactions are found of the following equations of equilibrium: 20 B, — 600 x 12 = 0 E, = 360 1b 20A,— 600X8=0 A, = 240 Ib106 ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES [Chap. IV Fro, 4-20. — A-frame. The free-body diagrams of the members of the A-frame are shown in Fig. 4-21. From Art. 4-6, the forces acting on BD can be drawn as shown in part (b) of this figure. Likewise the FBD of AC is shown in part (a). AC is subjected to the re- action A, = 240 lb and also to the forces B, and By at B and to the forces Cy and Cy at C. Note that By and Bs acting on AC are numerically equal but oppositely directed to By and By acting on BD. This is due to the fact that action and re- action forces are equal but oppositely directed. Apply this principle carefully when selling up the free-body diagrams. a 600 Ib () Fi. 4-21, — Free-body diagrams. In a similar fashion the FBD of CE shown in part (e) is subjected to the re action EZ, = 360 ib and the forces C., Cr, De, and Dp. Note that the forees (, and Cp acting on CE are numerically equal but opposite in sense to the reactive forces acting at C of member AC. Similarly, Dy and Dx acting on CE are numerically equal but opposite in sense to the reactive forces acting at D of member BD. Each of the free-body diagrams represents a non-concurrent force system ii equilibrium. Hence three equations of equilibrium may be written for each of ty7] Frames Containing Three-Force Members 107 dy diagrams. For members AC and BD, there is a total of six unknown ties for which six independent equations may be written. As a general rule, to solve first for the unknown quantities common to both free-body diagrams, ease for By and By. Referring to BD (Fig. 4-21b), a moment summation ut D determines Be. ip = 0) 12 By — 600 X 4=0 B, = 2001b Ans. ing the known value of Byon the FBD of AC, a moment summation about C 4-2la determines By. Mc = 0] 6 B, + 200 x 6 — 240 x 10-0 By = 200th Ans. each of the members 2D and AC, there remain two ‘equations of equilibrium may now be applied to determine the remaii ing unknowns. Thus for BL we =0) Dr-Br,=0 Dn = By = 2001b Ans. 0) D, + 200 — 600 = 0 D» = 400 Ib Ans. the FBD of AC we apply 0) Br- Ch =0 Cy = By = 2001 Ans. = 0) Cy — 200 + 240 = 0 Cy = —401b Ans. three equations of equilibrium that can he written for member CE have not ed so far. They may now be employed to check the above values. ‘Thus 0} Cr — Di =0 Cx = Dy = 2001 Check = 0) 360 — 400 — Cc, =0 Ce = —40 Ib Check that the minus sign of C, indicates that the direction of C, shown in both Figs. 4-21a and 4-21c. ould be observed that any combination of two of the free-body diagrams of B, or BD will yield six equations to be solved for the six unknowns. ‘The thied dy dingram may then be used for check purposes. esired, the resultant value of the hinge forces may be 3, as follows: actually opposite found from their com- C = V40F + (200? C= 2041b Ans. : B= /(200F + (200)? B = 2831b Ans. Di + Di] D = V0) F (2007 D=447\b Ans. PROBLEMS , For the frame loaded as shown in Fig. P-440, determine the horizontal and [components of the pin pressure at B. Specify directions (up or down; left of the force as it acts upor, member CD. Ans. B, = 550 Ib down: Bs = 450 Ib lettfee ela el Fro. P-440. Fro. P-441, 441. The structure shown in Fig. P-441 is hinged at A and C. Find the hori- zontal and vertical components of the hinge force at B, C, and A. Ans. B, = 100 Ib; By = 175 Ib 442. Each member of the frame shown in Fig. P-348 on page 76 weighs 50 Ib per ft. Compute the horizontal and vertical components of the pin pressures at ©, D, and F. 443. The frame shown in Fig. P-443 is hinged to rigid supporte at A and E. Find the components of the hinge forces at A and E and the forces in members BC and BD. Ans. A, = E, = 60 Ib; Ay = Ex = 120 Ib; BC = 100 lb T; BD = 2001bC 120 IbFrames Containing Three-Force Members 109 ‘The frame shown in Fig. P-444 is sup- dby a hinge at A and arollerat E. Com- the horizontal and vertical components of p hinge forces at B and C as they act upon AC. B. = 120 Ib up; By = 40 Ib right; Cy = 96 Ib down; Cy = 40 Ib left The frame shown in Fig. P-445 is sup- by a hinge at # and a roller at D. Com- @ the horizontal and vertical components hinge force at C ae it acts upon BD. dns. Co = 70 Ib up; Cy = 280 Ib right A three-hinged arch is composed of usses hinged together at D in Fig. P-446. jute the components of the reaction at A. Bim. FAAS men find the forces acting in bars AB and AC. Hént: First isolate each truse body. Ana. Ay = 420 Ib; Ay = 320 Ib; AB = 700 Ib C; AC = “0b Tuu ANALYSIS OF DIHUCTUKES rummy. 21 447. Two trusses are joined as shown in Fig. P-447 to form a three-hinged arch. Compute the horizontal and vertieal components of the hinge force at B and then determine the type and magnitude of force in bars BD and BE. 400 Ib 448, A beam carrying the loxds shown in Fig, P-448 is composed of three segments, It is supported by four vertical reactions and joined ly two frictionless hinges, Determine the values of the reactions. ‘Ans. Ry = 200 tb; Re = 2120 1b) Ry = 1180 Ib; Ry = 300 Ib 449. The bridge shown in Fig P-449 consists of two end sections, each weighing 200 tons with center ol gravity at G, hinged tos uniform cen: ter span weighing 120 tons. Compute the reactions at A, B, B, and F. 450. A billboard BC weighing 1 Ib is subjected to a wind pressure 300 Ib per ft as shown in Fig, P-45i ‘Neglecting the weights of the supportFrames vontarning Three-Force Members rae 240 1b e hinge forces at A and F, Ay = 2250 Ib; Ay = 4500 Ib; F, = 3250 lb; Fx = 1500 Ib The frame shown in Fig. P-451 ged at F and roller supported at A. ine the horizontal and vertical onents of the hinge forces at B, C, D. Neglect the weights of the mem- : 2. For the frame shown in Fig. ®, determine the horizontal and yer-112 ANALYsis OF STRUCTURES [Chap. 1V tical components of the hinge force at B as it acts upon member AC. 453. For the frame shown in Fig. P-453, determine the resultant hinge forces at. B, C, and E. Ans. B = 2530 Ib; C = 800 Ib; EB = 5060 Ib 464. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the hinge force at A for the structure shown in Fig. P-454. Neglect the weights of the members and of the pulleys. SUMMARY Structures are composed of members which are commonly divided into two groups: those subjected to axial tensile or compressive loads only and those subjected to bending. A member of the first type is called a two-force member! a member of the second type is called a beam or a three-force member. In two-foree members (Art. 4-2), the forces are usually applied at the ends of the member and tend either to lengthen or to shorten it, thereby producing respectively tensile or compressive forces in the member. The action of a tensile member on its end pins is to pull away from its end pins; the effect of a member subjected to compression is to push back against its end pins. ‘The forcea in truss members are determined on the assumption that the members are two-force members. Hence the forces acting on any pin form ‘a concurrent system. The conditions of equilibrium for concurrent force systems form the basis of the method of joints (Art. 4-3). If a cutting section is assumed to be passed through three members of a truss and the cut members replaced by the internal loads being transmitted by the cut members, a free-body diagram of part of the truss is obtained which is ‘acted upon by three unknown forces. These three forces are determined by applying the conditions of equilibrium of non-concurrent forces; the technique is known as the method of sections (Art. 4-4). | Structures containing three-force members must be analyzed differently. ‘A three-force member (Art. 4-6) is defined as one which supports three or more forces. The characteristic action in a three-force member is bending,113 means that the internal force in the member is not directed along its Therefore, because the direction of the internal force is unknown, either the method of joints nor the method of sections can be used. At this stage in the study of mechanics, all that can be done is to deter- ne the forces acting at the pins joining the three-force members. The edure is to isolate each three-force member by means of free-body ms. On these diagrams the forces at the pins are resolved into