Chapter V. Friction : fa 6-1. Friction Defined Friction may be defined as the contact resistance exerted by one body upon a second body when the second body moves or tends to move past the first body. From this definition, it should be observed that friction is a retarding force always acting opposite to the motion or the tendency to move. As we shall see, friction exists primarily because of the roughness of the contact surfaces. If the contact surfaces are perfectly smooth, as as- sumed in some earlier problems, friction can be neglected. In machines, friction is both a liability and an asset. Where it causes loss of power it is undesirable; but in certain types of frietion drives or in brakes it is very desirable. In this chapter we shall consider the application of the principles of friction to engineering problems. 5-2. Theory of Friction The following experiment is useful in discussing the principles of friction as applied to dry unlubricated surfaces. Let a block of weight W rest on a rough horizontal surface. Assume a horizontal foree P to be applied to the block, as shown in Fig. 5-1. When P is zero, the frictional resistance is zero. When P is given increasing values, the frictional resistance also increases; values are indicated on the graph in Fig. 5-2. This graph is not rigorously accu- rate; it is intended only as a guide for P interpreting results. ‘The graph indicates that up to impend- by ame | ing motion, the frictional resistance F is N we numerically equal to the applied load P. After motion occurs, the frictional resis- Fic, 5-1.— Frictional resistance. tance decreases rapidly to a kinetic value which remains fairly constant. From such experimental results it is observed that as long as the block) remains at rest the frictional resistance must equal the resultant force tending to cause motion. This is true up to the instant at which the fric- tional resistance can no longer balance the resultant of applied forces. “1115 Friction (F) ‘Applied Foree (Py Fia. 5-2. — Variation of frictional resistance. hen this condition exists, motion occurs. Once motion takes place, the ional resistance drops to a value below that acting when motion starts. One way of understanding these results is to examine a magnified view the contact surfaces. These are shown in Fig. 5-3. The surfaces are sumed to be composed of irregular- es (which can be likened to hills mi vales) which mesh together. The ional resistance is developed by Sa eeffort oi P to pull the hills of the oo s ock out of the meshing valleys of the oa: surface. In an ideal smooth "~~7=rmagimparmrmrmmemn face there are no hills and vales to together, and no frictional resis- i is possible. This is why we have gumed the reaction to be normal the surface when discussing ideal jooth surfaces in preceding articles. Actually an ideal smooth surface Fia. 5-3. — Magnified view of cuntact surfaces g action between the hills and vales of the contact surfaces. The e of this wedging action depends upon the normal pressure N be- the surfaces. Asa result, the maximum frictional resistance is said proportional to the normal pressure and is expressed symbolically as FaN (@ the sign « is read as “is proportional to.”” AO ae eal because of molecular adhesion. Wher adnan ets wil beemupedvoSo the frictional resistance and its effect to be included in the coefficient of friction.6 Faicrion [Chap. V pends upon the roughness of the contact surfaces. This constant is called the coefficient of friction, and Eq. (a) may be rewritten as* F=JN , (6-1) If the applied force exceeds the maximum frictional resistance, motion of the block ensues. In motion there is less chance for the wedging action described above to take place; i.e., the hills and vales are not as free to mesh as when the block was at rest. This is the reason for a decrease in frictional resistance when motion occurs. In the case of moving bodies, the resistance is defined as the kinetic frictional resistance. It always acts at maximum value. Note the contrast with static friction, which adjusts itself to the value required to resist mo- tion. (Refer to the graph discussed above.) The magnitude of the kinetic friction is also expressed by Eq. (5-1) by inserting the coefficient for kinetic friction fi in place of the coefficient for static friction f,._ In many instances the subscripts k and ¢ are omitted when the statement of the data makes the meaning clear. When motion first begins, the hills and vales of the contact surfaces mesh vith less frequency, causing the static friction to decrease gradually to the kinetic friction value. For high speeds, the kinetic friction decreases still more. When a body in motion is being brought to rest, the converse is also true; the kinetic friction gradually increases at very low speeds up to a maximum value equal. to that of the static friction as the body finally comes to rest. It is usually assumed, however, that the kinetic friction is constant in value. ‘The foregoing analysis applies only to friction between dry unlubricated surfaces. If a lubricant such as oil is used, the hills and vales of the contact surfaces are separated by the lubricant, thereby materially reducing the frictional resistance. Indeed, if the thickness of the lubricating film is sufficient to separate the contact surfaces completely, the only frictional resistance remaining will be the internal friction in the lubricant itself, measured by its viscosity. The viscosity varies with the temperature, being less at high than at low temperatures. For an extended discussion of the theory of lubricated surfaces, which is beyond the scope of this book, the reader is referred to a standard work upon this subject. 5-3. Angle of Friction Figure 5-1 is redrawn in Fig. 5-4 to show that F and N are really com: ponents of the total reaction R exerted by the plane surface against the Kam’ using this relation, F is the maximum available frictional resistance. Refer to 5-3. Algo note that, Ea, KGa) eect Be ed So; daterentea ey eateem eatin impending. See Illus. Prob. 501. 5-3) Angle of Friction 117 lock. The size of the angle between and N depends on the value of the tional resistance F. If F is zero, angle will be zero. As F increases, does the angle. The particular ue of this angle when maximum tional resistance is acting is defined the angle of friction. It acts al its um value of @ only when motion impending. From Fig. 5-4, it is apparent that Lee angle of friction may be defined by Fic. 54 Angle of friction. relation tang =f (b) omparing Eq. (6) with Eq. (5-1), we see that tang =f (6-2) r words, the tangent of the angle of friction is the coefficient of Hence, determining the angle of friction affords a means of ob- taining the coefficient of friction. A simple experiment for determining the angle of friction is to place a block of weight W upon an inclined plane for which the angle of inclination @ can be gradually increased from zero to a maxi- mum value at which the block is on the verge of sliding down the incline. Figure 5-5 shows this condition. In order for equilibrium to exist, it is necessary that the weight W and the reaction # be collinear (see Axiom 2). From the figure it is evident that, when motion impends, the angle of inclination @ is equal to the i angle of friction ¢. then considering coplanar forces, in order to have no motion the static jon mnst lie within the angle ABC in Fig. 5-6 (shown on the next whereas for problems involving non-coplanar forces, it must be con- within the conc generated by revolving line AB about the normal e cone so formed is called the cone of friction. w _5-5.— At impending motion, ‘of friction equals angle of in=us Friction (Chap. V 5-4. Laws of Friction ‘A summary of the principles* discussed in the preceding articles may be called the laws of friction and may be stated as follows: 1. If friction is neglected, the reactions are always normal to the surfaces in con- tact. 2. Friction always acts to oppose the motion of the free body (or its tendency to move). It is tangent to the surfaces in contact. 3. If static friction is acting, the value of the frietion force may vary from zero to the maximum available value, depending upon the resultant force tending to cause motion. 4. The maximum available value of static friction (i.e., the limiting friction when motion impends) is equal to f.N where Jf, is the coefficient of static friction and N is the normal pressure. 5. If kinetic friction is acting, the friction force is constant at its limiting value. (Actually, kinetic friction decreases somewhat at high velocities and increases at very low speeds; see Art. 5-2.) 6. The kinetic friction is equal to f.N where f; is the coefficient of kinetic friction and N is the normal pressure. 7. The angle between the total reaction and its normal component, when limiting friction is acting, is called the angle of friction. The tangent of this angle is the coefficient of friction. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS 501. A 200-Ib block is in contact with a plane inclined at 30° to the horizontal, ‘A force P, parallel to and acting up the plane, is applied to the body. If the coeffi- cient of static friction is 0.20, (a) find the value of P to just cause motion to impend up the plane, and (b) find P to just prevent motion dows the plane. (c) If P = 80 Ib, determine the magnitude and direction of the friction force. Solution: Part a. If the block has impending motion up the plane, the friction force, acting at its limiting value, will act down the plane to resist motion. The FBD of the block is shown in Fig. 5-7. Reference axes are selected so that the axis is parallel to and positive in the direction of impending motion. ‘To find N, we apply the equation Fra. 5-6. — Cone of friction. RY. =o NN — 200 cos 30° = 0 N = 173.2 lb Since limiting friction acts, we may use the equation. WF = JN} F = 0.2-x 178.2 = 34.641b * These principles are based upon Coulomb's experiments in 1781 on the friction of plane dry surfaces and those performed by Morin in 1831. aArt. 5-4) Laws of Friction 119 ‘To determine P, we apply the equation [2X =0, P — F — 200 sin 30° = 0 P = 34.64 + 100 P = 134.641b Ans. Part b. When the block has impending motion down the plane, the friction force, ting at its limiting value, will act up the plane to resist the motion. The FBD shown in Fig. 5-8. Note that the X axis is chosen parallel to and positive in the 200 Ib 200 Ib c. 5-7. — Impending motion up the Plane. Fic. 5-8. — Impending motion down the plane. ion of impending motion. N and the limiting value of F are the same as in a. Hence to find P we need only apply the equation 1X = 0} 200 sin 30° — P— F =0 P = 100 ~ 34.64 P= 65.361b Ans. art c. The results obtained for Parts a and b indicate that the 200-Ib block will in at rest for all values of P between 65.36 Ib and 134.64 Ib, i.e., for P between sin 30° +: F = 100 + 34.64. Hence when P = 80 Ib, the block will tend to e down the plane, although limiting friction will not be developed. Since uilibrium is present, from Fig. 5-8 we have d acting upplane as shown in Fig. 5-8. Since the available static friction is ‘Ib, we conclude that limiting friction will not be developed. - A 200-Ib block is at rest on a 30° incline. The coefficient of friction between and the incline is 0.20. Compute the value of a horizontal force P that motion to impend up the incline. tion: The FBD of the block is shown in Fig. 59a. Since motion is impend- the incline, the maximum static friction F is directed down the incline. A liagram of the forces is formed by first selecting X and Y axes with the120 Friction [Chap. V X axis parallel to and positive in the direction of impending motion, and then imagining the block squeezed to a point coincident with the origih of the axes. The forces on the body are then applied to this point to form the concurrent system shown in Fig. 5-9b. (Note: The point diagram is sometimes more convénient than the FBD for computing components.) 2001b © Fra. 5-9. ‘The three unknowns N, F, and P are found from Eq. (5-1) and the two equations of equilibrium for concurrent forces. We now have z¥ -9) N — 200 cos 30° — P sin 30° = 0 N = 173.2 + 0.5P @) \F =4N) F = 0.2(173.2 + 0.5 P) F = 34.64+01P ® {2x = 0) P cos 30° — 200 sin 30° — F = 0 Substituting th _iue of F from (@) we obtain P=176lb Ans. | 508. Resolve Prob. 502, using the angle of friction ¢ and the total reaction of the incline on the block instead of its components F and N. 2001b RYA13;, NS P 2 R 48.7° ® a1.3°\ x - Lins 200 1b b) © Fig. 5-10. ‘Solution: Whenever the normal pressure N must be expressed in terms of an un- known foree, such as P in the preceding example, it will generally be simpler to use| he total reaction F instead of its components F and N.Art. 5-4] Laws of Friction 121 Since motion is impending, F will make the angle ¢ with N as shown in Fig. 5-10a. The value of ¢ is found from Eq. (5-2) to be [tan ¢ =f] tan ¢ = 0.20 @ = 113° ‘The block is subjected to three forces in equilibrium. The point diagram of the forces acting on the block is shown in Fig. 5-10b. This system will be recognized 8 a concurrent force system in equilibrium and may he solved by the method reloped in Art. 3-3. If the X axis is taken through R, « ¥ summation (¥ axis not shown) will de- ine P at once by eliminating R. We thereby obtain 'Y = 0} P sin 48.7° — 200 sin 41.3° = 0 P=176lb Ans. A preferred variation of this solution when only three forces are involved consists ‘applying the sine law to the force polygon shown in Fig. 5-10c. Since equilibrium , the force polygon will close. The 200-Ib weight is represented by the vertical r shown. Through the tip of this vector, a horizontal line of indeterminate gth is drawn to represent the known direction of P. From Fig. 5-10a, the known irection of R is 30° + @ = 41.3° with the vertical. A line representing R may be wn through the tail of the 200-Ib vector to intersect P as shown. Values may how be obtained graphically by scaling from the polygon, or analyt- lv by applying the sine law. Using the latter, we have eae eee sin 41.3° ~ sin 48.7° [ ence as before P=176lb Ans. 504. Determine the minimum value and the direction of a force P required to motion of a 200-Ib block to impend up a 30° incline. The coefficient of friction 0.20. 200 1b F ' RR ) Fig. 5-11, ion: The FBD of the block is shown in Fig. 5-11a. Since motion is impend- up the incline, the frictional resistance is directed Gown the incline. The reac-122 Faicrion [Chap. V tion of the plane against the block is therefore at an angle ¢ with N as shown. The value of ¢ is found from [tang =fl tan ¢ = 0.20 om 113° and R is therefore inclined at 41.3° with the vertical. If the polygon of forces is plotted as shown in Fig. 5-11b, the vector representing R may be laid off through the tail of the 200-Ib weight. ‘The vector representing P is now drawn through the tip of the 200-Ib vector perpendicular to R. This obviously will give the minimum length of P (and hence the minimum value) to intersect R. From Fig. 5-11b, we now have P = 200 sin 41.3° = 132 1b Ans. ‘The inclination of P with the horizontal is also 41.3°, whence the angle a is found 41.3° = a + 30° . @= 113" Ans. Observe that this value of a is equal to the angle of friction ¢. PROBLEMS 605. A block weighing W Ib is placed upon a plane inclined at an angle 6 with the horizontal. Discuss what will happen if the angle of friction ¢ is (a) greater than @, (b) equal to 8, (c) less than 0. 506. +A 400-Ib block is resting on a rough horizontal surface for which the co- efficient of friction is 0.40. Determine the force P required to cause motion to im- pend if applied to the block (a) horizontally or (b) downward at 30° with the hori- zontal. (c) What minimum force is required to start motion? ~ "Ans. (a) 160 Ib; (b) 240 Ib; (c) 148.7 Ib 807. The 500-Ib block shown in Fig. P-507 is in contact with a 45° incline. The coefficient of static friction is 0.25. Compute the value of the horizontal force P necessary to (a) just start the block up the incline or (b) just prevent motion down the incline. (c) If P = 400 Ib, what is the amount and direction of the friction aN 0 Fra. P-507. Fie. P-508. 608. ‘The 200-Ib block shown in Fig. P-508 has impending motion up the plane caused by the horizontal force of 400 Ib. Determine the coefficient of static friction between the contact surfaces. Ans. f = 0.66‘Art. 5-4) Laws of Friction 123 509. The blocks shown in Fig. P-509 are connected by flexible, in- xtensible cords passing over friction ss pulleys. At A the coefficients of iction are f, = 0.30 and f, = 0.20 yhile at B they are f, = 0.40 and fe = 30. Compute the magnitude and di- ection of the friction force acting on each block. Ans. Fa = 48 1b; Fz = 36 Ib 610. What weight W is necessary jo start the system of blocks shown Fig. P-510 moving to the right? coefficient of friction is 0.10 and e pulleys are assumed to be friction- Ans. W = 205 lb 11. Find the least value of P required to cause the system of blocks shown in P-511 to have impending motion to the left. The coefficient of friction under block is 0.20. Ans. P = 125 lb; a = 11.3° A homogeneous block of weight W rests upon the incline shown in Fig. . Tf the coefficient of friction is 0.30, determine the greatest height h at which e P parallel to the incline may be ap- 80 that, the block will slide up the in- 1¢ without tipping over. ‘Ans. h = 4.76 in. In Fig. P-512, the homogeneous weighs 300 Ib and the coefficient of a124 Friction twuap. + friction is 0.40. If h = 5 in., determine the force P to cause motion to impend. 614. ‘The 100-Ib cylinder shown in Fig. P-514 is held at rest on the 30° incline by weight P suspended from # cord wrapped around the cylinder. If slipping im- a pends, determine P and the coefficient of friction. fine Fie. P-514. Fic. P-515 and P-516. 515. Block A in Fig. P-515 weighs 120 Ib, block B weighs 200 Ib, and the cord is parallel to the incline. If the coefficient of friction for all surfaces in contact is 0.25, determine the angle @ of the incline at which motion of B impend: 516. Referring to Prob. 515, if the coefficient of friction is 0.60 and @ = 30°, what force P applied to B acting down and parallel to the incline will start motion? What is the tension in the cord attached to A? Ans. P = 128.6 lb; T = 122.4 1b Wey =100 Ib 5-6. Further Problems in Friction ‘The problems in the preceding article were concerned, for the most part, with only one body and were introductory in character. In this article we Shall discuss further applications of the principles of friction. Although these problems are slightly more advanced, we shall see that no further principles of friction are required; all that is necessary is the development PF the proper technique to solve the problems with the minimum of effort. In some of the problems, it will be simpler to use the frictional and normal components of a surface reaction; in others we should use the total surface tenction. A general rule is this: when the normal pressure can be computed Girectly in terms of known forces, use the frictional and normal components of the surface reaction, but for other cases, use the total surface reaction. Further, when only three forces act on a free body, usually apply the sine law to the triangle of forees. When more than three forces are involved, of which only two are unknown, it is suggested that force summations be taken. with respect to perpendicular axes one of which coincides with one of the unknown forces. Finally for non-concurrent systems, always con;, 5-5] Further Problems in Friction 125 ider the possibility of eliminating two of the unknown forces by taking a moment summation about the intersection of their lines of action, or if this is not convenient, consider force summations that will involve one, or at nost two, of the unknown forces. By applying these suggestions, it will usually be possible to determine each unknown quantity independently of 1e others. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS 817. The blocks shown in Fig. 5-12 are separated by a solid strut which is at- ched to the blocks with frictionless pins. If the coefficient of friction for all sur- aces is 0.20, determine the value of the horizontal force P to cause motion to im- nd to the right. : First draw the FBD of each block. Observe that the strut exerts an but oppositely directed force C on each block. Since motion is impending, friction forces may be computed from the relation F = fN. In this problem, start with the 200-Ib block on which the unknown forces are R, and C.. When C is determined, the unknown forces on the 400-Ib block will likewise reduce ly two, viz., Pand Rz In Fig. 5-13b, the reaction R; is inclined at the angle friction ¢ with the normal pressure. ‘The value of ¢ is determined from Eq. (5-2). we obtain =f tan ¢ = 0.20 $= 113° the three forces acting on the 200-Ib block are in equilibrium, they form the triangle shown in Fig. 5-13c. Applying the sine law, we find the value of C Cae 200 sin 56.3° sin 63.7° der now the 400-Ib block (Fig. 5-13a) on which, since C is now known, there the unknown forces P and Rs. In this instance, it is easier to replace Rs or C= 1861bFic. 5-13. (not shown) by its components F; and Nz. The reason for this change in technique is that Nz can be expressed directly in terms of known forces. Thus we obtain my -9) Nz — 400 — 186 sin 30° = 0 N = 493 Ib Since motion impends, the friction force is found from the relation iF = fN) F = 0.20 X 493 F = 98.6 1b Finally P is determined from the condition [2x =0) P — F; — 186 cos 30° = 0 P = 98.6 + 161 = 259.6lb Ans. 518. A plank 20 ft long is placed on rough inclined planes at an angle of 15° with the horizontal as shown in Fig. 54a. The angle of friction is ¢ = 15° at both in- cfines. If the weight of the plank is W-= 200 Ib concentrated at 10 ft from end A, compute the minimum distance z from B at which a load P = 100 Ib can be placed before slipping impends. Solution: When P is placed too close to B, this end tends to slip down and end A toslip up. To resist the impending motion, the reactions at A and B are inclined at the angle of friction ¢ with their normal pressures so that their components along the inclines oppose the tendency to slip. ‘The distance z can be determined by equating a moment summation about B to@) @) Fig. 5-14. 9. Since this summation involves the value of Ra, we start by applying the sine | to the polygon of forces shown in Fig. 5-14b. This gives Ra _ 300 ‘sin 30° ~ sin 105° in applying a moment summation about B, it is convenient to express the mo- ‘of Ra in terms of components acting through A which are parallel and per- adicular to AB. Noting that Rx is inclined at 60° with 4B, we then obtain 5 = 0} (Ra sin 60°)(20) — 200(10 cos 15°) — 100(z cos 15°) = 0 ce substituting the value Ra = 155 Ib, we find z=78ft Ans. or = Ra = 1551b PROBLEMS 9. In Fig. P-519, two blocks are connected by a solid strut attached to each k with frictionless pins. If the coefficient of frietion under each block is 0.25 B weighs 270 Ib, find the minimum weight of A to prevent motion. Ans. Wa = 600 Ib Fis. P-519, P-520, and P-521.128 Fricrion [Chap. V 820. Referring to Fig. P-519, block A weighs 400 Ib and B weighs 300 Ib. If f = 0.20 under B, compute the minimum coefficient of friction under A to prevent motion. Y Z 621. In Fig. P-519, if f = 0.30 under both blocks and A weighs 400 Ib, find the maximum weight of B that can be started up the incline by applying to A aright- ward horizontal force P of 500 Ib. Ans. Ws = 263 lb 522. Repeat Illus. Prob. 517, assuming that the strut is a uniform rod weighing 3001b, Hint: First isolate the strut as a free body, resolving its end forces into com- ponents acting along and perpendicular to the strut. Ans. P = 424 1b 523, A force of 400 Ib is applied to the pulley shown in Fig. P-523. ‘The pulley is prevented from rotating by a force P applied to the end of the brake lever. If the coefficient of friction at the brake surface is 0.20, determine the value of P. Ans, P = 3001b Fic. P-523. Fic. P-524. 524. A horizontal arm having a bushing 2 in. long is slipped over a 2-in. diameter vertical rod, as shown in Fig. P-524. The coefficient of friction between the bushing and the rod is 0.20. Compute the minimum length L at which a weight W can be placed to prevent the arm from slipping down the rod. Neglect the weight of the arm. Ans. L = 5in. 625. A uniforni ladder 16 ft long and weighing W Ib is placed with one end on the ground and the other against a vertical wall. The angle of friction at all contact surfaces is 20°. Find the minimum value of the angle @ at which the ladder can be inelined with the horizontal before slipping occurs. Ana. 0 = 50° 526. A ladder 20 ft long weighs 40 Ib and its center of gravity is 8 ft from the bottom. The ladder is placed against a vertical wall so that it makes an angle of 60° with the ground. How far up the ladder can a 160-Ib man climb before the ladder is on the verge of slipping? The angle of friction at all contact surfaces is 15°.5-5] Further Problems in Friction 129 |. A homogeneous cylinder 3 ft in diameter and weighing 300 Ib is resting on © inclined planes as shown in Fig. P-527. If the angle of friction is 15° for all con- surfaces, compute the magnitude of the couple required to start the cylinder tating counterclockwise. Ans. C = 159 lb-ft Instead of a couple, determine the minimum horizontal force P applied gentially to the left at the top of the cylinder described in Prob. 527 to start the inder rotating counterclockwise. | Fic. P-527 and P-528, Fi. P-529. As shownin Fig. P-529, a homogeneous cylinder 2 ft in diameter and weigh- 120 Ib is acted upon by a vertical force P. Determine the magnitude of P essary to start the cylinder turning. Assume that f = 0.30. A plank 10 ft long is placed in a horizontal position with its ends resting two inclined planes, as shown in Fig. P-530. The angle of friction is 20°. Deter- ne how close the load P can be placed to each end before slipping impends. Ans. 0.76 ft; 2.81 ft w Fra. P-530. Fig. P-531. A uniform plank of weight W and total length 2 L is placed as shown P-531 with its ends in contact with the inclined planes. ‘The angle of friction - Determine the maximum value of the angle « at which slipping impends. I Ans. a = 36.2° In Fig. P-532, two blocks each weighing 150 Ib are connected by a uniform bar which weighs 100 Ib. If the angle of friction is 15° under each block,130 Fricriow [Chap. V find P directed parallel to the 45° incline that will cause impending motion to the left. Ans. P = 75.81b Fie. P-533. 533. A uniform bar AB, weighing 424 Ib, is fastened by a frictionless pin to a block weighing 200 Ib as shown in Fig. P-533. At the vertical wall, f = 0.268 while under the block, f = 0.20. Determine the force P needed to start motion to the right. Ans. P = 430 Ib 5-6. Wedges ‘The principles involved in dealing with wedges are no different from those previously described. Actually, the wedge problem shown in Fig. 5-15 is very similar to Illus. Prob. 517 on page 125. The length of the strut in that type of problem is here reduced to zero 80 that the blocks make direct contact; also the shape of the blocks is changed so that they make contact, along a common surface. The contact reactions between the blocks at this common surface are not only equal and oppositely directed on the free-body diagram of each block; they also act so that their tangential or frictional components along the common contact surface oppose the im- pending motion of each block. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 634. The block A in Fig. 5-15 supports a load W = 1000 Ib and is to be raised by forcing the wedge B under it. The angle of friction for all surfaces in contact ia @ = 15°. Determine the force P which is necessary to start the wedge under the block. Solution: "The original system of block and wedge is acted upon by the three unknown forces P, Ri, and Rs. ‘The reactions R; and 2; make the angle ¢ with their normals and are directed as shown s0 as to oppose the motion. Since the position of the forces is unknown and dimensions are unspecified, the equation of equilibrium, =M = 0, cannot be applied. It will be necessary to consider the FBD of each body shown in Fig. 5-16.(Art. 5-6] Wedges 131 { W=1000 Ib F h ke Fic. 5-15. — Block raised by wedge. hs ‘W=10001b = SE132 Friction [Chap. V ‘Acting on the FBD of block A in Fig. 5-16a, in addition to W and R,, is the reaction R, exerted by. the wedge B upon the block. These reaction forces are in- clined to the normals of the contact surfaces so that their projections upon the contact surfaces oppose the impending motion. Rs is directed at an angle @ — 15° with the normal or, as shown, at an angle of 35° with the vertical. Adding these forces tip-to-tail gives the force polygon shown. ‘The FBD of wedge B in Fig. 5-16b, in addition to P and Rz, also has the force Rs exerted upon it by the block A. Note that Rs acting on the wedge is numerically ‘equal to Rs acting on the block. This follows from Axiom 4 relating to action and reaction forces. ‘The force polygon for the forees acting on the wédge is also shown. By applying the sine law to the force polygon shown in part (a), we obtain R, 1000 Sa tose Pee ee Using this value of Rs in the foree polygon of part (b), the sine law gives P 1503 aa a TTBE P=1192Ib Ans. If a graphical solution is desired, the above values could be scaled directly from the force polygons. PROBLEMS 585. A wedge is used to split logs. If ¢ is the angle of friction between the wedge ‘and the log, determine the maximum angle a of the wedge so that it will remain em bedded in the log. Ane. a= 2 536. In Fig. P-536, determine the minimum weight of block B that will keep it at rest while a force P starts block A up the inclined surface of B. The weight of A is 100 Ib and the angle of friction for all surfaces in contact is 15°. Fic. P-536. ‘537. In Fig. P-537, determine the value of P just sufficient to start the 10° swedge under the 400-Ib block. ‘The angle of friction is 20° for all contact surfaces. 638. In Prob. 537, determine the value of P acting to the left that is required to pull the wedge out from under the 400-Ib block. Ans. P = 203 ibAns. fe wedge out from under the block? (a) P = 1299 Ib, (b) P = 284 1b "640. As shown in Fig. P-540, two blocks, each weighing 200 Ib and resting on a orizontal surface, are to be pushed apart by a 30° wedge. The angle of friction is 5° for all contact surfaces. What value of P is required to start movement of the ks? How would this answer be changed if the weight of one of the blocks were nsed to 300 Ib? Ans. P = 73.3 lb; no change P ‘200015 ea AG i 3 Fro. P-541, 1. Determine the force P required to start the wedge shown in Fig. P-541. angle of friction for all surfaces in contact is 15°. ‘Ans. P = 944 1b What force P must be applied to the ges shown in Fig. P-542 to start them under 2000 1b block? ‘The angle of friction ‘or all contact To adjust the vertical position of a column supporting a 2000-Ib load, 5° wedges are used as shown in Fig. P-543. Determine the force P necessary to wedges if the angle of friction at all surfaces is 25°. Neglect friction at the Ans. P = 2085 Ib In Illus. Prob. 534, if the angie of friction is 10° at all surfaces in contact, he maximum wedge angle a that will give the wedge a mechanical ad+ ; Le., make P tess than the weight W of the block. Ans. a = 25°134 Friction [Chap V 5-7. Square-Threaded Screws A square-threaded screw is essentially an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder. Thus in Fig. 5-17 the inclined plane of height L and base b, if wrapped around the cylinder, would create the helix shown. An actual square-threaded screw results when the ipelined plane has a certain width and constant thickness as it is wrapped around the cylinder. ‘The result is pictured in Fig. 5-18, As before, the height of the equivalent inclined plane is the distance L, which is called the lead of the screw. ‘This is the distance that a nut will advance slong the screw in one revolution. In the case of a single- threaded serew, the lead is synonymous with the pitch, which is the distance a Fria. 5-18. — Square-threaded Fic. 5-17. — Helix formed by inclined plane. screw. between similar points on adjacent threads. In a multiple-threaded serew, the lead is mp, where m denotes the multiplicity of thread- Fic. 5-9. — Forces on a square-threaded screw.rt. 5-7] Square-Threaded Screws 135 The base length of the equivalent inclined plane is taken as the Feumference of the ican radius of the thread and is expressed as b = 2-an € mean radius is equal to one-half the sum of the outer radius and the radius of the thread. ‘The pitch angle 6 of the equivalent inclined plane E L etermined from the relation tan @ = punt hen the screw is used to lift a weight, as in a jackscrew, the weight may med to be concentrated on one small element of the thread, as shown . 5-19. The force Q, acting in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the ‘and at the mean radius of the thread, is determined from the free. diagram of the weight shown on the equivalent inclined plane in 5-20a. b=2nr @ @) Fi. 5-20. — Motion impending up equivalent incline. Vith motion impending up the incline, the value of Q is obtained from foree triangle (Fig. 5-20b) to be Q = W tan ( + 6) (a) motion impending down the incline, the free-body diagram and the gram are as shown in Fig. 5-21, from which we obtain Q = W tan (¢ — 6) @ @ ‘Pia. 5-21. — Motion impending down equivalent incline.136 Friction {Chap. V It is evident that if the screw is to be self-locking, the angle of friction ¢ must be larger than the pitch angle @. ‘The force P exerted at the end of a lever arm of length a (see Pig. 5-19) is detennined from the principle that the moment of P with respect to the axis of the screw must equal the moment effect of Q. We obtain Pa = Qr or, Pati Win gio) (6-3) PROBLEMS 545. A single-threaded jackscrew has a pitch of 0.5 in. and a mean radius of 1.75in. The coefficient of static friction is 0.15, and of kinetic friction, 0.10. (a) De- termine the force P applied at the end of a lever 2 ft long which will start lifting a weight of 2 tons. (b) What value of P will keep the jackscrew turning? Ans. (a) P = 57.4 1b; (b) P = 42.7 Ib 548. The distance between adjacent threads on a triple-threaded jackscrew is in. The mean radius is 2 in. ‘The coefficient of friction is 0.10. What load can be raised by exerting a moment of 2000 Ib-ft? 647. As shown in Fig. P-547, a square-threaded screw is used in « vise to exert a pressure of 2 tons. If the screw is double-threaded and has a pitch of 0.25 in. and a mean radius of 1.5 in., determine the torque that must be applied at B to create this | pressure. Assume the coefficient of frietion to be 0.15. Ans. M = 102.5 lb-ft 548. A single-threaded square screw has 2} threads per inch. The root diameter is 2.6 in. and the outside diameter is 3 in. The coefficient of friction is 0.10. Deter- mine the moment necessary to start lifting a vertical axial load of 40,000 Ib. What moment is necessary to start lowering the load? 6-8. Belt Friction _ The transmission of power by means of belt or rope drives or the braking of large loads by means of band brakes depends upon the frictional resist- ance developed between the belt and the driving or resisting surface with which it is in contact. If a driving pulley is perfectly smooth, no driving torque is developed because no frictional resistance exists, and consequently the tension throughout the belt will be constant and will have the same value on both sides of the pulley. If the surface of the pulley is rough, how: ever, the tension in the belt will varv throughout the length of contact, the5-8) Beit Friction 137 rence in the belt tensions being caused by the frictional resistance. is article we shall discuss the limiting case of belt friction when slipping ds. re 5-22 represents a pulley of radius r driven in a clockwise direction ins of the friction developed between its surface and the belt. The is in contact with the pulley throughout an angle @ determined by radii awn to the points of tangency of the belt. It is evident that the driving e is caused by the difference in tension between T; in the tight side 4 5-22. — Belt friction; clockwise Fia. 5-28. — Free-body diagram of an rotation. os ‘cloment of the bel” belt and 7% in the slack side. The difference in the tensions is gradu- taken up in the friction between the belt and the surface of the pulley. examine this difference in tensions by considering a free-body ram of a small element of the belt located at an angle @ from the tangent of the slack side of the belt. Ye now apply the conditions of equilibrium to Fig. 5-23. If the thickness e belt is neglected, a summation of moments about the center of the gives (2 +dT)r—Tr—r-dF=0 i dF =dT (@) the forces upon the ¥ axis gives av — (+d?) sinF — Tsin® =o an = 27 sin + a7 sin ®138 Friction [Chap. V whence, neglecting the product of differentials as being negligibly small and noting that for small angles the sine is practically equal to the angle ex- pressed in radians, we have aN =27-9= Tae ® ‘When slipping impends, the friction relation gives \F = JN) aF = fT de © Eliminating dF between Eqs. (a) and (¢) we obtain aT = fT do @ whence, separating the variables and integrating over the line of contact of the belt, we have Th aT f emer aee whence log. Ft = 48 © tg! De ee : (6-4) T Note that the angle of contact @ must be expressed in radians. ‘The above equation is easily solved by using common logarithms: logic F! = logue 7, — logue Ts — 04348 (6-4) ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM engine. ‘The dimensions are shown in Fig. 5-24. Determine the torque M on the brake when P = 10 1b, Assume the coefficient of kinetic friction to be 0.20. “Solution: ‘The tension T; must be greater than T in order for the frictional moment (7; — T;)r to resist M. From the FBD of the bell crank (Fig. 5-24b), summation of moments about the hinge A gives [eM = 0) 2x 10+4T% =2Ts ‘Another relation between T, und T; is found by applying Eq. (5-5). This gi [lose Fi - 040408 | = 0.434 X 0.2 X §a = 0.409 from which qm Ron Ae,Fra. 5-24. — Differential band brake. Eqs. (a) and (6) simultaneously, we obtain T,=7131b and 7, = 2781b hen the torque exerted upon the brake is » (T, — Ts)r] M = (713 — 278) x 10 M = 4350 Ib-in. Ane. PROBLEMS A rope making 14 turns around a stationary horizontal drum is used to a heavy weight. If the coefficient of friction is 0.4, what weight can be by exerting a 50-Ib force at the other end of the rope? » A rope wrapped twice around a post will support a weight of 4000 Ib j a force of 50 Ib is exerted at the other end. Determine the coefficient of Ans. f = 0.349 A boat exerts a pull of 4000 Ib on its hawser which is wrapped about a non the dock. If the coefficient of friction is 0.3, how many turns must the1588, A torque of 240 Ib-ft acts on the brake drum shown in Fig. P-553. If the bend is in contact with the brake drum through 250” and the coefficient of friction is 0.3, determine the force P at the end of the brake lever. Ans. P = 61.7 lb 564, _In Fig. P2554, the coefficient of friction is 0.20 between the rope and the fixed drum and between all surfaces jn contact. Determine the minimum weight W to prevent downplane motion ‘of the 1000-Ib body. Ans. W = 253 lb 655. In Fig. P-555, 2 flexible belt runs from A over the compound pulley P, around the floating pulley B and back over P to a 200-Ib weight. The coefficient of friction is 2 between the pelt and the compound pulley P. Find the maximum weight W that can be: [=w,_] supported without rotating the pulley Fic. P-555. P or slipping the belt on the pulley P. Ans. W = 704 lb 6-9. Rolling Resistance When wheels, cylinders, or similar objects roll without slipping along flat surfaces, the frictional resistances are generally assumed to be static, ‘As ia shown in Art. 13-6, the unbalanced moment causing motion is deter: mined in these cases by taking a moment summation about the line of contact with the ground. For example, in Fig. 5-25, if the ground is rigid and unyielding, a moment summation about C becomes zero because the weight W passes through C ‘Thus, theoretically, 8 wheel once ect in motion on & horizontal surface would roll forever, because no retarding forces sre set up. Actually we “know this to be falee. ‘The resistance to the motion of e wheel in such c js called rolling resistance. This resistance 1s the result of the wheel rolli against a yielding surface, asin Fig. 5-26. A similar effect would be cat when a yielding wheel rolls upon a rigid surfaee or, as is usually the cam) when both the wheel and the surface yield. ‘The ground in front of Wheel ia depressed, causing the normal pressure N’ to act ahead of the lit Sf action of the weight W. When we take moments about the line of o: wat C, we find that a resisting moment af magnitude Wb is created w! iere IN oh . 5-25. — Wheel on a rigid surface. Fra. 5-26, — Wheel on a yielding surface. iy sts the forward rolling of the wheel. The small distance b is known as coefficient of rolling resistance. Since the dimension of this coefficient pressed in inches, this coefficient is not synonymous with the coefficient ‘iction, which was defined in Art. 5-2 as a ratio between the frictional stance and the normal pressure. Moreover, it differs from the usual inition of the cocfficient of friction in that it is not constant. Although coefficient of rolling resistance is usually assumed to be constant, ex- iment shows that it varies with the radius of the wheel. In the case of ry stecl railroad whcels on stecl rails, it is about 0.02 in. SUMMARY Friction is defined as the contact resistance exerted by one body upon a md body when the sccond body moves or tends to move past the first In Art. 5-2, the relation between the frictional resistance F, the ficient of friction f, and the normal pressure N at the surface of contact expressed by a F=jN (6-1) carefully that Eq. (5-1) determines only the maximum resistance h can exist. When motion is not impending, the friction may have value from zero up to F, depending on the resultant force tending to je motion. frequently desirable to consider the contact reaction R rather than omponents F and N (see Art. 5-3). When limiting friction is acting, ‘contact reaction will be inclined at the angle of friction @ with the I pressure. The angle of friction is related to the coefficient of friction bs ti equation. ae fea142 {Chap. V eo "The torque required to turn a square-threaded screw (Art. 5-7) against S load W is expressed in terms of the pitch angle @, the angle of friction #, ‘nd the mean radius r by the equation j M = Wrtan (6 +6) (5-8) ‘The plus sign is used when W resists the torque; the minus sign, when Ww aids the torque. ‘The difference in belt tensions T: and 7; caused by wrapping » belt through a contact angle of 8 radians results in the following relation: Ras eas i loge F! = 0.434 J8 5) where f is the coefficient of friction (see Art. 5-8).