STUDY GUIDE

MEC03- MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES

MODULE 3
TORSION

INTRODUCTION
Members in torsion are encountered in many engineering applications. The most common application is
provided by transmission shafts, which are used to transmit power from one point to another. When a circular
shaft is subjected to torsion, every cross section remains plane and undistorted. Therefore, while the various
cross sections along the shaft rotate through different angles, each cross section rotates as a solid rigid slab.
This property helps to determine the distribution of shearing strains in a circular shaft and to conclude that
the shearing strain varies linearly with the distance from the axis of the shaft.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the module, the students should be able to:
1. Know the concept of torsion in structural members and machine parts
2. Define shearing stresses and strains in a circular shaft subject to torsion
3. Define angle of twist in terms of the applied torque, geometry of the shaft, and material
4. Use torsional deformations to solve indeterminate problems
5. Design shafts for power transmission
6. Define the behavior of thin-walled hollow shafts

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1

For this Module; simple Strain; Mechanics of Materials by Beer et al, pages
148- the author described thoroughly the concept of torsion and its
application to engineering materials.

3.1 CIRCULAR SHAFT IN TORSION

the shaft used to transmit power from engine to the rear wheels of automobile. These shafts can be either solid or hollow.
Consider the system shown in Figure 3.3a, which consists of a steam turbine A and an electric generator B connected by
a transmission shaft AB. By breaking the system into its three component parts (3.3b), you can see the turbine exerts a
twisting couple or torque T on the shaft and that the shaft exerts a twisting couple or torque on the generator. The
generator reacts by exerting the equal and opposite torque T’ on the shaft, and the shaft by exerting the torque T’ on the
turbine.

IIn deriving the torsion formulas, we make the following assumptions. The assumptions may be proved mathematically,
and some may be demonstrated experimentally. The first two apply only to shafts of circular section.
1. Circular sections remain circular.
2. Plane sections remain plane and do not warp.
3. The projection upon a transverse section of straight radial line in the section remains straight.
4. Shaft is loaded by twisting couples in planes that are perpendicular to the axis of the shaft.
5. Stresses do not exceed the proportional limit.
DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS
Figure 3.1 shows two views of a solid circular shaft. If a torque is applied at the ends of the shaft, a fiber AB on the outside
surface, which is originally straight, will be twisted into a helix AC as the shaft is twisted through the angle θ. This helix is
formed as follows:
Imagine the shaft to consist of innumerable thin slices, each of which are rigid and joined to adjacent slices by elastic
fibers. Slice ② will rotate past slice ① until the elastic fibers joining them are deformed enough to create a resisting
torque which balances the applied torque. When this happens, slices ① and ② will act as a rigid unit and transmit the
torque to slice ③; this slice will rotate enough so that the elastic fibers joining it and slice ② develop a resisting torque
equal to the applied torque. This type of deformation proceeds throughout the length L of the shaft. The helix AC is the
line joining the original reference line AB on these slices as they become infinitely thin. This description of the twisting
action is idealized, but the resulting helix is accurately described; actually, all such slices start rotating simultaneously
relative to each other as soon as the torque is applied, the angle of rotation θ becoming larger as the applied torque is
increased.

Consider now any internal fiber located a radial distance ρ from the axis of the shaft. Form assumption 3, the radius of
such a fiber also rotates through the angle θ, causing total shearing deformation δs equal to DE. The length of this
deformation is the arc of a circle whose radius is ρ which is subtended by the angle θ radians; the length is given by

δs = DE = ρθ (a)

Then the deformation of this fiber is

𝛿𝑠 𝜌𝜃
γ= 𝐿
= 𝐿
(b)

the shearing stress at this typical fiber is determined from Hooke’s Law to be

𝐺𝜃
τ = Gγ = ( 𝐿 ) 𝜌 (c)

Equation (c) may be called the equation of compatibility, since the stresses expressed by it are compatible with the elastic
deformations. Note that each of the terms in the parentheses in this equation is a constant which does not depend upon
the particular internal fiber chosen for analysis; the product of these terms represents a constant. Therefore we conclude
that the shearing stress at any internal fiber is determined by the product of a constant and a variable radial distance; i.e.
the stress distribution along any radius varies linearly with the radial distance from the axis of the shaft. Figure 3.1 illustrated
the stress variation along the radius OB; the maximum stress occurs at the outside fiber and is denoted by max. τ.
In line with general procedure outlined, the shaft is divided into two segments by a cutting plane M-N. Figure 3.2 shows
the free-body diagram of the left-hand portion.

A differential area of section M-N at a radial distance ρ from the axis of the shaft carries the differential resisting load dP
= τdA. By considering an area infinitesimally small, we may assume the stress to be uniform over such an area. Since the
function of this resisting load dP is to produce resistance to the applied torque T, the load must be directed perpendicular
to the radius ρ in order to produce the maximum effect. It is true, but difficult to prove here, that in circular section dP is
directed perpendicular to ρ; nevertheless, we may take it as axiomatic that loads always distribute themselves as
efficiently as possible. It is this variation of the principle of the conservation of energy that determines the direction of
dP as perpendicular to ρ so that it produces maximum torsional resistance.
To satisfy the condition of static equilibrium, we apply ∑ 𝑀 = 0, or the fact that the applied torque T equals the resisting
torque T’r. The resisting torque Tr is the sum of the resisting torques developed by all differential loads dP:

T = Tr = ∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑃 = ∫ 𝜌 (𝜏 𝑑𝐴)

Replacing τ by its value from equation (c)

𝐺𝜃
T=
𝐿
∫ 𝜌2 𝑑𝐴

𝐺𝜃
Or, since ∫ 𝜌2 𝑑𝐴 = J, the polar moment of inertia of the cross section, T = 𝐽 this is usually written
𝐿

𝐓𝐋
θ = 𝐉𝐆

In order for θ to be proper units in radians, T must be in N.m and L in m; J of course is in m4, and G is in N/m2. By replacing
the product Gθ/L in equation (c) by its equivalent value T/J, we obtain,
𝑻𝝆
τ= this is called the torsion formula. The formula that determines the maximum shearing stress is a more
𝑱
common form of the torsion formula. It is obtained by replacing ρ by the radius r of the shaft.
𝑻𝒓
Max. τ = these formulas are applicable only to circular shafts, either solid or hollow.
𝑱

𝝅𝒓𝟒
From statics the polar moment of inertia of a circle of radius r is J =
𝟐
𝝅
and for hollow circular shaft J = (𝑹𝟒 − 𝒓𝟒 )
𝟐

Therefore;
𝟐𝑻 𝟏𝟔𝑻
Solid shaft: Max. τ = 𝝅𝒓𝟑 = 𝝅𝒅𝟐

𝟐𝑻𝑹 𝟏𝟔𝑻𝑫
Hollow shaft: Max. τ = 𝝅(𝑹𝟒 − 𝒓𝟒 ) = 𝝅( 𝑫𝟒 − 𝒅𝟒 )
SOLVING PROBLEMS ON YOUR OWN
EXERCISES 3.1

1. Determine the torque T that causes a maximum shearing stress of 45 MPa in the hollow cylindrical
steel shaft shown. (b) Determine the maximum shearing stress caused by the same torque T in a solid
cylindrical shaft of the same cross-sectional area.

2. (a) Determine the maximum shearing stress caused by a 40-kip-in. torque T in the 3-in.-diameter solid
aluminum shaft shown. (b) Solve part a, assuming that the solid shaft has been replaced by a hollow
shaft of the same outer diameter and of 1-in. inner diameter.

3. The torques shown are exerted on pulleys A, B, and C. Knowing that both shafts are solid, determine
the maximum shearing stress in (a) shaft AB, (b) shaft BC.
4. Under normal operating conditions, the electric motor exerts a torque of 2.4 kN.m on shaft AB.
Knowing that each shaft is solid, determine the maximum shearing stress in (a) shaft AB, (b) shaft BC,
(c) shaft CD.

5. Under normal operating conditions a motor exerts a torque of magnitude TF at F. The shafts are made
of a steel for which the allowable shearing stress is 12 ksi and have diameters dCDE 5 0.900 in. and
dFGH 5 0.800 in. Knowing that rD 5 6.5 in. and rG 5 4.5 in., determine the largest allowable value of TF
3.2 ANGLE OF TWIST IN THE ELASTIC RANGE & STATICALLY INDETERMINATE
SHAFTS
SOLVING PROBLEMS ON YOUR OWN
EXERCISES 3.2

1. Two shafts, each of 7/8 -in. diameter, are connected by the gears shown. Knowing that G = 11.2 X106
psi and that the shaft at F is fixed, determine the angle through which end A rotates when a 1.2
kip.in. torque is applied at A.

2. Two solid steel shafts, each of 30-mm diameter, are connected by the gears shown. Knowing that G =
77.2 GPa, determine the angle through which end A rotates when a torque of magnitude T = 200 N.m
is applied at A.
 3. The design of the gear-and-shaft system shown requires that steel shafts of the same diameter be used
for both AB and CD. It is further required that tmax ≤ 60 MPa and that the angle 𝜙𝐷 through which end
D of shaft CD rotates not exceed 1.5°. Knowing that G = 77.2 GPa, determine the required diameter of
the shafts.

4. The electric motor exerts a torque of 800 N.m on the steel shaft ABCD when it is rotating at a constant
speed. Design specifications require that the diameter of the shaft be uniform from A to D and that the
angle of twist between A and D not exceed 1.5°. Knowing that tmax ≤ 60 MPa and G = 77.2 GPa,
determine the minimum diameter shaft that can be used.

5. The steel jacket CD has been attached to the 40-mm-diameter steel shaft AE by means of rigid flanges
welded to the jacket and to the rod. The outer diameter of the jacket is 80 mm and its wall thickness
is 4 mm. If 500-N?m torques are applied as shown, determine the maximum shearing stress in the
jacket.

1.
3.3 DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION SHAFTS

In many applications, shafts are used to transmit power. From dynamics, it is known that the power Ρ transmitted by a
constant torque T rotating at a constant angular speed ω is given by

P = Tω where ω is measured in radians per unit time. If the shaft is rotating with a frequency f revolutions per unit time,
ω = 2πf, and we have
P = T2πf Thus the torque can be expressed as

𝑷
T=
𝟐𝝅𝒇

With P measured in watts (1W = 1 N.m/s) and f in revolutions per second (r/s), and T in (N.m)
SOLVING PROBLEMS ON YOUR OWN
EXERCISES 3.3

1. A solid shaft in a rolling mill transmits 20kW at 4 r/s. Determine the diameter of the shaft if the shearing stress is
not to exceed 40MN/m2 and the angle of twist I limited to 6° in a length of 3 m. Use G = 8GPa.

2. What size of shaft should be used for the rotor of a 3.7-kW operating at 3600rpm if the shearing stress is not to
exceed 60MPa in the shaft?

3. A shaft consisting of a steel tube of 50-mm outer diameter is to transmit 100 kW of power while rotating at a
frequency of 20Hz. Determine the tube thickness which should be used if the shearing stress is not to exceed to
60MPa.

4. A 1.5m long tubular steel shaft of 38-mm outer diameter d1 and 30-mm diameter d2 is to transmit 100kW
between a turbine and a generator,. Determine the minimum frequency at which the shaft can rotate. Knowing
that G = 77.2GPa, that the allowable shearing stress is 60MPa, and that the angle of twist must not exceed 3°.

5. One of two hollow drive shafts of a cruise ship is 40m long, and its outer and inner diameters are 400mm and
200mm, respectively the shaft is made of a steel for which τ all = 60MPa and G = 77.2 GPa. Knowing that the
maximum speed of rotation of the shaft is 160rpm, determine, (a) the maximum power that can be transmitted
by one shaft to its propeller, (b) the corresponding angle of twist of the shaft.

6. The stepped shaft shown must rotate at a frequency of 50 Hz. Knowing that the radius of the fillet is r
= 8 mm and the allowable shearing stress is 45 MPa, determine the maximum power that can be
transmitted

7. The stepped shaft shown must transmit 45 kW. Knowing that the allowable shearing stress in the
shaft is 40 MPa and that the radius of the fillet is r = 6 mm, determine the smallest permissible speed
of the shaft.
 8. Knowing that the stepped shaft shown transmits a torque of magnitude T 5 2.50 kip?in., determine
the maximum shearing stress in the shaft when the radius of the fillet is (a) r 5 1 8 in., (b) r 5 3 16 in.

9. A torque of magnitude T = 200 lb.in. is applied to the stepped shaft shown, which has a full quarter-
circular fillet. Knowing that D = 1 in., determine the maximum shearing stress in the shaft when (a) d
= 0.8 in., (b) d = 0.9 in.

10. In the stepped shaft shown, which has a full quarter-circular fillet, the allowable shearing stress is 80
MPa. Knowing that D = 30 mm, determine the largest allowable torque that can be applied to the
shaft if (a) d = 26 mm, (b) d = 24 mm.

3.4 TORSION OF THIN-WALLED TUBES; SHEAR FLOW

In figure 3-9a we consider a tube of arbitrary shape with a variable thickness t which is relatively small compared with the
dimensions of the cross section. Figure3-9b shows, enlarged, a free body of a typical element of length ∆L cut from tis
tube. The torsional stress τ1 across the thickness t1 induces a numerically equal longitudinal stress. Similarly, across
thickness t2, a different torsional shearing stress τ2 is accompanied by a numerically equal longitudinal stress.

The resultants of these longitudinal shearing stresses are

F1 = q1∆L and F2 = q2∆L

𝑡/2
Where the symbol q represents ∫−𝑡/2 𝜏𝑑𝑡 . The term q is called the shear flow and is a convenient concept in cases where
the precise distribution of shearing stress across a thickness of the element, we have

q1∆L = q2∆L or q1 = q2
the equivalence of the shear flow at two arbitrary positions means that the shear flow must be constant around the cross
section of the tube. In fact, the name shear flow is based on the mathematical analogy between shear flow and the
obviously constant flow of an incompressible fluid around a closed channel whose boundaries are the inner and outer
walls of the tube.

To relate shear flow to the applied torque T, consider Figure 3-10. Over any infinitesimal length dL, the tangential force is
qdL, and its contribution toward resisting the torque is measured by its moment r(qdL) about any convenient center O.
since the moment of the torsional couple T is independent of a moment center, on equating T to the summation of such
contributions, we have

T = ∫ 𝒓𝒒𝒅𝑳

Instead of carrying out this integration, we note that rdL is twice the area of the shaded triangle whose base is dL and
whose altitude is r. consequently, since q is constant, the value of the integral is q times twice the area A enclosed by the
center line of the tube wall, or

T = 2Aq

Finally, the average shearing stress across any thickness t is given by

𝒒 𝑻
τ=𝒕 = 𝟐𝑨𝒕

PROBLEMS
1. A tube has a semicircular shape shown. If stress concentration at the corners is neglected, what torque will cause
a shearing stress of 40MPa?

2. A torque of 600N.m is applied to the rectangular section shown. Determine the wall thickness t so as not to
exceed a shear stress of 60MPa. What is the shear stress in the short sides? Neglect stress concentration at the
corners.

3. A tube 3mm thick has the elliptical shape shown. What torque will cause a shearing stress of 60MPa? (Answer: T
= 3.18kN.m)
 4. A tube 3mm thick has the shape shown. Find the shearing stress caused by a torque of 700N.m if dimension a =
75mm.

5. Find dimension a in Problem #4 if a torque of 600N.m causes a shearing stress of 70MPa. (Answer: a = 55.7mm)
6.

SUMMARY
• Deformations in Circular Shafts

𝟐𝑻 𝟏𝟔𝑻
Solid shaft: Max. τ = 𝝅𝒓𝟑 = 𝝅𝒅𝟐

𝟐𝑻𝑹 𝟏𝟔𝑻𝑫
Hollow shaft: Max. τ = 𝝅(𝑹𝟒 − 𝒓𝟒 ) = 𝝅( 𝑫𝟒 − 𝒅𝟒 )
𝐓𝐋
Angle of twist, θ =
𝐉𝐆

• Design of transmission shaft:

P = Tω where ω is measured in radians per unit time. If the shaft is rotating with a frequency f revolutions
per unit time, ω = 2πf, and we have

P = T2πf Thus the torque can be expressed as

𝑷
T = 𝟐𝝅𝒇

With P measured in watts (1W = 1 N.m/s) and f in revolutions per second (r/s), and T in (N.m)

• Shear flow on thin-walled tube:

T = 2Aq

Finally, the average shearing stress across any thickness t is given by

𝒒 𝑻
τ=𝒕 = 𝟐𝑨𝒕

REFERENCES
Beer et al, Mechanics of Materials 7th Edition, McGraw Hill, 2015

Hibbeler, Russel C., Mechanics of Materials, 6th ed. Prentice Hall, Inc., 2011

Strength of Materials 4th Edition, Andrew Pytel and Ferdinand singer, Harper Collins, 1997

Mechanics of Materials 8th Edition, James M. Gere & Barry J. Goodno, Cengage Learning 2013