DISTRIBUTED

GENERATION – CONTROL
AND PROTECTION

Arindam Ghosh
Professor in Power Engineering
School of Engineering Systems
Queensland University of Technology
Brisbane, Qld, Australia
 Greenhouse Gas Reduction
„ Climate Change is driving major changes in the energy industry.
„ The Australian Government has set an immediate target of 20%
greenhouse gas reduction by 2020.
„ The long-term target being 60% reduction by 2050.
„ The number of electric vehicles will increase in the future, causing a
major shift in peak electricity demand patterns.
„ This will also have the effect of shifting some of the vehicular
carbon emission reduction target to electricity generation.
„ Thus the actual greenhouse reduction target for electricity
generation is expected to be greater than 60%.
„ Major changes in the generation mix and in the transmission and
distribution infrastructure are required to address these operational
challenges.
„ There will also be a major shift in the patterns of electricity
consumption.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 2

 Transmission Changes
„ Many of sources of renewable energy are intermittent in
nature.
„ Therefore their integration into transmission networks
needs large-scale deployment of phasor measurement
units (PMUs).
„ These can provide network measurements from widely
dispersed locations, which are synchronized through a
global positioning system (GPS).
„ This enables relative changes in the voltage and current
phase angles to be computed across the network.
„ Robust nonlinear wide area measurement and control
(WAMC) strategies have to be developed to maintain the
overall system stability (both voltage and angle).
Prof. Arindam Ghosh 3
 Transmission Changes (Contd.)
„ Dynamic power flow control strategies will be needed to
deliver the energy generated in remote areas to high-
consumption areas, generally in urban locations.
„ The intermittent nature of the renewable sources makes
it difficult to accurately predict where the power
generation will be a maximum at any given time.
„ Power electronic-based Flexible AC Transmission System
(FACTS) controllers need to be employed to route the
power from any available sources to high demand areas,
or to storage resources.
„ This raises key research questions as to the optimal
placement and sizing of FACTS and integration with wide
area control design.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 4

 Markets and Policies
„ Good sites for wind, solar thermal and geothermal power
generation may be located in areas distant from, or with
limited connectivity to, existing transmission lines.
„ Current transmission investment is largely decided on a
project by project basis.
„ Nation building is a very important concept, which needs
to be presented in a market context.
„ In Australia, the major wind power centers are in South
Australia and Tasmania.
„ The geothermal and solar-thermal potential is high in
Central Australian deserts.
„ To transfer power from these sites to major load centers
of Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane needs major
transmission infrastructure justifications.
Prof. Arindam Ghosh 5
 Markets and Policies (Contd.)
„ Again, to maximize the utilization of the available source
and transmission capacities, it is desirable to buffer the
lines from sudden changes in loading.
„ Therefore the timing of ancillary services, storage and
demand management should be correlated to available
renewable generation resources.
„ Scheduling based on forecasts is critical for the future
grid.
„ Scheduling and power flow controls should operate in
cohesion.
„ Demand side management will be a critical part of
meeting the renewable scheduling constraints.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 6

 Distribution Changes
„ The current IEEE recommended industry practice
(P1547) is to isolate all distributed generators (DGs)
from the grid in the event of a fault in the grid.
„ This approach is adequate when the total capacity of the
DGs is not significant and they can be removed without
major impact on the system.
„ However it is expected that the penetration level of grid-
connected DGs will increase substantially over the next
few decades.
„ In addition, the number of Plug-in Hybrid Electric
Vehicles (PHEVs) will increase in the near future.
„ Also microgrids will become popular in rural communities
and commercial buildings.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 7

 Distribution Changes (Contd.)
„ Existing distribution systems have a simple power flow –
radially outwards from power stations.
„ These will have to be modified.
„ The future distribution systems will have to be re-
designed to accommodate the non-radial nature of
power flows in a more complex distributed generation
environment.
„ The non-radial nature will make the existing overcurrent
protection system unviable since the elements of the
system cannot be coordinated.
„ It is desirable that the DG protection systems should
work in conjunction with the protection of networks,
implying a paradigm shift in protection principles.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 8

 Distribution Changes (Contd.)
„ The installation of a large number of single-phase DGs
with different ratings will
„ have severe impacts on power quality (PQ) due to the
introduction of voltage imbalance and harmonics.
„ require new solutions for control synchronization since all the
distributed resources must work together
„ require enhanced strategies for automation of distribution in
terms of demand management
„ require strategies for complex self reorganizing networks
„ require reactive power control strategies to provide acceptable
voltage levels throughout the network.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 9

 Sources of Renewable Energy
„ Wind turbines and wind farms
„ Solar photovoltaic (PV) cells
„ Solar-thermal energy
„ Fuel Cells
„ Geothermal
„ Wave and tidal energy
„ Biomass
„ Micro or mini hydro
Prof. Arindam Ghosh 10
Wind Power
„ A wind turbine consists of
two or three propeller-like
blades.
„ The rotor is attached to
the top of a tall tower.
„ As the wind blows it spins
the rotor.
„ As the rotor spins, it
produces energy.
„ Wind farms are places
where many wind
turbines are clustered
together.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 11

 Types of Wind Generators
Type A: Conventional
Induction Generator

Type B: Wound Rotor

Induction Generator
with Variable Rotor
Resistance

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 12

 Types of Wind Generators (Contd.)

Type C: Doubly Fed

Induction Generator
(DFIG)

Type D: Full Converter

Interfaced

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 13

 Wind Power Potential
„ A recent study finds that wind power could provide for the entire
world’s current and future energy needs.
„ The researchers first sectioned the globe into areas of
approximately 3,300 square kilometers and surveyed local wind
speeds every six hours.
„ They imagined 2.5 megawatt turbines crisscrossing the terrestrial
globe, excluding “areas classified as forested, areas occupied by
permanent snow or ice, areas covered by water, and areas
identified as either developed or urban.”
„ They also included the possibility of 3.6 megawatt offshore wind
turbines, but restricted them to 50 nautical miles off the coast and
to oceans depths less than 200 meters.
„ Using this criteria the researchers found that wind energy could not
only supply all of the world’s energy requirements, but it could
provide over forty times the world’s current electrical consumption
and over five times the global use of total energy needs.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 14

 PV
„ Solar PVs are arrays of
cells containing a material
that converts solar
radiation into direct
current electricity.
„ Materials presently used
for PVs include
amorphous silicon,
polycrystalline silicon,
microcrystalline silicon,
cadmium telluride, and
copper indium
selenide/sulfide.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 15

 PV (Contd.)
„ Photovoltaic production has been doubling every 2
years, increasing by an average of 48 percent each year
since 2002.
„ This makes it the world’s fastest-growing energy
technology.
„ At the end of 2008, the cumulative global PV
installations reached 15,200 megawatts.
„ Roughly 90% of this generating capacity consists of grid-
connected electrical systems.
„ Solar PV power stations today have capacities ranging
from 10-60 MW although proposed solar PV power
stations will have a capacity of 150 MW or more.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 16

Solar-Thermal
„ A Spanish company has
started producing
household electricity from
the world’s first solar
thermal plant named PS-
10 near Seville.
„ Giant mirrors are placed
on the ground that tracks
the sun all day long and
reflects its light on a
white tower.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 17

 Solar-Thermal (Contd.)
„ PS-10 is in operation since March 2006 and
generates 11 MW of power.
„ Another 300 additional reflectors are being
installed that will increase the output of the
plant to a massive 300 Megawatts by 2013.
„ It is speculated that the massive heat build up
could easily melt all the metal in the tower if
water that is being circulated is made to stop.
„ This water is converted to steam and is then
used to power the turbines located at the base
of the tower.
Prof. Arindam Ghosh 18
 Other Forms of Generation

Geothermal Hydro Fuel Cell

Microturbine

Tidal

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 19

 Accelerating Torque
„ Electric power is generated by converting mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
„ The rotor mass, which contains turbine and generator
units, stores kinetic energy due to its rotation.
„ This stored kinetic energy accounts for sudden increase
in the load.
„ Let us denote the mechanical torque input by Tm and the
output electrical torque by Te.
„ Neglecting the rotational losses, a generator unit is said
to be operating in the steady state at a constant speed
when the difference between these two elements of
torque is zero.
„ This means the accelerating torque, Ta = Tm – Te = 0

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 20

Rotor Acceleration/Deceleration
„ When the electric power demand increases suddenly,
the electric torque increases.
„ However, without any feedback mechanism to alter the
mechanical torque, Tm remains constant.
„ Therefore the accelerating torque becomes negative
causing a deceleration of the rotor mass.
„ As the rotor decelerates, kinetic energy is released to
supply the increase in the load.
„ The system frequency, which is proportional to the rotor
speed, also decreases.
„ We can thus infer that any deviation in the frequency for
its nominal value is indicative of the imbalance between
Tm and Te.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 21

 Power-Frequency Relation

„ From this figure, we can write

1 Δf
ΔPm = ΔPref − Δf where − R =
R ΔPm
Prof. Arindam Ghosh 22
 Power-Frequency Relation
(Contd.)
„ Suppose an interconnected power system contains N
turbine-generator units.
„ The steady-state power-frequency relation is the
summation of each of these units as
⎛1 1 1 ⎞
ΔPm = ΔPm1 + ΔPm 2 + Λ + ΔPmN = ΔPref − ⎜⎜ + +Λ + ⎟⎟Δf
⎝ R1 R2 RN ⎠

„ Since all the generators are supposed to work in

synchronism, the change is frequency of each of the
units is the same and is denoted by Δf .

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 23

 Power-Frequency Relation
(Contd.)
„ Then the frequency response characteristics is

1 1 1
β= + +Λ +
R1 R2 RN

„ The total power-frequency relation is then

ΔPm = ΔPref − βΔf

„ We have discussed what is called the frequency droop.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 24

 Frequency Droop
„ Then real power-frequency and reactive power-voltage
magnitude relations are
ω = ωrated − m × (P − Prated )
V = Vrated − n × (Q − Qrated )
„ m and n are the droop coefficients
„ ωrated is the synchronous frequency
„ V is the magnitude of the converter output voltage at a
frequency of ω
„ P and Q respectively denote the active and reactive
power supplied by the converter.
Prof. Arindam Ghosh 25
 Angle Droop
„ Assume that all the DGs are voltage source converter
(VSC) interfaced.
„ The angle of the output voltage can be changed
instantaneously along with its magnitude.
„ Therefore, the angle can be used in the droop equation
instead of frequency.
„ Then real power-angle and reactive power-voltage
magnitude relations are

δ = δ rated − m × (P − Prated )
V = Vrated − n × (Q − Qrated )

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 26

 2-DG System

„ Let us define
„ X1=ωL1 /(V1V)
„ X2 = ωL2 / (V2V)
„ XL2 = ωLLine2/(V2V)
„ XL1 = ωLLine1 /(V1V)

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 27

 Interpretation of Angle Droop
„ The offset in the angle droop is taken such that when
DG output power is zero, the DG source angle is zero.
„ Therefore, the rated droop angles are taken as
„ δ1rated = m1P1rated
„ δ2rated = m2P2rated.
„ We then have

P1 X 2 + X L 2 + m2
=
P2 X 1 + X L1 + m1

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 28

 Interpretation (Contd.)
„ It is to be noted that the value of X1 and X2 are very
small compared to the value of m1 and m2
„ For example, m1 is 10 times X1 when X1 = 0.02595
rad/MW
„ Moreover when the distribution lines are mainly resistive
with low line inductance and the DG output inductance is
much larger.
„ Therefore

m1 >> X 1 >> X L1 and m2 >> X 2 >> X L 2

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 29

 Interpretation (Contd.)
„ Let us choose the droop coefficients as inversely
proportional to the rating of each DG.
„ Then

P1 m2 P1rated
≈ =
P2 m1 P2 rated

„ Power sharing can be improved further by taking the

output inductances inversely proportional to the DG
rating.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 30

 An Example
„ Let us consider the simple 2-DG system.
„ The output impedances of the two sources are chosen in
a ratio of 1:1.33.
„ The rated output powers are also chosen in the reverse
ratio of 1.33:1.
„ No reactive power droop has been used.
„ The voltage magnitudes are held constant.
„ Both frequency and angle droop controller gains are
chosen at 50% of their respective marginal stability
points.
„ The VSCs and DGs ratings for both cases are assumed to
be identical.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 31

 Example (Contd.)
„ The load is assumed to be resistive.
„ The changes in the customer load are represented as a
random walk process.
„ The load conductance is chosen as the integral of a
Gaussian white noise source with zero mean and
standard deviation of 0.01 Mho.
„ The output inductances of the two converters are 25 mH
and 18.8 mH.
„ The impedance of line 1 is 0.25 + j1.6 while impedance
of line 2 is 0.1 + j0.95.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 32

 Example (Contd.)

Frequency Droop Angle Droop

Standard deviation = 0.153 rad/s Standard deviation = 0.0011 rad/s

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 33

Example (Contd.)

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Impact of High Droop Gains

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 Sample System

„ The sample system has

„ 9-buses
„ 4-DGs
„ 5-loads
„ All the DGs are VSC interfaced

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 36

Eigenvalue Clusters

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 37

Supplementary Droop Controller

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 38

Eigenvalues with Supplementary
Controller

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 39

Operation with and without
Supplementary Controller

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 40

Controlled Bidirectional Power Flow

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 41

Power Quality Improvement

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 42

Power Sharing in High R/X Lines
„ Conventional is the droop
Percentage Error in Power Sharing
control mentioned before
20 „ Controller-1 is a droop
18
18.24
control derived by
16
decoupling real and
14

12 Conventional
reactive power.
Controller-2 uses a slow
% error

„
9.98 Controller-1
10

update rate web-based

Controller-2
8 Full_comm

4
3.54
communication.
2 „ High bandwidth
communication shows the
0.5
0

least error.
1

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 43

 Distribution System Protection
„ Most of the existing distribution systems are radial due
to the simplicity.
„ These are equipped with low cost of overcurrent
protection.
„ Once a DG is connected within the main utility system,
this pure radial nature no longer exists.
„ The existing protection devices may not respond in the
same fashion as they are expected.
„ This change in response may be due to the change
„ in parameters, such as source impedance
„ short circuit capacity level
„ fault currents levels at different locations.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 44

 Protection Issues

„ Some of the major protection issues when

DGs get connected to a system are:
„ Islanding and resynchronization
„ Grounding and Inter-tie transformer
connection
„ Coordination between protective devices

„ Protection with current-limited converters

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 45

Utility Grid and Microgrid

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 46

 Islanding
„ Islanding occurs when the main supply is disconnected and at least
one DG in the disconnected system remains operational.
„ If DG is allowed to remain on, customer benefits in terms of
reduced outages obtained.
„ However islanding may increase the risk for personnel and
equipment.
„ It can also cause reduction in performance standards for voltage
and frequency.
„ Thus power quality in the island cannot be guaranteed, as well as,
the non-curtailment of loads.
„ Moreover, coordination between islanded DG and utility system can
cause equipment damage due to phase mismatch if automatic
recloser try to connect the islanded section with the main.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 47

Islanding Example

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 48

 Islanding (Contd.)
„ At the moment of islanding, the generation and load capacity may
not be matched.
„ With synchronous generators, if loads are larger than the
generation, the generators will slow down and under frequency
tripping may occur.
„ Load shedding scheme is required.
„ If loads are less than the generation, generators would experience
over frequency tripping.
„ Fast governor control will be required to balance the power.
„ In a total VSC based system, a total system collapse will occur
within milliseconds if the loads are more than generation.
„ Therefore, there is a need to identify the islanding condition as
preventive measures have to be taken at the point of islanding.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 49

 Islanding Protection
„ An islanding protection relay should detect the islanding condition, typically
within 200 to 400 ms and should trip all generators.
„ On the other hand, it should not trip for the small frequency variations in
the system.
„ Islanding detection schemes use voltage, frequency, active power and
reactive power.
„ ROCOF relay needs very sensitive settings for the fast islanding detection
under the small imbalances of active power.
„ But it may cause the anti islanding relay to trip for small frequency
variations.
„ Usually frequency tripping requirements (i.e. under and over frequency
tripping) of a relay and islanding detection relay settings should be
analyzed separately.
„ Thus two relays are required – one for under/over frequency protection of
the generator and another for the islanding detection.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 50

 Earthing
„ According to neutral connection, an earthing system is
categorized as TT, IT and TN.
„ In a TT system, both the protective earth connection of
consumer load and source are connected to ground.
„ In IT connection, the source has no connection to earth,
but the protective earth connection of consumer is
grounded.
„ In TN connection, the protective earth connection of the
consumer is connected via to the ground through the
same source earth.
„ Preferred microgrid earthing is TT.
„ Micro-grid grounding system should match transformer
connection.
Prof. Arindam Ghosh 51
Transformer Connection

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 52

 Delta-Wye (Grounded)
„ Delta in utility side.
„ Wye side is resistance grounded to reduce the fault
current during a ground fault.
„ For a ground fault at the microgrid, no ground current
flows from the utility side.
„ Conversely for a ground fault in the utility, no ground
current flows from the micro-grid.
„ For a utility fault, the microgrid back feeds fault current
and creates an energized ungrounded system.
„ This may cause safety problems and over voltages.
„ In this event, the protection system should detect the
loss of voltage and disconnect the microgrid itself.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 53

 Wye (Grounded)-Delta
„ Delta in microgrid side.
„ No ground is available for grounding the
microgrid generators.
„ An additional grounding transformer is required
to provide a common ground.
„ Advantages
„ No ground current flows from the utility for the fault
at the microgrid.
„ There is no over voltage for the ground fault at the
utility.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 54

Wye (Grounded)- Wye (Grounded)
„ This will provide a path for the ground fault current flow
which is undesirable.
„ For example, a ground fault at the microgrid may cause
the relays at the utility to respond due to the high fault
current from the utility to microgrid.
„ No over voltage is expected for utility side faults.
„ The earthing issues have to be addressed in conjunction
with transformer connection.
„ Thus it is necessary to define an earthing system
according to the transformer connection for dealing with
both the interconnected and islanding mode of the
microgrid.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 55

 Protection Coordination

„ Fault current seen by fuse will

increase after the DG
connection.
„ Probability of losing coordination Recloser fuse coordination graph
between recloser and fuse is
high.
Prof. Arindam Ghosh 56
Overcurrent Relay Coordination

„ Relays coordinated through

CTS and TDS.
„ Discrimination time used
between relays.
„ Discrimination between the
relays will be lost with DGs.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 57

 Relay Coordination

¾ After DG is connected,
ƒ R3 and R4 sense more current for faults beyond BUS-4
ƒ R2 sense negative current for faults between BUS-1
and Bus-2
ƒ Coordination no longer exists
Prof. Arindam Ghosh 58
 A New Relay Characteristics
30

25

Normalised admittance
20

15

10

5
⎛ Ym ⎞
Yr = abs⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 0
⎝ Yt ⎠ 0 500 1000 1500
Distance (km)
2000 2500 3000

Variation of normalised admittance

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 59

 New Tripping Characteristics
t – tripping time
A
t= Yr – normalised admittance
p
Yr − 1 A, p – constants

⎛ Ym ⎞
Yr > 1; abs⎜⎜ ⎟ > 1;
⎟ abs (Ym ) > abs (Yt )
⎝ Yt ⎠
¾ For relay tripping
measured admittance > total admittance

¾ Relay reach setting can be implemented by choosing a suitable

value for Yt

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 60

 Relay Reach Setting
„ Relay reach setting is essential for primary and backup
protections.
„ For a particular relay, different values for Yt can be
assigned to generate a number of required zones of
protection as in a distance relay.
„ However, since this relay has an inverse time
characteristic, it is not required to keep a safety margin
in Zone-1 to compensate errors.
„ This is an advantage over conventional distance relays.
„ Furthermore, any upstream relay always provides the
back up protection for the immediate downstream relay.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 61

Zone Assignment
„ The relays R1 and R2 are
located at BUS-1 and
BUS-2 respectively.
„ Relay tripping time is
shown for the faults
along the feeder.
„ For a fault at point A,
even if the relay R2 fails
to operate, R1 will provide
a backup in Zone-2.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 62

New Relay Grading

In case of OC relays, the

relay near to the source
takes longer time to
operate due to the relay
coordination setting
(TDS).

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 63

 Reverse Reach
„ Since the absolute value is used in the normalizing
process, the relay can isolate the faults occurring at
either side of the relay in a radial feeder.
„ If the distribution network consists of these relays
located at equal distances, the same forward and
reverse reach can be used to isolate forward and reverse
faults.
„ However for the relay to operate for reverse faults, there
must be an infeed from a DG that is located downstream
from the relay.
„ When the relays are not placed equidistant from one
another, the reach setting should be different for
forward and reverse faults.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 64

Relay Algorithm

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 65

 Some Results

„ The DGs operate in constant current limiting mode.

„ The maximum output current is twice the rated current.
„ The relay response is observed with these relay settings
by generating single-line-to-ground (SLG) faults at
exactly the mid point between two buses.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 66

 RELAY TRIPPING TIME

Fault Location Relay tripping time with fault resistance of 0.01 Ω

(seconds)
R1 R2 R3 R4
Bus-1 & Bus-2 0.076 0.223 1.123 N.O.
Bus-2 & Bus-3 0.226 0.101 0.133 1.424
Bus-3 & Bus-4 0.862 0.227 0.101 0.170
Bus-3 & Bus-4 1.515 0.892 0.227 0.102

Fault Location Relay tripping time with fault resistance of 5Ω

(seconds)

R1 R2 R3 R4
Bus-1 & Bus-2 0.262 1.078 1.461 N.O.
Bus-2 & Bus-3 1.499 0.283 1.400 N.O.
Bus-3 & Bus-4 1.516 1.190 0.283 1.717
N.O. = No Operation
Bus-3 & Bus-4 1.673 1.278 0.942 0.623

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 67

 Discussions
„ Shaded portion of each table indicates the relay tripping
time for reverse faults.
„ The relays operate for high fault resistance faults as
well.
„ But the operating time is considerably high.
„ The operating time can be changed by changing the
estimated value of the fault resistance in the normalized
admittance calculation.
„ The results for a fault between buses 2 and 3 are
shown in the next slide.
„ The time of R1 and R4 has been obtained assuming that
R2 and R3 have failed to response for the fault

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 68

Tripping Time
„ R4 response time is
comparably high due to
the infeed effect of DGs.
„ Relay R4 only measures
the current of one DG
when 3 DGs are feeding
the fault from the
downstream side.
„ Therefore measured
admittance calculated by
R4 is not accurate and it
causes a higher tripping
time.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 69

 Transient Faults
„ For isolating transient, the inverse time admittance relay
characteristic must operate in conjunction with converter control.
„ A fold-back current control may be desirable for arcing faults.
„ Furthermore, reclosing possibilities are to be considered to increase
the reliability further.
„ A converter control strategy has been proposed that is capable of
maintaining a DG connected to the network after a fault and does
not require its immediate disconnection.
„ Moreover, the fault ride through capability of a converter can be
increased indirectly due to the fold back current limit.
„ Furthermore, the arc will self-extinguish and the system will self-
restore if the DGs are employed with fold-back controller.

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 70

 Fold-Back Control

Voltage Control Current Control

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 71

Prof. Arindam Ghosh 72