IMC 6.09 TOT & Compendium

MODEL
COURSE
o0
0
TRAINING COURSE FOR

INSTRUCTORS
COURSE + COMPENDIUM
International Maritime Organization

Model Course 6.09
Training Course
for Instructors
IMO
Model Course developed under the IMO — Norwegian programme

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This training course for Instructors is based on material

developed for IMO by Petter C. Omtvedt,
of Petter C. Omtvedt & Associates,
Maritime and Educational Consultants, 3864 Rauland, Norway
Printed by Ashford Press
Published by the
International Maritime Organization,
London
First Edition 1991

Second Edition 1995
Copyright © IMO 1995
TM 609E
ISBN 92-801-1335-6
Contents
Page
Foreword v....
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Introducti on 1....
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Part A: Course Framework
Part B: Course Outline 9
Part C: Detailed Syllabus 13
Part D: Instructor Manual 21
Part E: Assessment of Participants 61
Appendix 1: International Chamber of Shipping -

Fire Casualty Reports 11, 12, 13 and 15 65
Appendix 2: Cargo Consolidation - Simulation Exercise -

Information for the Instructor Roles 75
Appendix 3: Specimen examination questions -

objective format 86
Information Requested of Instructors who implement

IMO Model Courses 87
Attachment: Guidance on the Implementation of IMO Model Courses

Foreword
Since its inception the International Maritime Organization has
recognized the importance of human resources to the development of
the maritime industry and has given the highest priority to assisting
developing countries in enhancing their maritime training capabilities
through the provision or improvement of maritime training facilities at
national and regional levels. IMO has also responded to the needs of
developing countries for postgraduate training for senior personnel in
administration, ports, shipping companies and maritime training
institutes by establishing the World Maritime University in Malmo,
Sweden, in 1983.
Following the earlier adoption of the International Convention on

Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers,
1978, a number of IMO Member Governments had suggested that
IMO should develop model training courses to assist in the
implementation of the Convention and in achieving a more rapid
transfer of information and skills regarding new developments in
maritime technology. IMO training advisers and consultants also
subsequently determined from their visits to training establishments
in developing countries that the provision of model courses could
help instructors improve the quality of their existing courses and
enhance their effectiveness in meeting the requirements of the
Convention and implementing the associated Conference and IMO
Assembly resolutions.
In addition, it was appreciated that a comprehensive set of short model

courses in various fields of maritime training would supplement the
instruction provided by maritime academies and allow administrators
and technical specialists already employed in maritime administrations,
ports and shipping companies to improve their knowledge and skills in
certain specialized fields. IMO has therefore developed the current
series of model courses in response to these generally identified needs
and with the generous assistance of Norway.
These model courses may be used by any training institution and the
Organization is prepared to assist developing countries in
implementing any course when the requisite financing is available.
W. A. O'NEIL
Secretary-General
v
Introduction
■ Purpose of the model courses
The purpose of the IMO model courses is to assist maritime training

institutes and their teaching staff in organizing and introducing new
training courses, or in enhancing, updating or supplementing existing
training material where the quality and effectiveness of the training
courses may thereby be improved.
It is not the intention of the model course programme to present

instructors with a rigid "teaching package" which they are expected to '
follow blindly'. Nor is it the intention to substitute audio-visual or '
programmed' material for the instructor's presence. As in all training
endeavours, the knowledge, skills and dedication of the instructor are
the key components in the transfer of knowledge and skills to those
being trained through IMO model course material.
Because educational systems and the cultural backgrounds of trainees

in maritime subjects vary considerably from country to country, the model
course material has been designed to identify the basic entry
requirements and trainee target group for each course in universally
applicable terms, and to specify clearly the technical content and levels
of knowledge and skills necessary to meet the technical intent of IMO
conventions and related recommendations.
■ Use of the model course
To use the model course the instructor should review the course plan
and detailed syllabus, taking into account the information provided under
the entry standards specified in the course framework. The actual level
of knowledge and skills and prior technical education of the trainees
should be kept in mind during this review, and any areas within the
detailed syllabus which may cause difficulties because of differences
between the actual trainee entry level and that assumed by the course
designer should be identified. To compensate for such differences, the
instructor is expected to delete from the course, or to reduce the
emphasis on, items dealing with knowledge or skills already attained
by the trainees. He should also identify any academic knowledge, skills
or technical training which they may not have acquired and do something
about it.
1
TRAINING COURSE FOR INSTRUCTORS
The model courses include sample questions which will assist the
instructor in evaluating whether or not the trainee has attained the
learning objectives.
In order that a model course should run smoothly and be effective,

considerable attention must be paid to the availability and use of:
q properly qualified instructors;
q support staff;
q rooms and other spaces;
q equipment;
q textbooks, technical papers; and
q other reference material.
Thorough preparation is the key to successful implementation of the

course. IMO has produced a booklet entitled "Guidance on the
implementation of IMO model courses", which deals with this aspect in
greater detail.
■ Purpose of the Training Course for Instructors
Instructors chosen for the conduct of model courses should be fully

qualified in the subject matter of the course which they are going to
teach. They may, however, be uncertain about the range of training
techniques and the effective conduct of training courses.
Each model course package contains some advice to the instructors in

the form of references and guidelines which will assist them to conduct
the course. In addition, the booklet "Guidance on the implementation
of IMO model courses" referred to above provides valuable advice.
Nevertheless, a need was identified to offer a course for instructors
which would not only review current training techniques but actually
provide insight into course management and an opportunity to
experience various training techniques. While this course is specifically
concerned with the knowledge, skills and attitudes which are required
for efficient implementation of the IMO model courses, it should also be
of benefit for the planning and conduct of other courses.
The course material draws heavily on a number of sources, most notably

those that are included in the bibliography.
Part A
Course Framework
■ Scope
This course is primarily intended for instructors who will be responsible

for the conduct of IMO model courses, but is equally suitable for those
who are responsible for the conduct of other courses.
The course is of limited duration and therefore cannot be considered

as providing comprehensive teacher training, which would take much
longer. However, the course does include many principles of teaching
together with their applications in training, using various styles of
learning.
The topics covered should serve as a valuable introduction for those

who have little experience in teaching and also as a very useful refresher
for experienced instructors. Furthermore, those whose teaching
experience has been mainly associated with lecturing will gain
considerable benefit insofar as they will explore and experience a variety
of teaching/learning techniques.
In the introductory part, the course reviews IMO model courses, their
objectives and the requirements of the participants in them.
In its subsequent parts, the course deals with basic aspects of the
learning process, the purpose of training, the setting of training objectives
and basic principles of course design.
The main part of the course deals with the techniques of training and
the particular responsibilities of trainers. This involves conventional
teaching and training methods, participative training techniques (such
as task solving, both individually and in groups), simulation exercises
involving 'role playing' as well as the most common forms of teaching,
e.g. audio-visual presentation. While ìdeal' solutions are sought in this
part of the course, the practical constraints which instructors face are
taken into account. Adaptation to local circumstances is an important
part of the course and should be demonstrated when appropriate.
3
Further, the course covers the assessment of participants for various

purposes such as admittance to courses, possible adjustments of
teaching plans to suit entry qualifications, monitoring progress etc., and
the issue of a diploma where applicable. Finally, the issues pertaining
to course evaluation are covered.
The `learning style' of the course is highly participative. Less than 30%
of course time is allocated to the presentation of substantive material.
The remainder is allocated to the solving of problems and developing
skills in other ways.
■ Objective
Participants successfully completing the training course for instructors

should be capable of undertaking all of the responsibilities expected of
instructors within their field of expertise. They will be fully aware of the
range, types, content and opportunities offered by IMO model courses.
They will also be familiar with the concepts generally taken into account
when formulating a training policy and be able to develop training
objectives, select the most appropriate learning processes and develop
the means of evaluating the process.
The principal aim is to develop individual trainer attributes.
Thus, the thrust of the course is directed at promoting the knowledge,

skills and attitudes which the "ideal" trainer should possess, i.e.:
Training awareness:
— the process of identifying training needs;
— the potential benefits of training.
Training skills relating to:
the process of learning;
course design;
methods of teaching;
presentation techniques;
— assessment of trainees;
evaluation of courses.
Managerial skills and aptitudes relating to:
— planning;
— organizing;
— identifying and providing resources;
— leadership;
- interpersonal relationships.
PART A: COURSE FRAMEWORK
■ Entry standards
In general terms, those wishing to enter this course should be qualified

within the areas that they are to teach. With particular regard to the
IMO model courses, this would involve groups I — VII as defined in the
IMO Model Course Programme: i.e., courses for Seagoing Staff (short/
specialized), Seagoing Staff (advanced), Maritime Safety/Pollution
Prevention (administration), Shipping Company Staff, Long Courses
or STCW Certificate courses.
Ideally, those entering the course will have had some experience in
training, although those who are about to enter the profession would
also be suitable. The balance of new entrants to experienced participants
will affect the nature of the course and should be made known to the
course instructors as early as possible.
■ Diploma
On completion of the course — if assessment which indicates the

participants' usefulness as prospective instructors can be made a
document may be issued certifying that the holder has successfully
completed the training course for instructors. If, on the other hand,
assessment is not used for that purpose, then a certificate of attendance
would suffice.
■ Student number limitation
The intake of participants should be approximately 16 to 20 to allow

about four or five in each group. This will allow each trainee to benefit
fully from the participative emphasis of the course. It is important that
the number of experienced teacher participants is adequate to ensure
that there is informed discussion in each working group.
■ Staff requirements
The conduct of the course will require a minimum of two experienced

instructors, who should have an adequate background and knowledge
of maritime practices. They should preferably have some experience
from work in the educational and training environment of maritime
colleges in the countries where the course is to be run. At least one,
who would normally be the course leader, should be competent in the
field of training and trainer development.
5
The instructors should be capable of operating the kind of audio-visual

equipment which could be expected to be available.
It would be an obvious benefit if at least one of the staff had previously

participated in the course.
Participants may seek answers to local problems and opinions on a

wide range of issues which affect them. While such matters may not be
included in the planned course it would be of considerable advantage if
the instructors had a sufficiently wide experience to handle such matters.
■ Teaching facilities and equipment

A classroom, four smaller rooms suitable for group work and a work
room for the instructors must be provided. In addition, there must be
assistance available for typing, photocopying and the usual office
facilities. The classroom must be equipped with an overhead projector
and screen, desks, tables, chairs, white-boards or blackboards and
writing materials or flip-over board and writing materials, etc. The
ambience should be one which will encourage everyone to participate
in active discussions. For the most part the arrangement should be that
all participants can face each other, i.e. facing inwards in a rectangle or
a similar configuration. A video camera, etc. would be an asset but is
not essential.
The group rooms should be provided with a table and chairs, giving
ample work space for approximately four or six participants and an
observer.
For the purpose of conducting an interactive simulation exercise a

telephone or intercom communications should be established between
group rooms and a room in which the staff can be based.
■ Teaching aids (A)

The requirements for each trainee are:
A l : Course Manual (to be issued to trainees at the end of the

course)
A2: Course Compendium
A3: IMO booklet "IMO — What it is, what it does, how it works"
A4: IMO booklet "Guidance on the implementation of IMO model
courses"
A5: IMO catalogue — Model Course Programme.
6
PART A: COURSE FRAMEWORK
A supply of IMO model courses is required. An absolute minimum would

be four (one per group) but it would be better if more were available.
An ideal situation would be to have one copy for each trainee of, say,
the following selection:
IMO Model Course 1.19 "Personal Survival"
IMO Model Course 1.20 "Basic Fire Fighting"
These two courses may be already possessed at the training location
and sufficient copies for half of the trainees of:
IMO Model Course 3.14 "Maritime Search and Rescue Mission
Co-ordinator"
IMO Model Course 3.09 "Port State Control"
IMO Model Course 5.03 "Planned Fleet Maintenance and Hull

Protection"
Overhead projector transparencies and pens will be required; the
following should be sufficient:
200 plain transparencies
50 transparencies suitable for use in a photocopier
2 sets of permanent fine multicolour pens suitable for
transparencies
20 permanent fine black pens for use on transparencies
An appropriate selection of audio-visual display equipment would be
useful such as a tape slide programme, a videogram or a cine film.
7
■ Bibliography
The books listed below would supplement the Compendium to provide
support, if required, for the course instructors. They are not essential
for the running of the course.
B1 J. W. Brown, Audiovisual Instruction: Technology, Media and

Methods. (New York, McGraw-Hill, 1986) (ISBN 0-07-
066203-7) (Currently out of print)
B2 R. L. Craig(ed), Training and Development Handbook. (
New York, McGraw-Hill, 1987) (ISBN 0-07-013353-0)
B3 F. Percival and H. Ellington, A Handbook of Educational
Technology. (London, Kogan Page, 1993) (ISBN 0749-
408-499) (paperback) )
B4 A. J. Romiszowski, The Selection and Use of Instructional
Media. (London, Kogan Page, 1992) (ISBN 1-85091-7787) (
paperback)
B5 Lloyd Jones, Assessment: From Principles to Action. (
London, Macmillan Education Ltd., 1992) (ISBN 0-
415084911) (paperback)
Part B
Course Outline
The outline indicates a suggested allocation of time to each subject
area and activity. The time allocations are given under two headings:
Classroom and Exercises. The designation 'Classroom', indicates time
allocated to lectures (presentation and demonstration) as well as
discussion of the issues presented. The designation 'Exercises' indicates
time allocated to problem-solving and other tasks to be performed
individually and in groups, as well as presentation and discussion in
plenary.
It is possible to regard the course as a list of 'modules', corresponding

to 'groups' of learning objectives contained in the teaching syllabus.
On that basis, a number of different courses, with different bias and
duration within the same broad substance area, could be developed by
extracting and/or adding material to suit the needs of the participants.
This may be a useful approach when confronted with groups that may
have different qualifications or require less comprehensive training than
that envisaged.
The inputs which are required to achieve the learning objectives need
not necessarily be constant, but depend on the particular circumstances
each time the course is conducted. As a consequence, the course
outline, and particularly the time allocations and timetable, should be
treated as a guide. Experience indicates, however, that the contents,
sequence and time allocations indicated in the outline and timetable
represent a reasonable programme.
The course timetable suggests a programme for the conduct of the

course over a period of 10 working days. But longer may be necessary
dependent on the characteristics of the participants.
The timetable shows how the course work could be allocated to a ten-
day period. Roughly one-third of the time will be taken up by lectures or
introductory talks, these are not shown separately since instructors will
have to decide when best to provide their input. As written there is
ample scope to distribute lectures throughout the ten days thus avoiding
long periods of talking. The conduct of exercises is given in more detail
in Part D. No time has been indicated for any formal proceedings which
may precede or conclude the course. It will be necessary to draw up a
timetable appropriate to local conditions and constraints also to suit
the needs of the course participants.
9
Course Outline
Da
Subject Area Hours
Classroom Exercises 1
t(
1 Introduction to the course
IMO's role in world shipping and its contribution to training 1.5
2 Purpose of the Training Course for Instructors 1.5
Pilot case (simulated test course) – Exercise 1 2.0
Instructors' attributes and training needs 1.0
Structure of the course
Review of the course – learning objectives – Exercise 2 E
3 Development of a learning system, course design 4.0
Learning system 2.0
Purpose of training – learning and performance tl
A systematic approach to training and course design
Assessment of performance – analysis of problems
Analysis of tasks and jobs – training needs – Exercise 3
Course development 3.0
Writing learning objectives – Exercise 4
Identifying training needs – Exercise 5 3.0
Syllabus (contents) 8.0
4 Development of an instructional strategy
Selection of teaching methods 2.0 E
Principles of learning
Principles of designing training materials
Review D
Review ofof instructional aids – Exercise 6
teaching methods: 3.0
Reading and hand-outs – Exercise 7) ) e
Lectures – Exercise 8) )
Demonstrations, laboratory work – Exercise 9 2.0
Seminars, discussion 2.0
Group work – Exercise 10
Field work – Exercise 11 3.0
Case studies – Exercise 12 2.0
Projects, exercises 7.0
Role play, simulation games – Exercise 13
Training effectiveness – Exercise 14 1.0
Writing course material 3.5
5 Evaluation of a learning system
Assessment of participants – Exercise 15 3.0
Evaluation of training courses – Exercise 16 2.0
6 Review 1.5
Course planning and conduct, checklist of required 2.0
action – Exercise 17
Pilot case – re-examination of issues, summing up 40.00
SUBTOTALS 20.0
TOTAL 60.00
10
PART B: COURSE OUTLINE
Course Timetable
Day 1 2 4 5
3
1. Introduction 3. Development 3. (cont'd) 4. Development 4. (cont'd)
to the course of a learning of an Demonstrations
system and instructional and laboratory
course design strategy. work
Review of
exercise 14.
Review of
Exercise 4 teaching aids.
Exercise 1 Exercise 3 (cont'd) Exercise 6 Exercise 9
2. Purpose of Learning Identifying Teaching Group work

the course objectives training needs methods
Introduction to Exercise 10
Exercises 7 and
8. Writing
Introduction to hand-outs and Field work/visit
Exercise 2 Exercise 4 Exercise 5 lecturing briefing
Day 6 7 8 10
4. (cont'd) 4. (cont'd) 4. (cont'd) 5. (cont'd) 6. Review
Field work/visit Simulation – Review of Exercise 15 Course planning

role play, teaching (cont'd) and conduct
games methods.
Training Checklist of
effectiveness required action
Exercise 11 Exercise 13 Exercise 14 Exercise 17
Simulation – Exercise 13 5. Evaluation Course Exercise 17

case studies (cont'd) Trainee evaluation (cont'd)
assessment
Exercise 12 Exercise 15 Exercise 16 Summing up
11
The syllabus has been written in the form of specific learning
objectives. These objectives describe what the trainee should be
able to do to demonstrate that the objective has been achieved.
All objectives are understood to be prefixed by the words `The expected

learning outcome is that the trainee can ....................".
Each time the course is conducted, the teaching methods and/or

material will have to be reviewed and where necessary, adjusted in
order to ensure that each group of trainees can achieve the
objectives.
References are given against the learning objectives to indicate the
relevant parts of the compendium (A2), other supporting material (A3
to A5) and exercises (1 to 17) which, together with the instructor's input,
make up the substantive part of the course.
Learning Objectives A2
Other refs. and
exercises
1 IMO and its contribution to

training
.1 explain the reasons for the establishment of the 1.1 A3
.2 explain the purpose of IMO

1.2
.3 describe briefly the structure of IMO A4 and A5
1.3
.4 explain how ship standards are maintained
1.4
.5 describe IMO's involvement with the establishment of
standards of training for seafarers
.6 explain the purpose of IMO's model courses
.7 outline the range of subjects covered by model courses Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Purpose of this course
.1 list the issues to take into account when preparing
to implement a training course
.2 determine personal objectives for this course
3 Development of a learning
3.1
3.1
system and course design

.1 explain what is meant by:
education
— training
— a learning system
.2 explain the purpose of training
3.2
.3 explain the three basic components of performance
.4 describe situations where training should be of benefit
.5 explain the difference between symptoms and causes when

applied to performance at work
.6 describe the effect of learning on the person
.7 explain five areas in which training can improve

performance
14
PART C: DETAILED TEACHING SYLLABUS
Other refs. and
exercises
.8 determine a required job performance — given Exercise 3

relevant information
.9 identify training needs from given information or Exercise 11

observation
.10 determine whether a performance gap could be closed by training
.11 discuss how attitudes might be changed
.12 list the stages of developing a training course in 3.3

a simple linear form 3.4
.13 compare the simple linear form to a more realistic approach
3.5
.14 describe a suitable organization and procedure for
the development of a course
.15 explain what is meant by "specific learning 3.5.3

objective" (SLO) 3.5.4
.16 state other names used to describe SLO's or similar
.17 explain what is meant by the cognitive domain
.18 explain what is meant by knowledge, comprehension

and application
.19 explain what is meant by the affective domain
.20 explain what is meant by the psychomotor domain
.21 state that an SLO must contain a verb and an

object also possibly a constraint, conditions
and/or criteria of performance
Exercise 4
.22 write SLO's to cover a familiar area of work 3.5.4 &
3.5.5
Exercise 5
.23 determine additional knowledge and skills required in

a given case
.24 construct a series of SLO's to cover the requirements of 3.23
.25 compare the value of SLO's to the traditional syllabus of general

headings indicating areas to be taught
.26 discuss the value of issuing course SLO's to trainees
.27 discuss the constraints and issues to be considered by a

course designer 3.6.1
3.6.2
15
Learning Objectives A2 Other refs. and

exercises
4 Development of an instructional
strategy
.1 explain what is meant by "instructional strategy" 4.1
.2 discuss the factors which influence the choice of

teaching method 4.2 4.
.3 explain briefly how the various factors affect the

choice of teaching method 2.2
.4 explain the fundamental responsibilities of a teacher
.5 state that a teacher's role is to plan, manage and

control learning
.6 describe the qualities essential to be a successful teacher
.7 discuss the characteristics of trainees which 4.2.3

influence teaching methods
.8 relate the ability to remember to the use of the 4.2.4

various senses when learning
.9 explain what is meant by passive, active and interactive learning
.10 list activities related to the above
.11 compare the merits of imposed learning with

those of emergent learning
.12 select suitable teaching methods for specified 4.2.4

Exerci se 14
subject areas 4.2.5
4.2.6
.13 describe the role of the teacher in the various teaching methods
.14 explain the relationship between motivation and learning 4.3.1
.15 explain levels of motivation in a hierarchical form
.16 explain what is meant by perception 4.3.2
.17 explain the importance of perception in the learning process
.18 describe how learning sequences should be arranged to utilise

and improve perception
.19 explain how classroom configurations affect the learning process
.20 explain the importance of participation and practice 4.3.3
.21 explain how practice and repetition should be arranged
.22 describe how trainees might be stimulated to learn 4.3.6
16
PART C: DETAILED TEACHING
SYLLABUS
Other refs. and
exercises
.23 explain what is meant by a feedback in the learning 4.3.7

process
4.3.8
.24 explain the importance of feedback
.25 describe how feedback might be arranged 4.5.1
.26 explain the importance of transfer

4.5.2
.27 prepare a hand-out for a self-selected topic
4.5.4 Exercise 7
.28 prepare a ten minute lecture on a self-selected topic
4.5.3 Exercise 8
.29 present a ten minute lecture
4.5.3 Exercise 8
.30 evaluate the use of audio visual aids
4.5.5
.31 prepare audio/visual teaching aids
.32 evaluate demonstrations and laboratory work as part of Exercise 6

a learning process
Exercise 9
.33 participate in small group work as leader, member,
recorder and presenter of findings
Exercise 10
.34 discuss the value of group work as a learning process 4.5.6
to
.35 evaluate field work and visits as part of the learning process 4.5.9
.36 explain what is meant by simulation including the

use of case studies, role playing and games Exercise 11
.37 evaluate the use of case studies as part of the learning process 4.5.9 Exercise 12
.38 evaluate simulation and games as part of the learning process 4.5.10 Exercise 13
4.5.11
.39 state that all learning material should contain: 4.6
an introduction
the presentation of new information etc. a
summary
.40 explain the key features of each of the above parts
17
Other refs. and
exercises
5 Evaluation of a learning system 6
Trainee assessment
5.1
.1 explain the various uses of assessments
5.2
.2 describe ways of making assessments as good as possible
5.3
.3 explain what is meant by objective assessment
5.5
.4 explain what is meant by subjective assessment
5.6
5.6.1
.5 state the types of objective and subjective questions
to
5.6.4
.6 write objective and subjective questions Exercise 15
.7 discuss the policy of trainees being given
— access to information (books, data etc.)

during assessment
- indication of the marks available for each
part of assessment questions;
.8 explain the use of weighting is assessments
.9 discuss the issue and organization required for:
— referrals
— appeals
.10 construct an assessment for a given subject
Exercise 15
Course evaluation
.11 explain the purpose of course evaluation
.12 describe the various levels of evaluation
.13 state that evaluation can by cyclic and progressive
.14 discuss how and when evaluation should take place
.15 discuss the reliability and credibility of evaluation
.16 perform an evaluation of a given course Exercise 16
18
PART C: DETAILED TEACHING SYLLABUS
Other refs. and
exercises
Course planning, organization

and conduct
.1 summarize the issues to be considered when planning 6.1
a course
.2 construct a flow chart for the purpose of planning 6.2 Exercise 17

and conducting a course
.3 describe a structure of committees which would control 6.1

the complete planning and operation of a course 6.2
.4 determine the extent to which objectives (personal and for

the whole course) have been achieved
.5 outline a personal action plan for continuing self-development
19
PART D: INSTRUCTOR MANUAL
Part D
Instructor Manual
■ Introduction
The course is, in essence, a series of demonstrations with full
involvement by the participants of how various training techniques could
be applied to the conduct of training courses. This involves:
– Short presentations of teaching and training techniques, with
explanations of pedagogic and practical implications.
– Applications of teaching and training techniques to suitable
programme items, by the course instructors and by the
participants.
- Participants' workshops, with task-solving and interactive
exercises.
– Discussions.
The course material is in two parts: the course manual and the course
compendium. The course manual contains guidance for the instructors
who conduct the course; i.e. an outline and timetable, a syllabus in the
form of learning objectives, exercises and suggestions on how to
conduct the course. The course compendium contains the syllabus
learning objectives and substantive material. It constitutes the 'textbook'
in accordance with which the participants are to be trained and
supporting material for tasks which the instructor may wish to use.
The course compendium is suitable for distribution to the trainees. No

additional textbook should be required. The trainees should add any
hand-outs given, as well as their own notes, to the compendium as the
course develops. Only then will they have a complete set of materials
at the conclusion of the course. The compendium should not, however,
be distributed at least until after the completion of the Pilot Case (
subject area 2). Some instructors may prefer to issue the relevant parts
of the compendium on completion of each session.
While the course manual and compendium — as well as the teaching

aids — facilitate the planning and conduct of the course, the instructors
will still have to prepare their own inputs on an ad hoc basis. This
requirement follows from the fact that circumstances, particularly the
composition of the group of trainees, will be different each time the
course is conducted. The input, therefore, must be adapted according
to the particular conditions prevailing for each course in order to achieve
both the general objectives and the detailed learning objectives of each
session. The diagrams included in the course should act as a useful
guide when producing overhead projector transparencies.
21
It is important to recognize that since this course is for the training of

instructors, it should be in itself a model of good practice. Trainees
should be allowed to observe good preparation, lecturing, exercises
and group-work practice.
There will be many opportunities for the instructor to employ the course
itself as a vehicle to discuss the relevance and implications of certain
learning objectives. The same applies to aspects of course
management, where trainees should be allowed insight into decisions
made by the instructors, for the purpose of developing their awareness
of the problems and flexibility required when conducting courses.
The main purpose of using learning objectives is to define clearly

what the trainee should be able to do in a specified area of
knowledge or skill upon completion of the course. In some instances,
considerable work will be necessary; in others, the time required
might be minimal. This is governed not only by the difficulty of the
subject but also by the abilities of the trainees.
The learning objectives of every session should be made known, and

their achievement should be discussed with the participants at frequent
intervals. Monitoring the achievement of objectives and taking
remedial action are an important part of managing any learning
process.
As far as possible, sessions should be presented within a context which

is familiar to participants and use should be made of practical
examples. They should be well illustrated and make full use of the
exercises presented in this manual. Some exercises refer to IMO
model courses, which will raise the participants' awareness of the
scope and value of such courses. It should be noted that alternative
exercises may be developed by the instructor, based upon either
different IMO model courses or other short courses familiar to the
participants.
The course contains a series of exercises, some of which are linked.

The output of exercises cover learning objectives of that particular
subject area.
The exercises are as follows:
Exercise No. Title

1 Pilot case
2 Review of the course learning objectives
3 Analysis of training needs
4 Writing learning objectives
5 Identifying training needs
22
6 Instructional aids
7 Reading and hand-outs
8 Lectures
9 Demonstrations and laboratory work
10 Group work and role play
11 Field work
12 Case studies
13 Role play and simulation games
14 Training effectiveness
15 Assessment
16 Evaluation
17 Checklist of required action
The flow-chart of the course shown in Figure 1 indicates that for each
of the sequences of exercises there is a set of substantive inputs which
must be presented to the participants prior to conducting the exercises.
The course plan indicates that the substantive input would be taught in
class. Obviously, work in class should involve using the techniques of
presentation, demonstration and discussion which are the subjects of
the course.
The contents of the substantive input are outlined in the compendium,

and, if required, are provided in considerable detail in the supportive
literature referred to in the bibliography.
The purpose of the PILOT CASE is to confront the participants with the
tasks facing instructors when charged with conducting a training course.
The output of the exercise is a `catalogue' or list of problems of course
implementation and the skills which the participants find they must
acquire in order to handle these problems and become good
instructors.
The final exercise at the end of the course is a re-examination of the

Pilot Case by application of the knowledge and skills acquired during
the conduct of the intermediate exercises. Its output would be a checklist
of action for planning and conducting courses.
With regard to the individual subject areas, sessions and exercises,

the following guidance is provided as a basis for preparation.
23
INPUT EXERCISES OUTPUT

(by the Instructor) (for the participants) (Intended outcome)
IMO's role and

contribution PILOT CASE: Stating required
Planning the conduct attributes of instructors
The learning style of a model course and needs for training
of this course
Learning and
performance
Systematic course
design Demonstrating training
Identifying awareness, discussing
Analysis of training needs course design and
problems deriving training needs
Analysis of training needs
Identifying W
training objectives Identifying objectives of
Setting training
objectives training and constructing
Determining course framework
course syllabuses
v
Review of Assessing the use of
Demonstrating
instructional aids instructional aids
audio-visual aids
Principles of
designing training
materials
Recognizing the
Review of strengths
teaching methods Testing different
and weaknesses of
teaching methods
different methods,
preparing and applying
Training
effectiveness
V
Assessment
Assessing trainees Demonstrating
and evaluating courses learning management
Evaluation
Course planning Making a checklist Demonstrating

and conduct of action for trainers managerial skills
Pilot case re-examined 4
Demonstrating the full

set of trainer attributes
Figure 1 Course outline: flow-chart
24
Guidance Notes
1 Introduction to the course
Although the course will assist participants as course instructors in a
general manner, it is important that they understand their roles in the
context of the preparation and presentation of IMO model courses.
At some time early in the proceedings it is advisable to organize a

session in which all participants spend say one to three minutes to
introduce themselves. The names by which participants wish to be
addressed should be displayed on cards, legible at a distance.
It is very important to create a good atmosphere at the beginning of a

course. The trainees, whatever their age, experience and status, may
be nervous, apprehensive, reluctant or even hostile. They may find the
idea of the course very attractive and have made some preparations;
on the other hand they may have been sent along at very short notice
without much idea of what is to happen.
It will take a little time to gain the confidence of the participants; they
may be suspicious about the effects of their performance during the
course, about assessments and also about the reaction of other
participants.
The participants need to be assured about the confidentiality of the

proceedings, providing that is the case, and also about the purpose of
any assessments which might be made. The aim is to put participants
at ease; they should see the course as something from which they will
gain if they play their part. In no way should they feel any threat.
A short talk on IMO, and IMO's role in education and training, should be
given. The material contained in the compendium should be of
assistance in this regard. Booklets or brochures (A3, A4 and A5) on
IMO, its model courses and its training strategy should be distributed to
the participants.
The introduction should stress that IMO courses cover a wide range of
expertise from elementary to advanced levels, some are technical and
some are purely administrative. They include a wide variety of subjects
for both seagoing and shore-based personnel.
25
The briefing should further emphasize that while the courses may cover
widely different subject areas, the same principles of training will apply to
all of them. Certain principles need to be stressed at the very outset:
- Courses are written containing a set of learning objectives. The
purpose
of the course will be met if the participants achieve these objectives.
- In the instructor guidelines advice is given on the course
management
so that trainees can achieve the learning objectives.
— For each course the instructor must consider whether the
participants meet the entry requirements and make adjustments
accordingly.
Thus, even when confronted with the task of implementing a 'model'

course, the instructor must approach the task with considerable flexibility
in order to succeed within the particular circumstances.
The structure and contents of this course are designed with the above
firmly in mind. This is why principles of course design and the
management of the learning process are important features in addition to
the central themes of teaching methods and instructional aids.
An introductory briefing should contain a description of the 'learning style'

of the course, by emphasizing its 'participative' and ìnteractive' nature. In
this connection, the extensive use of group work and exercises should be
introduced, together with a summary of work management in groups
keeping in mind that both group work and interactive training will be dealt
with in detail later.
2 Purpose of the Training Course for Instructors

Instructors should note that it is only at the end of this subject area that
the structure of the present course should be explained in detail to the
participants — as an outcome of the Pilot Case exercise.
The purpose of the Pilot Case exercise is to confront the participants with
the tasks facing instructors when charged with conducting a training
course. The exercise is 'unfair' in the sense that participants face a large
task with little prior instruction. This, however, is realistic and should help
to produce the desired outcome of the exercise: an appreciation of the
knowledge and skills which are required of instructors. These include:
Training Awareness
Substantive Knowledge
Training Skills
Managerial Skills
Attitudes
26
The output of the exercise and ensuing discussion should be a '

catalogue' or list of problems of course implementation and of the skills
which the participants find they must acquire, i.e. their own training
needs, these should become the personal objectives of individual
participants. Subsequently, the instructor should demonstrate the plan
for the current course, and point out how it corresponds to the needs
derived from the exercise. There are no supporting notes in the
compendium for this area of work.
Exercise 1 — Pilot case (2 hours)

Introduction
Trainees are divided into four groups. Each group should be balanced
in terms of trainees' backgrounds. Each trainee should be given:
— A copy of "Guidance on the implementation of IMO model courses" (ref.
A4).
— A copy of a selected IMO model course. It is suggested that one or two
IMO model courses might be selected so that two groups have the same
model course. The discussion in plenary will be more beneficial if at
least two groups have conducted the exercise on the same model course
—with possible differences in approach. Similarly it might be appropriate
for all groups to work on the same course.
— A copy of the task for the exercise.
— A sample list of trainees, including some details of their backgrounds.
For this purpose, the list of trainees on the current course may be used,
but this could lead to embarrassment if there should be a mismatch
with the selected course entry requirements. Better to use prepared
fictitious applications.
An appropriate IMO model course would be:
— 3.09 Port State Control
This course is broad enough in scope to allow most participants to

contribute to the exercise. However, other courses could be used if
thought more appropriate. There will be a natural tendency for groups
to spend too much time reading the technical content of the syllabuses,
e.g., those with any expertise in the subject will compare the syllabus
with their own knowledge and practice. While there is nothing wrong
with this, groups should be advised that the intention is that these
courses are to be treated as exercises and that it is important to keep
in mind the tasks listed in the exercise, which will fully occupy the time
available.
Suggested trainee guidance for Exercise 1 (if required)

If thought necessary, guidance could be given similar to that printed
below. On the other hand, if Exercise 1 is attempted without this guidance
it can be very provocative and effective; much depends on the
experience and ability of the groups concerned to identify and develop
their work. The instructor could use the list below to prompt discussion
during the plenary session.
Alternative Task — if thought more appropriate than Exercise 1.

Prepare a report for presentation in the plenary session giving your
views on any problems which you think could arise when implementing
model courses.
Highlight any difficulties which might be encountered during the planning,

preparation and operation of the course and consider how these might
be overcome. The following is given as a guide but you can discuss
any items concerning the implementation of model courses as you see
fit.
Take each section of the sample courses in turn, i.e. Scope, Objective,
Entry Standards, right through to evaluation and consider the following
issues:
1 Is the Introduction clear?

2 Do the scope and objectives give an adequate description of the
course?
3 Are the entry requirements clear? Would you wish to enlarge them?
4 Should you issue a diploma? Should it be an attendance certificate or
would it indicate level of success?
5 Are the student numbers acceptable to you?
6 What are the implications if existing staff do not match the
requirements laid down?
7 What action will be necessary if some of the equipment is not
available?
8 What problems might you encounter in order to obtain the
recommended books and references?
9 Are the times and timetable suggested reasonable for your
circumstances?
10 Are the specific learning objectives in the syllabus clear and are they
what your trainees require?
11 What additional specific learning objectives would you want to add?
12 Are the guidance notes of sufficient depth to give useful assistance?
13 Would the sample lesson plan assist you?
28
14 Should the trainees be assessed, and if so, why?

15 What form should the trainee assessment take?
16 What assessment methods should be employed and what proportion of
the time would be used?
Aim to give your presentation in a period of about 10 minutes, using the
overhead projector and/or hand-outs as appropriate.
Suggested exercise workplan

15 minutes Introduction to the exercise workplan.
Divide participants into say four groups.
Each participant group is given a copy of the chosen
model course.
1 hour Groups go into separate work-rooms as directed to work

on the task and prepare their report for plenary.
45 minutes Discussion in plenary.

Each group presents its report followed by a general
discussion under the guidance of the instructor.
Debriefing by instructors to produce the basis for the

structure of the course.
29
Exercise 1
The task
(1) Review the course plan and detailed syllabus, consider the entry requirements of the
course and assess the extent to which the current position, educational background
and professional experience of the proposed participants coincide with these
requirements. Prepare a statement on the suitability of the participants for the course.
(2) Consider, in view of (1) above, whether the general objectives and the specific learning
objectives in the syllabus of the course are applicable in terms of the discerned needs
of the participants and attainable in view of the participants' background.
(3) Adjust, if considered necessary, the learning objectives. Consider the extent to which
the learning objectives are thought to be appropriate in terms of the personnel
requirements in the maritime industry and in terms of the discerned needs of the
participants. Suggest how needs for this kind of training could be examined and
quantified.
(4) Review the course plan, including the time requirements, and following this revise the
plan for the course conduct taking into account:
the teaching/training methods that should be applied to the various parts of the plan;
the resources (teaching aids, equipment, room facilities, instructors) required for conduct
of the course.
(5) Propose how participant learning results should be monitored or assessed.
(6) Propose a method of evaluating the validity and effectiveness of the course.
Aim to give your presentation in a period of about 10 minutes using the overhead projector
and hand-outs, as appropriate.
30
The aim of the plenary session is to identify the problem areas and
issues which emerge from the Pilot Case. This requires careful guidance
of the problems/issues towards the pre-determined catalogue of
instructors' training needs. However, this should not exclude further
problems/issues which might arise, and these should also be taken
into account when implementing the course.
Resources required
Four work-rooms.
Copies of "Guidance on the implementation of IMO model courses".
Copies of appropriate IMO model courses.
Supply of blank OHP transparencies and pens, for presentation of
reports in plenary.
Before Exercise 2 the compendium containing the learning objectives

for this course should be handed out.
Exercise 2
By this stage the trainees will have been given the learning objectives
for the course. The second exercise requires the participants to read
through the learning objectives, to make observations and to add to
them if they wish.
Even though learning objectives may not be familiar to some of the

trainees they still should be able to cope.
The exercise is intended to be performed individually perhaps outside

the scheduled course hours but a better response might be obtained if
trainees work in pairs or even in small groups.
Learning objectives are dealt with at length later in the course.

Exercise 2 The task
Read through the learning objectives for this course and write down the numbers of those
which you think will be of special interest to you.
If, as yet, you are not familiar with learning objectives then you need to know that they state
all the things that you should be able to do by the end of the course.
Add any comments you like about additional items which would be of interest to you — it may
be possible to adapt parts of the course to meet your wishes.
Print your name at the top of your response. Your comments and interests will not be disclosed
to anyone else.
32
Development of a learning system,

course design
The purpose of this subject area is to give participants an insight and
some experience of course design and is intended to promote flexibility
of approach. It was suggested that this may be necessary in the
Introduction to the course.
The subject area is covered by a series of substantive input sessions
totalling 4 hours and by linked exercises (3, 4 & 5), which have a duration
of 6 hours.
The input could be prepared on the basis of material contained in the

compendium. Figure 1, if used as an overhead projector transparency,
may assist in presenting a framework to the concepts covered by
learning objectives 3.4 to 3.24, — analysis of problems, analysis of
training needs, setting learning objectives, deciding contents.
The purposes of the exercises are to provide experience and skills in

the identification of training needs (Exercise 3) and in defining learning
objectives (Exercises 4 & 5).
The compendium contains a great deal of information intended as

background to these exercises.
Exercise 3 — Analysis of training needs (2 hours)

Introduction
The trainees should be divided into say four groups, each group being
balanced in terms of their backgrounds. The groups may be identical to
those used during Exercise 1 if their performance has proved
satisfactory. Adjustments are often necessary as the course progresses
to obtain the best results. The two pairs of groups would perform similar
tasks but on different courses.
The tasks are based on existing IMO model courses, using their scope,
objectives and entry standards.
The instructor may consider two alternative approaches:
(1) Preparing the tasks based on the IMO model course/s used
during the conduct of Exercise 1.
(2) Preparing the tasks based on other IMO model courses,

such as:
3.14 "SAR Mission Co-ordinator"
5.03 "Planned Fleet Maintenance and Hull Protection"
Option 1 has the advantage that participants are already somewhat

familiar with the courses and the number of model courses required will
be reduced.
Option 2 has the advantage of introducing trainees to a wider selection

of courses. However, the conduct of the exercise would then require a
larger stock of IMO model courses to be available.

15 minutes Introduction to the exercise workplan. Divide
participants into four work-groups.
Each participant to receive a copy of the exercise task.
1 hour The task is undertaken by groups in separate

work-rooms.

Group presentations in a format similar to that for
Exercise 1.
Debriefing by instructors.
34
Exercise 3 (Option 1)
The task
are a training
analysis course
of training development group appointed by the college principal to undertake
needs.
e to new legislation there has been a request to develop personnel to become specialists 0
will be able to organize and conduct Port State Control in accordance with, and subject
heir familiarizing themselves with, national law and regulations.
specialists have to be fully familiar with both national and international obligations,
stigative procedures, analysis of evidence and reports of inquiries. They will be employed
and responsible to the District Maritime Authority (DMA).
e suggested personnel to undertake the new job function should hold the highest seagoing
ificate (deck, engineer or radio officer), or other appropriate equivalent qualifications, and y
should preferably have had experience as a ship's surveyor.
are required to:
determine what job performance is required by the individual(s) in terms of

knowledge, skills and attitude;
determine what the present performance of the individual(s) is in terms of knowledge,

skills and attitude;
determine any gap between (1) and (2):

does the gap exist? is it a training gap?
indicate the additional knowledge and skills required, as identified in step (3), to
perform the job, as determined in step (1).
Exercise 3 (Option 2)
The task
You are a training course development group appointed by the college principal to undertake
an analysis of training needs.
The Ministry is setting up a series of search and rescue (SAR) centres and now wants to train
personnel whose job function and responsibilities will be that of a SAR mission co-ordinator,
taking immediate charge of all activities of a rescue co-ordination centre.
The personnel should be able to organize a SAR operation by maintaining communications

with air and sea commanders on-scene or the co-ordinator surface search, while ensuring
that all parties involved are kept adequately informed and have clear instructions.
They will correctly identify the emergency phases and take appropriate action, gathering all
relevant information and acting upon it. By using nautical charts and plotting sheets they will
be able to determine the probable positions of vessels or survival craft (taking into account
the effects of current, wind and sea), select and apply the most appropriate sea and air
search patterns and correctly use SAR resources, having due regard for both the methods
used by vessels to rescue survivors and the use of supplies and equipment to be dropped by
aircraft.
They will liaise with other organizations involved and ensure adequate briefing of all units
before and during operation.
The suggested personnel to undertake the new job function should preferably hold the highest
seagoing qualifications (deck, engineer, radio officer) or be air-traffic or port-traffic controllers,
air or maritime pilots or naval navigators. However, we would like your advice on this.
In addition, you are required to:
(1) determine what job performance is required by the individual(s) in terms of

(2) determine what the present performance of the individual(s) is in terms of knowledge,
(3) determine any gap between (1) and (2)
does the gap exist? is it a training
gap?
(4) indicate the additional knowledge and skills required, as identified in step (3), to
36
Exercise 3 (Option 2 cont'd)
The task
ou are a training course development group appointed by the college principal to undertake
n analysis of training needs.
ue to new legislation there has been a request to develop personnel to become managers
ho will be able to plan, organize and implement schemes of fleet maintenance and hull
rotection. The work will be co-ordinated from shipping company offices but carried out on e
companies' ships. The scheme includes maintenance planning, spare parts management,
anning and organizing both dry-docking and repairs and hull protection in general.
e suggested personnel to undertake this new job function are senior seagoing officers,
ch as masters and chief engineers, who may be planning to enter fleet management.
ou are required to:
1) determine what job performance is required by the individual(s) in terms of

determine what the present performance of the individual(s) is in terms of knowledge,

determine any gap between (1) and (2):
- does the gap exist?

- it is a training gap?
Indicate the additional knowledge and skills required, as identified in step (3), to
37
The next exercise should be used if participants are unfamiliar with specific learning objectives.
The task may have to be completed outside the timetabled hours. There is a large amount of
supportive material on this subject in the compendium.
Exercise 4
The task — Writing learning objectives
Select an area of work with which you are familiar and produce a set of specific learning
objectives which will satisfy your requirements. The list below is intended to assist you with
your choice. It is not prescriptive. The set of specific learning objectives should be as
comprehensive as time allows.
If the area of work you have chosen proves to be large in scope then select a part, or parts,
which will enable you to complete the work in the time available.
Use 'acceptable' verbs, not "understands", "knows", "appreciates", etc.
Each objective should describe what you expect the trainee to be able to do after the learning
has taken place.
The verb should indicate exactly how the trainee would demonstrate that the new skill or
knowledge has been achieved.
Possible areas of work:
(1) (2) A knowledge of dynamics.
Develop personnel for work in the national maritime Administration concerned with
drafting legislations reflecting IMO conventions.
(3) Understand the different types of energy.
(4) Develop personnel capable of determining a ship's position by using celestial

navigation.
(5) Wave theory in sufficient depth for ship's officers.
(6) A good working knowledge of the pollution regulations.
(7) How to choose materials for marine repair applications.
(8) Develop the capabilities of senior ratings so that they can undertake radar plotting
duties under the supervision of a watchkeeping officer.
(9) Train engine-room ratings to gain an adequate knowledge of marine fuels sufficient to
become a watchkeeping assistant.
38
(10) Develop personnel for work at local levels in the national

maritime administration who will ascertain that the regulations
reflecting the IMO International Convention for the Safety of Life
at Sea (SOLAS) are being followed.
Exercise 5 — Training Objectives (3 hours)

Introduction
After exercise No. 4 the trainees will be familiar with the writing of specific
learning objectives. If exercise 3 has produced the intended results
then this exercise can follow on after exercise 4 has been completed.
An alternative would be to delay this exercise until after the field visit
which also may expose areas of training for which learning, or training,
objectives could be written.
The groups remain as in Exercise 3. Each participant will require a

copy of the group report presented in the plenary discussion following
Exercise 3.
15 minutes Introduction to the exercise workplan.
Each participant to receive a copy of the group reports
from Exercise 3.
2 hours The task is undertaken by groups in separate

work-rooms.

Group presentations.
Exercise 5 The task
During Exercise 3 the group should have determined training needs by identifying a training
gap and indicating the knowledge and skills required to perform the jobs which were described.
The tasks now to be performed by the working groups consist of designing a short course to
close the training gap, and are as follows:
(1) Identify the training requirements resulting from your assessment of training needs
during the previous exercise.
(2) Choose at least two topics within the training requirements identified in step (1)
above and determine a number of specific learning objectives for each.
When this has been done, each group will be given the model course related to the training
aims and objectives that you have determined.
(3) Evaluate your determination of the training needs, and specific learning objectives.
(4) Prepare to discuss any issues which arise from your work during Exercises 3, 4 and 5.
40
4 Development of an Instructional Strategy

The categorization of teaching methods is a matter of opinion, almost
arbitrary. The one used here is a reasonable àverage' of what is
generally accepted. Figure 4.5 in the compendium ranges teaching
methods in a hierarchy from low to high involvement by the trainees (
passive to active) and indicates how the mixture of didactic and
experiential learning varies with the extent of involvement by the
trainees. It also indicates that participative teaching methods provide
larger scope of assessment than the passive methods, and that the
participants"risk' of self-disclosure is larger in the active methods than
in the passive.
The èffectiveness' of a training method or combination of methods and

aids is the degree to which it helps trainees to achieve the learning
objective(s) for a particular session or subject area.
Five reference criteria may be useful in this connection:
knowledge
- analytical (problem-solving) skills

psycho-motor (manipulative/physical) skills
changing attitudes
– acceptance by trainees.
In developing a strategy of instruction, the instructor may find it useful

for the trainees to rank different methods against each other using
Table 1, in accordance with the above criteria and taking into account
the possible response and acceptance by trainees. This may assist
when making choices, and could take the form of a simple ranking. "
Good", "possible", and "unsuitable" might be adequate. This appears
as Exercise 14, but the instructor may choose to use the exercise early
in the course and again later to provoke thought and discussion.
41
CRITERIA Knowledge Analytical Physical Change of Acceptance

Skills Skills Attitudes by trainees
METHODS
1. Reading
2. Lectures
3. Demonstrations
4. Seminars,
discussions
5. Small group work
6. Field trips/visits
7. Case studies
8. Projects, laboratory
work, exercises
9. Role play,
simulation games
Table 1 — Effectiveness of training: ranking of methods
The efficiency of training is a subjective judgement in which it is

necessary to take into account a number of issues such as: preparation
time, time taken on the course, effectiveness, relative importance to
the trainees, integration with other topics, the staffing and resources
necessary, the level of understanding achieved, etc.
Consideration of the 'efficiency' of training involves the relationship of

its effectiveness to the costs in terms of time and finance, including that
for the development and conduct of the course. This is referred to in
the section on evaluation.
The references in the detailed teaching syllabus, together with the

relevant sections of the compendium, provide a basis for the required
input in this subject area.
42
Exercise 6 — Instructional aids (2 hours)

While the course outline indicates two hours for a presentation and
practical work, the exercise could be replaced by a series of
demonstrations of the various aids. Much depends upon the availability
of equipment and the expertise of the participants. The exercise/
demonstration could be planned to take place, say, all in one day; on
the other hand, it may be more suitable, in some circumstances, to
intersperse the use of the various aids by other relevant work.
The tasks/demonstrations could include the preparation and the use

of:
chalkboards and/or derivatives

filmstrips and slides (with/without audio)
films
videos
computer programmes.
In conjunction with the demonstrations, discussion should bring out the

circumstances under which various aids would be the most effective.
Time will not allow all participants to demonstrate their grasp of all
techniques. The instructor should take care, however, that each
participant is involved in some way with each issue.
Exercise 7 – Reading and hand-outs

This exercise involves individual assignments. The task would be based
on each participant choosing a suitable topic of interest to themselves
and which they know would be relevant to a specific training need.
The task would be to write a series of learning objectives and to design

and draft a hand-out complementary to the preparation for a lecture (
see Exercise 8), which together will include sufficient material to ensure
that trainees achieve the learning objectives. The output of the exercise
would need no plenary discussion at this point, since it would be used
as input in the next exercise.
43
Exercise 8 — Lectures (3 hours)

This exercise is a continuation of Exercise 7, and involves individual
preparation of a short (say 10 minutes) lecture on the same chosen
topic.
The preparation should include producing suitable transparencies for

use on the overhead projector and use of the hand-out resulting from
Exercise 7.
The exercise could be arranged as follows:
Individual preparation of lectures, etc.
This may have to take place outside the timetabled
hours.
3 hours Presentation of individual lectures, possibly chosen at

random. See note below.
Plenary discussion of issues relating to the preparation

and delivery of lectures and material.
It may have to be made clear at the beginning of the exercise that not
all of the participants will be asked to make presentations. Some may
be excused because they have already demonstrated their ability.
However, even experienced teachers find the exercise to be of benefit,
therefore as many as possible should be called upon to deliver their
lecture. It is not advisable to have the lectures given consecutively.
They are better dispersed as much as possible with not more than four
in any one period.
It will be of additional value if participants prepare work which will be

useful to them when they have completed the course.
Exercise 9 — Demonstrations and laboratory

work (2 hours)
The execution of this exercise will depend on the availability of resources
at the institution at which the course is being conducted.
If the facilities permit, participants should be divided into four working

groups, not necessarily the same as previously. Each working group
should be assigned to prepare and conduct a demonstration of a
particular process or some equipment, e.g. navigational, engineering,
electrical, radio, etc., in order to achieve a set of learning objectives
prescribed by themselves.
44
In this case the exercise time could be allocated as follows:
1 hour and Each group agreeing to objectives and preparing 15

minutes a 10-minute demonstration.
45 minutes Demonstrations by each group, and discussion.
If facilities do not permit the above version, the alternative may be for
the instructors (or a specific department of the institution at which the
course is being conducted) to run a demonstration of a particular process
or equipment, explaining how the demonstration was planned with
reference to its learning objectives. The issues involved would then
be discussed.
It can be enlightening for participants to review their work to see whether

the achievement of their objectives and the use of the equipment were
essentially connected, e.g., could any of the objectives be achieved in
any other way? Did all trainees participate as defined? Could the process
be managed more efficiently?
Exercise 10 — Group work and role play (2 hours)

Introduction
By this stage of the course the trainees will have experienced working
in small groups. However, the purpose of this exercise is to generate
discussion and appreciation of the strengths and weaknesses of using
small working groups and assignments as a teaching method. The
exercise will also provide input to the discussion of role play.
The exercise would be performed as a role play, with about half of the
trainees playing assigned roles within the structure of a working group
while the remaining trainees observe for the purpose of constructive
criticism.
Members of the observing group do not know that each participant in

the working group is playing a specifically assigned role.
Eight roles are suggested in Table 2, which can be allocated to

appropriate trainees either secretly or with the knowledge of other
members of the working group. Alternatively, the characteristics of the
trainees may, by this stage, be known well enough to expect them to
react in the group quite naturally, more or less according to the suggested
roles.
The exercise may be conducted in accordance with the following plan:
15 minutes Joint introduction to the exercise and its purposes.

Division of participants into two groups.
15 minutes Separate briefing of the working group.

— explanation of the group's overall role and topic for
discussion. The topic should be one that will produce a
lively discussion. By this stage in the course relevant,
emotive issues might have emerged. If not, the
instructor should produce one, such as "How can
institutions ensure that their high quality of training be
maintained".
— assignment and explanation of individual roles.
— appointment of chairman. (This could be left for the
group to arrange dependent on the anticipated
outcome).
15 minutes Separate (parallel) briefing of the observing group. —

observe the discussion of the working group and
make a report to plenary (see Table 3).
30 minutes The two groups are brought together: The working

group conducts discussion while the other observes.
30 minutes Groups separate to draft points for final discussion in

plenary.
30 minutes Plenary discussion and debriefing.

Exercise 10
Table 2
Roles of participants in the Working Group
Positive type — you try to harmonize, reconcile, compromise,
arbitrate and settle a dispute between negative types; you point
out positive constructive solutions to a problem.
Shy type — you are shy, inhibited, polite and don't want to interrupt
others. When you get a word in, you speak with a soft voice. You
often make non-verbal signs when you would like to say something,
but others are faster and barge in, something you never do.
Integrating type — you try to understand all sides of the argument

and relate to them; you tie together what may seem unrelated and
would otherwise get lost; you see connections between participants'
viewpoints and then try to lead the discussion in a new, positive
direction.
Questioning type — you persistently question what people say or

mean; you seek information, clarification and all relevant evidence
for an argument.
Quarrelsome type — you are always contradicting for the sake of

the argument; you are critical of others, disapproving, aggressive
distrusting, insulting others and making jokes at their expense.
Know-all type — you are very keen and dominant; you always have
something to say or to add; you try to call attention to your
knowledge and achievements, even if they are irrelevant to the
topic of discussion.
Unco-operative type — you reject everything others suggest as a

possible solution; you react to proposals and new ideas; you
constantly verbalize your dissatisfaction.
Highbrow type — you consider yourself high above these people

having a childish, useless, low-level discussion on a subject you
dealt with years ago. You demonstrate your superiority (e.g. having
a degree from an elite university) and you show your contempt of
these ignorant people. What a waste of time!
47
Exercise 10
Table 3
Questions for the Observation Group
on the Working Group
Which members of the working group have a supportive and positive effect
on discussion and outcome?
Which members of the group have a negative effect on discussion?
What should be the role of the discussion leader/chairman?
Are there any other factors which would have made the meeting more
constructive?
Exercise 11 — Field work and visits (3 hours)

The purpose of this exercise is to demonstrate the planning, conduct
and debriefing of actual field work. The nature of the particular visit in
this course would depend on the circumstances, and it is not very
important since the aim is to discuss the implications and usefulness —
merits and demerits — of such an exercise. Useful `targets' for a field
trip might be a port or depot, a shipping company, the cargo section of
an airport, a training institution, etc.
The timing of the visit is unlikely to be ideal. It will have to take place to
suit the host.
The discussion on planning the visit should establish how the field work
would contribute to achieving the learning objectives of a particular
course. Questions should be prepared for personnel that the group will
be interviewing and the conduct of the visit should be discussed and
agreed.
The exercise would be executed as an actual visit during one day, with
debriefing at the end. Debriefing should comprise discussion of whether
the established objectives of the visit were achieved, how the results (
e.g. collected information) could be of further use in the course and the
circumstances under which field visits would be an effective teaching
method.
48
Trainees would be prepared to identify problems, possibly through

observing and noting symptoms. Care needs to be exercised to
differentiate between symptoms and their causes. The next step is to
consider whether any programme of training could possibly improve
the performance so as to remove or reduce the cause of the problem.
This could be followed by writing some sample learning objectives.
Trainees will find that field work consumes a lot of time and they should
realistically consider whether such visits are the most effective and
efficient way of achieving certain objectives.
Exercise 12 — Case studies (2 hours)

The purpose of the exercise is to provide an opportunity of critically
reviewing actual case studies, as a supplement to the discussion during
the input session.
Suitable cases for this purpose are included in IMO Model Course 2.03,
"Advanced Training in Fire Fighting", which contains several group
activity case studies in the form of reports. Four reports — numbers 11,
12, 13 and 15 — are included in Appendix 1 to this manual.
The task
The participants should be divided into small groups. The task for each
group would be:
"prepare a critical review of the case study as a method of training."
Instructors could, of course, extend the exercise by setting other tasks

in the case studies or maybe deleting parts and getting the trainees to
draw conclusions, etc. k'J

15 minutes Introduction to the exercise workplan, allocation to
working groups.
Each participant to receive a copy of the reference
material and the task.
1 hour The task is undertaken by groups in separate work-

rooms.
45 minutes Plenary.
Group presentations and discussion.
4 9
The following questions may assist instructors in providing guidance to

participants during the debriefing session or, if considered useful, as
part of the guidance before the group work commences:
— Were the learning objectives for using the case study

available? If not, what might they have been?
— Were the objectives and instructions
clear? — Were the objectives specific
enough?
How would the objectives in this case study relate to objectives for
this course?
Was the time allocated appropriate?
What change in behaviour could have been attempted?
Could trainees be assessed?
Is the content sufficiently comprehensive? Any gaps?
Was the level of difficulty appropriate?
— How could the case study be developed?

Exercise 13 — Role play, simulation games
(7 hours)
Introduction
Role playing was introduced in Exercise 10. The purpose of this exercise
is for trainees to experience a simulation game. This is to generate
discussion on how games may be adapted and designed and the
circumstances under which they could be profitably used.
This exercise is a simulation game on cargo consolidation. The

information required to conduct the exercise is contained in Appendix 2
in this manual and in Appendix 2 in the compendium.
The resources required include four work-rooms, one for each trainee
group, with telephone communication to the room where the game
operating staff are.
Each group will have to carry out arithmetical processes, for which a
simple calculator would be useful. Participants who have no prior
knowledge of the subject could be placed with others who have relevant
experience; even so, they may make slow progress at the beginning of
the exercise. This is not important; the main issue is to be in a position to
evaluate this type of learning experience at the end of the session.
50

30 minutes Instructors provide a brief review of the concept of cargo
consolidation and the associated shipping economics,
the notes for which should be given to the trainees as
preparation for the exercise. This includes a simple
Exercise which demonstrates the information-gathering
and calculation techniques required.
30 minutes Instructors provide the game scenario and the game

objectives. Trainees are divided into four groups in
separate rooms with telephone communication links to
the game operating staff (instructors). The description of
the task on page 53 is then given.
5 hours Conduct of the game.
Groups may require some time to decide on their strategy

before business is allowed to commence.
1 hour Plenary.
Presentation of solutions.
Discussion.
During the plenary session instructors will have the opportunity to recall
and distinguish between:
the game objectives
the game learning objectives
the objectives in conducting the game in the context of this course.
The properties of discovery learning methods may also be explored

and trainees should be encouraged to suggest other topics which could
receive similar treatment.
The Exercise given for this exercise will enable trainees to judge for
themselves how effective simulation games can be. They will also realize
that a great deal of preparation is necessary in order to write an exercise
and that instructors are heavily involved during the conduct of the game.
The subject will probably be unfamiliar to most of the trainees; therefore
a certain amount of despair can be expected, especially in the early
stages. The important issue is that opportunity is given to assess the
potential for learning from this type of simulation.
51
If any particular group happens to contain someone who has expertise

in the subject then the instructors could, if they wished, slow down their
progress (in order to make competition more balanced) by inserting
extra difficulties for them, e.g. port delays, heavy weather, engine
breakdowns, increase in fuel price, etc. Otherwise it could be possible
for them to obtain all the best deals, leaving the remaining groups without
much chance of success.
It is important that each telephone call is to only one àgent', who has a
limited amount of information to give. To get more information, say about
other ships, another call must be made to another 'agent', who also
has limited information. Obviously, if this were not done a trainee would
get all that was wanted from one call and that would be unsatisfactory.
The trainees should only be given the information they ask for and
which that particular 'agent' possesses. Of course, an àgent' might
give advice if it is felt that the group is floundering and needs a little
help.
The instructors play a major role in the conduct of this game and should
prepare their contribution very carefully. Ideally, at least one should
have some experience of cargo consolidation; if not, a suitably
experienced person could be taken on for the day – even one of the
trainees could be co-opted.
52
Exercise 13
Introduction to the task
Each group is responsible for export of groundnut kernels from China

to Europe.
In the past, you have been able to ship at rates as low as $US46.00 per
ton. Due to special circumstances, however, the conference lines now
demand $US92.00 per ton for a consignment of 2,000 tons of groundnut
kernels from Shanghai to Hamburg.
Your principals have requested that you consider the possibility of

consolidating (combining) your cargo with various cargoes of other
shippers (cargo owners) in order to charter tonnage in the open market.
This may be an alternative to conventional liner shipping if the overall
costs of transport could be reduced thereby.
In addition to the cargoes moving from Asia to Europe, there is bulk

movement from the Gulf of Mexico to Japan, and from Europe to Asia.
A market of charter vessels exists world-wide. You should consult your

broker with regard to availability of vessels.
You can expect competition for the ships and the cargoes from the
other groups. Bear in mind that once an action has been agreed by
telephone you have entered into a contract.
Two ports are currently available in China, Shanghai and Qingdao, while
in each of the other countries there is only one port (see map in Appendix
2 of the course compendium). You should consult cargo owners and
brokers in the ports that interest you.
You should make a full report of your investigations and agreements

concluded. The report should contain information on cargo and vessel
combinations that you have discovered. It should also contain the
completed Voyage Calculation Form and:
(a) the average costs per ton of cargo;
(b) the rate per ton per lot;
(c) an account of saving/loss as compared to the (negotiated) liner
rate.
Exercise 13.1 — Task Paper I

(Example of part of a larger exercise)
Your group is responsible for export of groundnut kernels from China to

Europe.
In the past, you have been able to ship at rates as low as $US46.00 per
ton. Due to special circumstances, however, this is no longer open.
You are, at this moment, facing a demand for liner rates at $US92.00
per ton for a consignment of 2,000 tons of groundnut kernels from
Shanghai to Hamburg.
This position is unacceptable to your principals. You are therefore

requested to consider the impact of the new demand on your transport
job. In particular, you are requested to consider whether consolidating
your cargo with that of other shippers would lend you a better negotiating
leverage with the liner company, leading to rate discounts which would
bring the overall costs down to acceptable levels.
For this purpose you should investigate the possibilities of finding other
shippers with compatible cargoes, lot sizes and frequencies for the
purpose of opening joint negotiations.
The geographical area which may be covered in these investigations

would cover China, Japan, The Philippines, Thailand, Singapore and
Indonesia.
The general shipping scene is characterized by different dry bulk

cargoes, break-bulk cargoes as well as containerized cargoes moving
from Asian countries to European destinations. Some of the break-bulk
cargoes and some containerized cargo is trans-shipped via Singapore.
Make a report to your principals indicating the results of your

investigations and negotiations. Include proposals for action.
54
Exercise 13.2 — Task Paper II

(Example of part of a larger exercise)
The negotiations with the line were moderately successful. They

indicated that by controlling large and continuous cargo volumes you
would, jointly with other shippers, obtain power in the market.
Before accepting the outcome of the negotiations, your principals have

requested that you consider the possibility of consolidating your cargo
with that of other shippers for the purpose of chartering tonnage in the
open market. This may be an alternative to conventional liner shipping
if the overall costs of transport could thereby be reduced.
You are requested to investigate this possibility both for the purpose of
the single consignment of 2,000 tons of groundnut kernels and for the
purpose of a monthly shipment of the same size during the next 12-
month period. You are also requested to consider the commercial
circumstances (with regard to customer interests) that may influence a
final decision.
The current position on the shipping stage is that, in addition to the

cargoes you have identified before, there is bulk movement from the
US Gulf to Japan and from Europe to Asia.
A `market' of charter vessels exists world-wide. Vessels from this market

carry bulk and other cargoes from Asia to Europe, some operate in
Asian trades, while others operate in other trades but may be brought
into trade between Asia and Europe. The charter vessels operate partly
on a time basis, partly on a voyage basis.
Two ports are currently available in China, Shanghai and Qingdao, while
in each of the other countries (see Task Paper I) there is only one port.
Cargo movements between the ports and inland origins or destinations
are performed by an unspecified 'hinterland transport service', and need
not enter your investigations.
You should make a full report of your investigation. The report should
contain information on combinations of cargo and vessel that you have
discovered. It should contain complete accounts of at least two
alternative consolidation schemes that you find interesting: a minimum
of one for the single shipment and a minimum of one for the continuous
shipments.
Exercise 14 — Training effectiveness (1 hour)

At this stage of the course the trainees will have reviewed and
experienced the main teaching methods as well as the most common
instructional aids and techniques of presentation. They will also have
experienced training effectiveness and considered efficiency.
The purpose of this exercise is to provide an opportunity to conduct a

comparative analysis in the form of ranking the teaching methods against
the five criteria that were established earlier in the course. For this
purpose they would use the form shown earlier as Table 1.
This exercise could be conducted either as an individual or as a group

assignment. In either case, about one hour should be allocated to the
individuals or groups for considering and filling in the form. About one
hour should be allocated to consolidating the results and discussion of
the underlying issues and implications.

On the basis that training needs, general course objectives (aims),
syllabus, learning objectives, teaching methods, instructional aids and
participants constitute a learning system, it is the job of the instructor to
manage this system in such a way that the objectives are achieved.
It was argued in previous parts of the course that the components of

the system are interactive and that management therefore becomes `
dynamic' in the sense that review and adjustment are constant
necessities.
Assessment and Evaluation

Assessment of participants and course evaluation are key issues in
the management of learning.
The notes in the compendium provide material for preparing the input
relevant to these subject areas.
The two following exercises provide the opportunity of giving participants

experience in assessment and evaluation, and should generate
discussion of the issues involved.
At some stage, an instructor has to introduce techniques for entry tests,

trainee monitoring, final grading of trainees and the broader issues of
course evaluation.
56
It is suggested that the whole range of evaluation and assessments be

dealt with at this stage. Exercise 15 is concerned with admittance criteria,
admittance testing and monitoring the progress of trainees. Exercise
16 is specifically concerned with applying some of the techniques of
evaluation to this course. Evaluation can be at varying depths and take
a wide range of forms. This exercise should give a brief insight and
provoke some worthwhile discussion.
Exercise 15 — Assessment (3 hours)

Introduction
If the trainees are already well versed in the preparation of assessments
it would be advisable to introduce the assessment for more substantial
courses than those suggested below.
The exercise should be conducted in small groups, with the following

approximate time allocation:
15 minutes Allocation to groups, briefing on tasks.
1 hour and
45 minutes Conduct of exercise in groups.
1 hour Plenary.
The task
1 Construct outline assessment plans for two of the courses listed
below:
IMO Model Course 1.19 "Personal Survival". IMO
Model Course 1.20 "Basic Fire Fighting" . IMO
Training Course for Instructors (this course).
The plans should indicate:
the assessment techniques to be used
the approximate part of the course when each assessment

should take place
- the contribution of each assessment to the overall assessment (

if applicable)
— the proportion of course time to be used for assessment.
57
2 Write a sample assessment question for each of the following

types of objective test:
— direct question
incomplete statement
— multiple-choice
true/false
rearranging the order
— matching block.
Exercise 16 — Course evaluation (2 hours)

The exercise should be conducted in small groups according to the
following time-schedule:
15 minutes Allocation to groups, briefing on task. 1
hour Conduct of exercise in groups. 45
minutes Plenary.
The task
Review an IMO Model Course, say 1.19 "Personal Survival" and prepare
a plan on how to evaluate it with reference to its learning objectives.
Take, e.g., the following into account:
(1) The suitability of the entry level as required by the course and
compliance therewith by trainees.
(2) The syllabus and the logic of the course structure from the point of
view of training.
(3) The effectiveness of the learning-objective format of the

syllabus.
(4) Any means of reducing the time taken for preparation and
delivery of the course while maintaining the same objectives.
58
6 Review
The final part of the course leaves a lasting impression and is very
important, it would be conducted in two stages.
The first stage is concerned with summing up the course activities in

the format of a checklist of the administrative and pedagogic action
required for preparation and conduct of courses. The consolidated
checklist should constitute a tangible result for participants to take away
and use in their future work. Exercise 17 is concerned with this
checklist.
The second stage is concerned with summing up the course i n the

format of a discussion of whether the course objectives and the detailed
learning objectives were achieved. This discussion provides opportunity
for discussing the central issues raised during the course.
Exercise 17 — Checklist of required action

(2 hours)
This exercise could be conducted as individual assignments or in groups.
The task
Make a flow-chart, and a list in chronological order, of the action which

is required by training managers/instructors for the following purposes:
Planning/conduct of a course, i.e. with regard to participants/
invitations; resources required; staff.
Preparing for the conduct of a course, i.e. with regard to assessing

existing qualifications of applicants with respect to course objectives
and entry requirements; adjustments of syllabus and the learning
objectives, timing; designing the instructional strategy; preparation of
substantive i n p u t , conduct of exercises, field trips, assessment;
evaluation; facilities.
Conducting courses.
Follow up of courses.
59
Part E
Assessment of Participants
In this course, assessment of trainees is a subject of importance in the
syllabus. The principles and techniques of evaluation of the course and
of trainees are fully dealt with in subject area 5.
The extent to which assessment is applied in the course will depend,

amongst other things, on the purpose to which the results are to be put,
i.e. whether for feedback as a teaching/learning aid or whether to
ascertain success, or even ranking, on the course. It might be decided
that there will be no formal assessment of participants.
Typically, while the learning objectives of this course require a certain

ability to recall facts and information, emphasis is on participants'
practical demonstration of attained skills.
The possibility of assessment of trainees is built into the course by way

of the series of exercises. These, in fact, constitute situations in which
participants have actively to apply their learning to cases and to
demonstrate the skills which are objectives within the course. They
could also be subjected to a number of tests, built into exercises, to
check recall of information.
It should be recalled that the jobs of group co-ordinator, spokesman,
etc., should be rotated so that at the end of the course all participants
have been exposed to all types of jobs, in addition to the exposure
which follows from individual assignments.
This gives the instructor an opportunity to maintain, for each participant,

a 'score sheet' on which is kept a record of performance from:
participation in group work during each exercise;
work as group co-ordinator;
presentation of group results;
- participation in discussion;
– individual assignments, including any individual tests.
61
The instructor should consider arranging scoring possibilities, e.g. from

1 to 5, for each job. He may also weight some scores which are
considered the more important, e.g. increasing the scores for the jobs
that involve exposure to the whole group during presentations. A
specimen score sheet is given in 5.3 in the compendium, but the
instructor may wish to arrange his own.
It is important that participants reach a high level of professionalism in

their work and a suitable pass mark should be established if they are to
obtain a diploma which indicates success on the course.
There are two difficulties relating to the validity of the grading system
and pass mark:
(1) Many tests are subjective and such assessment invariably

depends on the judgement of the instructor(s).
(2) While it is possible to devise objective tests relating to the

various substantive sections of the course, these often relate
to the least important objectives (recall of information).
However, with careful preparation, they can test higher levels of
learning.
The first difficulty is important when the course is conducted several

times by different instructors. Inconsistency in judgement or weighting
would then create unfair results between participants in different courses.
Within the framework of one course such inconsistencies are more
easily avoided, particularly if the scoring system is discussed with the
participants, as part of their training in assessment of trainees.
The second difficulty would remain. However, bearing in mind the

relative importance of recalling facts/information and the demonstration
of skills, the instructor may introduce objective tests as part of
individual assignments.
Appendix 3 contains simple examples of objective assessment

questions.
62
Appendices
Appendix 1
International Chamber of Shipping
Fire Casualty Report Scheme
V.B. The International Chamber of Shipping has given permission for these reports to )e
incorporated in the Instructor Manual on condition that:
the texts of the reports are not altered from the original; and
(ii) the reports are provided as case-study material for the use of the instructor only;
they may not be circulated or given as hand-outs for retention
by others.
65
CIRCULATION:
DRY CARGO
NOT FOR PUBLICATION
INTERNATIONAL CHAMBER OF SHIPPING
FIRE CASUALTY REPORT SCHEME
REPORT NO.11
1. Situation
This report concerns a fire which broke out among dangerous goods stowed on deck on a five hatch general
cargo ship of 15,000 dwt. The ship had loaded at northwest European ports for South Africa and the Persian Gulf and at
the time of the incident was berthed alongside at Kuwait.
2. Initial Action
At 1745, during discharge, a fire occurred on deck at No. 5 hatch in a stow of plastics receptacles of "Butanol" (
methyl ethyl ketone peroxide — a dangerous substance classified by IMO as Class 5.2 — organic peroxides).
The crew went to fire stations and shore fire services were notified. All cargo discharging was stopped and
stevedores sent ashore. The fire was tackled with a 101b. dry power extinguisher and at first this action appeared to
have been effective, but within a few seconds the fire broke out again and spread rapidly to an adjacent stow of steel
drums of Fenitrothion pesticide (Class 6.1 — poisons). Heat and smoke quickly developed and despite the efforts of
two hose parties, the fire spread to cartons of aerosol cans and butane gas lighter refills (Class 2 — inflammable gas).
These began to explode and fly in all directions, creating additional hazards for the fire fighting parties.
3. Tactical Fire Fighting Procedures
Owing to the very rapid spread and intensity of the fire, it was impossible to close No. 5 hatch and a number of
burning aerosol cans fell into the `tween deck of No. 5, setting fire to the cardboard packing of pallets of plastic
granules in the square of the hatch. This fire which soon ignited dunnage and the main stow of plastics granules in the
port wing of the `tween deck, was tackled with another hose.
Shortly afterwards, at 1800, the port fire service arrived with two appliances and a fire float. The fire float
quickly extinguished the fire on deck, and two hoses from the shore appliances soon brought the outbreak in the `
tween deck under control.
After the arrival of shore assistance the ship's fire parties concentrated on cooling the ship's structure. The fire
was completely extinguished by 1815.
Adjacent compartments were checked for any damage or spread of fire but none was found. The water which had
been discharged in No. 5 `tween deck drained into the bilges and was pumped out.
At 1900, cargo discharge was resumed at Nos 1, 2, 3 and 4 hatches. Continuous fire watches were set during the
night and the fire main was kept pressurised. No further outbreaks of fire occurred.
4. Damage and Personal Injuries
Damage to the ship was confined to electrical wiring, ropes and a gangway net, and the starboard accommodation
ladder.
No personal injuries were reported.
5. Cause of Fire
The cause of the fire was not reported but spontaneous decomposition of methyl ethyl ketone peroxide cannot
be disregarded especially at an ambient temperature to be expected in Kuwait in July. Possible leakage of the peroxide
from a damaged receptacle or through an insecure closure would be likely to increase such a risk.
6. Tactical Fire Fighting Appraisal
Fires involving, or in the vicinity of, organic peroxides can lead to an explosion and should be tackled from a
distance using water only. In this incident only a moderate quantity of peroxide was involved (one pallet load of
approximately 800 kg.) but the use of a dry powder extinguisher was ineffective. Considering the nature of the cargo
involved and the size and violence of the fire, the action of the ship's fire fighting hose parties was commendable. Fire
service assistance using water was correct and effective.
66
APPENDIX 1
7. Remedial Action taken by the Company
It was established that the segregation of the dangerous goods on deck did not comply with the requirements of
the IMDG Code or the Flag State national administration. At the time of the voyage in question, the ship was on time
charter and the stowage proposals were prepared by charterers' stevedores and submitted to the Master for approval.
The charterers gave very clear instructions to their stevedores which required them to comply in full with the requirements
of the Flag State national administration, and the Master was similarly instructed.
On this occasion it appears that a mistake by the stevedores was not noticed by the Master when the documents
were submitted to him for approval of stowage.
This incident was discussed with the charterers and steps were taken to ensure that standing instructions are
implemented on all occasions in the future. Similarly all Masters were advised of the importance of checking dangerous
cargo manifests and stowages.
8. Conclusions
In addition to the breakdown in the charterers' operating arrangements, disclosed by the company's enquiries,
part of the ship's list of dangerous goods – reproduced below – shows that five substances out of the eight listed were
described by trade names only. This suggests that the cargo in question was declared in this manner by the shippers
and, therefore, the requirements of Chapter VII of SOLAS were not complied with in full.
This incident also suggests that the master was unaware of the special risks associated with organic peroxides
and the correct fire fighting procedure for this class of substances.
APPENDIX
AGENT:
L I S T OF DANGEROUS CARGO
VESSEL: VOYAGE No: FROM:
— - - - - — — - - — — — — — — — — — — — - - - - - - — - — - - - - - - - - — - - - -
nr port pieces packing description weight shipper Imco Class. stowage

Flashpoint
5.2 / 2118
4 Dubai 40 noury- Cyclonox LNC 1100 ......... H 5 ON DECK A/P
tainers (Cyclo-
hexanone
Peroxide
8 Dubai 500 cartons Diperex 11100 ......... 6.1 / 1615 H 3 T/D P/S
(Insecticides)
13 Kuwait 1 pallet stc 32 noury- 880 ......... 5.2 / 2127 H5 ON DECK A/P
tainers FP 100°C
Butanox
M105
(Methyl
Ethyl Ketone
Peroxide)
15 Kuwait 40 drums Accelerator 1120 ......... 3.3 / 1993 H 3 T/D — F/P

NL53 FP 58°C
16 Kuwait 50 drums Release Agent 1135 ......... 3.3 / 1993 H 3 T/D – FP

NLI FP 46°C
24 Kuwait 240 drums Desmodur 65280 ......... 6.1 / 2078 H 3 D/T – A/P
T80 (Synth.
Resin)
8 cans Desmorapid 460 --------- 8/1719 H4ONDECKF/P
PS 207 FP 65°C
25 Kuwait 200 drums Desmodur 54400 ......... 6.1 / 2078 H 3 D/T -197x
T80 H 3 ON DECK — 3x
April, 1977
67
CIRCULATION:
ALL SHIPS
NOT FOR PUBLICATION

REPORT NO.12
1. Situation
This report concerns an engine room fire in a roll-on/roll-off ferry of 1,900 dwt, on a short sea passage to a United
Kingdom port.
2. Initial Action
At 0007 the Third Engineer, on watch in the control room, saw the fire start through the control room window. He
stopped both main engines and informed the Chief Engineer by telephone, but did not switch off the oil fuel booster
pumps or the fuel supply to the main engines. He then attempted to tackle the fire with a portable dry powder extinguisher
but was unable to do so because of smoke.
Heat from the fire activated the automatic fire alarm.
The navigating officer, on hearing the fire alarm, noted that the engine control warning lights showed the starboard
engine to be stopped and the port engine on overload. He put both combinatory levers to the stop position, switched
off the mechanical ventilation to the vehicle deck and engine room, and reported the situation to the Master who arrived
in the wheelhouse when the fire alarm sounded. The officer then went to the scene of the fire, closing the engine room
ventilator flaps on the boat deck on his way.
The Chief Engineer, alerted by the fire alarm and the telephone call from the Third Engineer, went to the engine
room which he found full of smoke. He gave instructions for the emergency fire pump and the emergency generator to be
started. Then he and the Bosun, both wearing self-contained breathing apparatus and the latter a life line, took a hose and
entered the engine room to see if the cause and seat of the fire could be identified, but both were forced to leave because of
smoke entering their face masks. The fault to the masks was remedied and they re-entered the engine room. A bellows type
breathing apparatus was rigged and manned in case the need arose for assistance to be given to the two men. The Chief
Engineer was able to see the fire which was in the vicinity of the turbot blower. Water was directed towards the fire by a jet
nozzle but the hose was not long enough for the seat of the fire to be reached and both men withdrew.
An additional length of hose was connected and, because of the intense heat in the engine room, the Chief Engineer
asked for a spray nozzle to be fitted in place of the jet nozzle, hoping that by using the spray as a curtain, he would be
able to get closer to the seat of the fire. This plan could not be put into effect as all the spray nozzles were stowed in the
engine room and could not be reached.
At about 0030 the Chief Engineer and the Bosun re-entered the engine room, and found that the temperature had
dropped significantly and the fire appeared to be burning itself out. Water was escaping from burst connections in the
cooling water system and it was considered that this was helping to reduce the intensity of the fire. The Chief Engineer
therefore decided that he and the Bosun should withdraw again and let the fire extinguish itself.
The Chief Engineer, and the Second and Third Engineers, made a number of inspections of the engine room and at
0045 no further flames could be seen. After an inspection of the whole of the machinery spaces the Master was informed, at
0110, that the fire was extinguished.
In addition to the fire in the engine room itself, the deck plating of the vehicle space above became very hot and the
Chief Officer organised four hoses for cooling purposes. Large amounts of steam were produced and visibility in the area
was bad. When the Chief Engineer reported that the fire was out the Chief Officer asked the Master to restart the vehicle
deck fans to clear the atmosphere. It did not prove necessary to move any of the vehicles but a number of tyres were
damaged by heat.
At 0405, the port engine, which remained serviceable, was restarted and the vessel completed the passage on one
engine, entering harbour at 0838.
The major part of the damage was to electrical wiring and fittings, all wiring and light fittings above both main
engines requiring renewal. The effects of heat were apparent diagonally across the port engine and along the starboard
engine, the insulation of a large number of power and lighting cables, carried on cable
68
APPENDIX 1
trays below the deckhead being damaged. Damage to the main engines was confined mainly to auxiliary fittings, flexible
pipe connections and joints. The starboard turbo-blower inlet filter casing had partly melted, together with the rotor
bearings. The starboard governor with associated starting and control gear and the oil mist detector required complete
overhaul. Fuel rack return springs, and all pipe joints and flexible connections affected by heat had to be renewed.
Damage to the ship's structure consisted of localised buckling of the deckhead longitudinales above the after end
of the engine room.
There were no injuries to personnel.
5. Cause of Fire
When the fire was extinguished and conditions were suitable for a detailed examination to be carried out it was
found that No. 8 starboard fuel pump low pressure delivery pipe had fractured. The broken ends of pipe had sprung out of
line, permitting a discharge of fuel oil towards the engine in line with the fuel pump. Ignition was caused by fuel oil
coming into contact with the exhaust system. The cause of the fracture is not known but it was apparent from the
misalignment of the sections of fractured pipe that the pipe had been under tension.
The vessel was fitted with CO2 extinguishing systems both for the engine room and the vehicle deck, but the Chief
Engineer considered that the use of CO2 in the engine room should be avoided if at all possible. The diesel generator was
still running and providing light and power, and the use of CO2 would have immobilised the generator. There would also
be the problem of purging the engine room atmosphere after the fire was extinguished and of ensuring that it was safe for
personnel to man the control room, the door between the engine room and the control room not being gas-tight. CO2 was
not used on the car deck as it was considered that the situation did not justify it.
The efforts of the Chief Engineer and the Bosun, commendable as they were, probably had only minimal effects
on the fire. It was considered that the fire went out through a combination of two factors.
a) Cessation of the supply of fuel oil via the broken pipe due to the stopping on the booster pumps; and
b) The escape of water from the burnt flexible cooling water pipes. Cooling the vehicle deck above the fire with
hoses may also have been a contributing factor.
All engineer officers were closely questioned about stopping the booster pumps but no one could recollect having
done so either by operating the breaker at the main switchboard or the emergency stop switch in the engine room
entrance. After the fire it was found that the port booster pump, which had been in operation at the outbreak, could not be
restarted due to a loose connection in the starter. This loose connection may have been the reason for the pump stopping
when it did but no explanation could be found for the failure of the starboard pump — on stand-by — to cut in on pressure
drop. Had the low pressure fuel supply continued to deliver fuel oil to the seat of the fire, the incident would have been far
more serious.
7. Remedial Action Taken by the Company
Investigations into the incident revealed that within a few seconds of the initial outbreak tremendous heat and large
volumes of smoke and fumes were generated. Coupled with loss of engine room lighting, these conditions made it
impossible for staff to remain in the engine room without breathing apparatus or to approach close enough to the fire to
make effective use of portable extinguishers. Smoke and fumes rapidly spread to the control room which had to be
evacuated. In the circumstances the fire had to be fought with equipment located outside the engine room.
The only fire fighting appliances located in the vehicle deck were hoses with fixed nozzles. When carrying out fire
drills, a situation whereby a hose had to be taken into the engine room from outside had not been envisaged. For this
reason the length of hose used at first was insufficient to enable a jet of water to be directed onto the fire. The hose had to
follow a very tortuous path from the car deck down a stairway to the control room, around the console and down a
further stairway to the engine room floor plate; severe kinking seriously restricted the flow of water.
The Chief Engineer and the Bosun found that their breathing apparatus made it impossible to communicate with
one another and difficult to remain in contact. The Bosun also found his life line awkward and at times it became
entangled with the hose.
69
The following recommendations were made as a result of the Company's investigations into the incident:
a) Consideration should be given to fitting all ships of the type in question with a water spray system in the
engine room, operable from outside the machinery space and capable of being selectively operated in
sections.
b) Consideration should be given to fitting all ships of the type in question with a manually operated drencher
system on the vehicle deck.
c) Supplies of portable foam making equipment should be available on vehicle decks of all roll-on/roll-off vessels.
d) All hoses in the vehicle deck should be fitted with combined jet/spray nozzles.
e) A non-kinking hose fitted with a jet/spray nozzle should be mounted on a reel permanently connected to the
ship's fire main, adjacent to any door between the control room and the machinery space.
f) The door and bulkhead between any machinery space and control room should be gas-tight.
8. Conclusion
Apart from the remedial measures listed, this casualty emphasises the necessity of carrying out realistic fire drills
– with the source of fire in various locations. Only by so doing can defects in equipment or procedure be
discovered.
July, 1977
APPENDIX 1
CIRCULATION:
ALL SHIPS
NOT FOR PUBLICATION
INTERNATIONAL CHAMBER OF. SHIPPING

REPORT NO.
13
1. Situation
This incident concerns a fire which broke out in a locker used as an engine store on a general cargo ship of about 7,
500 grt. The ship had loaded at northwest European ports for northern Brazil, and at the time of the incident was in the
Atlantic, about 750 n.miles from the Brazilian coast. The weather was fair, with overcast sky and north-easterly wind.
Initial Action
At 15.00 the Second Engineer, on duty in the engine room, became aware of smoke. He made an immediate search
for the cause and discovered a fire in a locker used as an engine store on the port side (aft) adjacent to the crew
accommodation on the main deck. The navigating officer and the Master were informed immediately. At 15.05 the
general alarm was sounded, all ventilation was stopped, the emergency fire pump was started and full pressure to the fire
lines was ordered. The ship was stopped with the port side to leeward. At 15.10 all doors and other openings, other than
essential machinery air intakes, were closed, and the crew assembled at muster stations on the boat deck. The Master
assumed operational command from the bridge while the second officer was delegated to exercise on-scene command,
communication with the bridge being maintained by portable radio.
After having reported the fire the Second Engineer started to tackle it with a powder extinguisher. This attempt
failed and he was forced by the heat and dense smoke to retreat to the open deck. A fire-fighting party equipped with
compressed air self-contained breathing apparatus and using hoses took over, while a second team was set up and kept in
reserve. The remaining crew installed hoses in front of and abaft the superstructure and started to cool the decks over the
seat of the fire.
By now the fire extended throughout the whole of the accommodation area on the main deck. The heat in the
passageway compelled the fire-fighting parties to retreat but before doing so two toilet basins on the port side of the main
deck were smashed to facilitate drainage of water from the fire-fighting hoses.
As fire-fighting from within the superstructure had become impossible due to the heat and smoke, running boards
were rigged overside at the level of the main deck cabins adjacent to the engine room store, to allow the fire to be
attacked with hoses through the cabin side-scuttles. Three hoses were used, although the fire-fighting party had difficulty in
keeping their position on the running boards because of the amount of steam and smoke emerging from the cabin side-
scuttles.
By 16.00 the fire had reached the poop deck and the crew's mess. The after bulkhead of No. 5 cargo hold had to be
cooled to prevent ignition of cargo. By now the ship had developed a list to port of 100 due to the amount of water used in
fighting the fire, despite the fact that all ballast tanks in the double bottom had been flooded as a precautionary
measure. The possibility that the fire would spread to the promenade deck and boat deck could not be excluded and
preparations to abandon ship were made at 17.00. The lifeboats were cleared for launching and equipped with nautical
instruments and sea-charts.
Soon afterwards it became necessary to evacuate the bridge. The radio officer, using a length of hose pipe for a
temporary breathing apparatus, managed to make the transmitter operational and to install a Morse key in the windward
bridge wing. Distress signals were not transmitted. The CO2 installation was made ready to flood the engine room as the
bulkheads of the engine casing were heating up in the vicinity of the fire.
The ship's company continued to fight the fire under these difficult conditions, and eventually a fire-fighting party
regained access to the port side accommodation passageway on the main deck. They were joined by another team who
had managed to enter by way of a cabin side-scuttle, and by 18.30, the combined efforts of these two groups had
extinguished the fire in the engine store locker and accommodation on the main deck.
Fire-fighting continued on the poop deck, promenade deck and boat deck and at about 23.00 the fire was brought
under control; at 02.00 next morning it was completely extinguished.
With the crew temporarily accommodated in No. 1 upper tween deck, it was possible to resume the voyage in spite of
extensive damage to navigational and control systems. The starboard rudder engine was restored to operational condition
and the ship was steered using a magnetic compass installed in the rudder engine room. Later a remote control steering
apparatus was set up on the bridge. The rudder indicator, which had been rendered inoperative was replaced by a
communications link using portable radio sets, with crew members posted at the bridge and on deck close to the hatch of
the rudder engine room. 72 hours after the fire was discovered the vessel was safely at anchor at the roads of Belem in the
Amazon estuary.
71
The whole of the accommodation was destroyed and most of the electrical wiring, including power circuits. In
addition to the rudder indicator, the radar, echo-sounder, engine indicator, engine telegraph, general alarm, navigation
lights and other navigational equipment were inoperative. One officer and two ratings suffered from smoke inhalation
but they recovered within a short time. No other personal injuries were reported.
5. Cause of Fire
The cause of the fire could not be established, but it is assumed that a short circuit in the power cables leading
through the engine store locker might have occurred, possibly due to chafing of the cables brought about by vibration.
Although it was not possible to contain the initial outbreak thereby preventing the fire from spreading throughout the
accommodation, the ship's company carried out their duties with efficiency and courage. The timely preparation of
lifeboats, and maintenance of radio communications were both commendable.
7. Remedial Action taken by the Company
The Master stated in his report that two sets of self-contained breathing apparatus were not adequate for the size of
ship. He proposed at least three sets with sufficient spare cylinders to support a sustained fire-fighting effort. This matter
had already been under consideration by the company, and the experience gained in dealing with the incident was taken
into account in re-equipping all ships in the fleet.
While fire-fighting was in progress, and afterwards when the voyage was resumed, considerable difficulties were met
with on-board radio communications due to insufficient power and range of the portable sets. These have since been
replaced by VHF equipment.
8. Conclusions
This incident demonstrates that high standards of discipline, training and personal alertness allow the best possible
use to be made of available skills and equipment, thereby maintaining control of a ship even under extremely unfavourable
conditions. The efficiency and courage of the ship's company in fighting a major fire at sea without assistance, and in
bringing the ship safely to a port of refuge fully justified the commendations received.
October, 1977
72
APPENDIX 1
CIRCULATION:
ALL SHIPS
NOT FOR PUBLICATION

REPORT NO.15
1. Situation
A 20,000 dwt tanker was berthed in a north European port, having discharged a full cargo of gas oil when fire
broke out in the crew recreation room, followed about one hour later by an explosion in the saloon area one deck above.
Extensive fire and smoke damage was caused to the accommodation. Several crew members were overcome by smoke,
two of whom died in their cabins. The incident occurred in mid-winter with very severe weather, air temperature being in
the region of -7 C.
2. Initial Action
Cargo was discharged by 23.15 and ballasting had started. At about 00.55 a fire was discovered in the crew
recreation room by an Assistant Steward who called some of the crew before reporting the fire to the Chief Officer on
deck. The fire alarm was rung at 01.04, ballasting stopped, cargo tank openings were closed, accommodation fans were
switched off and the shore fire brigade called. Thick black smoke in the accommodation filled the alleyways on the main
deck and the starboard alleyway on the poop deck. Most crew members evacuating their cabins had no time to dress
properly and were thus ill equipped to fight the fire in the very low air temperature.
Fire fighting equipment was brought to the poop, and fire fighting parties and rescue operations were centred
there. One party under the Third Officer took responsibility for rescue attempts on the starboard side of the poop using
self-contained breathing apparatus from midships, whilst the Second Officer, using a smoke helmet, led another party in
checking cabins in the port lower crew alleyway.
The Chief Officer and others attempted to operate a fire hose from the poop into the lower port crew alleyway, but
were hindered by the centre aft hydrant on the poop being seized, it not being appreciated that there was a closer hydrant
in the crew cross alleyway.
Another party, under the other Second Officer, had a hose rigged on the main deck but could not get water. After
checking the fire main valves it was assumed that a plug of water in the line to the main deck had frozen. Although there
was water in the poop line, no attempt was made by the main deck party to connect their hose to a hydrant on the poop
line, either at the poop front or on the port side of the poop.
Eventually, despite the thick smoke, the Chief Officer's party managed to connect a hose to the aft hydrant in the
main deck aft cross alleyway (although this hose was never used), and also connected a hose on the port side of the poop
for cooling the poop front deck.
In the engine room, a second fire pump was started and hoses were rigged for cooling the adjacent crew recreation
room bulkhead.
The shore fire brigade arrived and concentrated their efforts on rescue and cooling the front of the accommodation.
However, effective liaison with the ship's personnel was severely hampered by language difficulties.
At about 01.50 an explosion occurred in the saloon area on the poop deck; engine room and accommodation doors
were blown out and personnel on the poop were injured. Fire fighting from the poop was no longer possible and the
Chief Officer, thinking that the oil tanks in the engine room had ignited, ordered all personnel to leave the poop and
proceed ashore. The build-up of smoke made the engine room untenable, and the Chief Engineer ordered shut down and
evacuation of the engine room.
All personnel were off the ship at 02.00 and a muster was taken; it was then established that two men were
missing.
The fire was eventually extinguished by the fire brigade at about 06.00.
All accommodation on the boat deck was destroyed, together with most of the accommodation on the poop deck
and the forward part on the main deck. The after accommodation on the main deck was damaged by foam and smoke.
Six crew members were trapped in their cabins by the smoke. Of these, one escaped out of his port by his own
efforts, two were rescued via their ports and one eventually made his way from his cabin down a smoke filled alleyway to
the poop from where he was dragged unconscious. Unfortunately, the other two crew members were overcome by
smoke and died in their cabins.
73
5. Cause of Fire
The most likely source of ignition was considered to be an unextinguished cigarette end. Although the recreation
room bulkheads were constructed of steel, open doors permitted fire to spread to adjacent cabins.
Build up of heat on the deck above led to the evolution of flammable gases from flooring material, bulkheads and
furniture in the saloon. This flammable atmosphere subsequently ignited, causing the explosion.
6. Tactical Fire fighting Appraisal
When the fire was first discovered no one attempted to use the 2 gallon foam extinguishers or fire hoses on each
side of the crew recreation room, nor were the two doors to the recreation room shut.
Most crew members evacuating their cabins had no time to dress properly and were thus ill equipped to fight a fire,
lacking protection both from the heat and the freezing conditions on deck. Fire fighting was hindered by thick smoke and
the lack of breathing apparatus, the seized hydrant, the partly frozen fire main, language difficulties with the shore fire
brigade and a lack of communication between senior staff on board. The latter may in part have been due to the fact that
two Second Officers had joined the ship only 16 hours earlier and may not have been fully familiar with the ship and
location of equipment. Weather conditions also resulted in the freezing of water and foam from shore fire hoses and
monitors on deck, making footholds precarious.
7. Remedial Action Taken by the Company
After a thorough investigation, a report was issued which included a recommendation that water should be kept
running through the deck fire lines during freezing conditions. The existing instructions were that deck lines had to be
drained, the deck fire main isolated, hydrants opened and drain plugs removed. The need for frequent and realistic
exercises in fire and boat drill was also re-emphasized.
More alarm switches, self-closing doors and B class (non-combustible) bulkheads were to be fitted to the vessel
when repaired.
The self contained breathing apparatus would be relocated and an additional set provided.
To minimise language problems with shore fire brigades, the introduction of a "Fire Wallet" containing a general
arrangement plan, a pumping plan, ventilation arrangements, an access plan and data for trim and stability calculations
was being considered.
8. Conclusions
This incident illustrates the problems of casualty evacuation and fire fighting caused by materials producing dense
smoke and explosive gases in an accommodation fire. It also emphasizes the importance of boundary cooling above as well
as on the side boundaries of a fire, the availability of adequate supplies of water, and of good communications during an
emergency situation.
However it is considered that, under difficult circumstances, praiseworthy efforts were made to rescue personnel and
fight the fire. As a result, three trapped crew members were saved. Had the explosion not occurred, the ship's staff, with the
assistance of the fire brigade, might have contained and extinguished the fire before it had a chance to spread.
December, 1978
74
Appendix 2
Cargo Consolidation Simulation Exercise
Information for the Instructor Roles
2.1 Brief for cargo brokers (instructor À' role)
There is a different broker in each port
Available cargoes in the system:
Loading Discharging Cargo Stowage factor* Weight

Port Port (Cu.ft/ton) (tons)
Shanghai Hamburg Groundnut kernels 65 2,000
Potato pellets 71 1,500
Rotterdam General cargo 128 200
(40' cont., 20 t.net) 360
40
600
Qingdao Hamburg Bauxite 34 3,150
General cargo 71 30
(break-bulk) 400
Bangkok Singapore General cargo 128 80
(40' cont. 20 t. net) 400
Hamburg Tapioca, bags 60 8,000
Jakarta Singapore Gaplek, bags 60 1,500
Rotterdam Gaplek, bags 60 3,000

Singapore Hamburg Lumber 60 2,500
3,700
General cargo 128 360
(40' cont., 20 t. net) 920
Gaplek, bags 60 1,500
Port Kelang Rotterdam Rubber, bales 65 4,000
1,600
Lumber 60 1,400
4,000
Hamburg Jakarta Fertilizers 50 no limit
New Orleans Manila Grain 48 no limit
Kobe Grain 48 no limit
* To be given to the groups when requested
75
2.2 Brief for liner conference agent (instructor À' role)

(reductions of 10 to 15% are possible if groups negotiate)
Liner rates, including surcharges ($US):
Cargo SEA/Europe Sha-Qin/Europe US Gulf/Far East
92.00 89.00
Groundnut kernels
Potato pellets
Tapioca, bags 77.00
Gaplek, bags 77.00
Lumber 80.50
73.50
Rubber, bales
4,400 4,800
General cargo (
per container)
92.50 98.00
General cargo
Bauxite from Qingdao to Europe: $US40.00 per ton

Fertilizers from Europe to S.E. Asia: $US19.00 per ton
Grain from U.S. Gulf to Far East: $US21.00 per ton
The above rates include feeder services, where applicable. Liner schedules every two
weeks.
76
APPENDIX 2
2.3 Brief for ship brokers (instructor `B' role)
(say, three brokers, each with their own ships)
easels available in market: (the Deadweight: Speed: Fuel oil & diesel oil consumption: No. of
hips in each group are similar) decks and holds: Delivery & redelivery areas: Hire periods:
Daily rates:
4,500 dwt: 10.5 kn.: 13.5 + 0.5: 2 holds

I/S GOLDEN CHANCE Del. SEA, Redel. SEA: 6—12 months: $2,500/day
I/S GOLDEN FLEECE Del. SEA, Redel. SEA: 6—12 months: $2,500/day
I/S GOLDEN STRIKE Del. SEA, Redel. FE (charterer's option): 6—12 months: $2,500/day
5,500 dwt: 17 kn.: 21.5 + 1.0: 3 decks, 5 holds

VS KING DAVID Del. Kobe, Redel. UK Cont.: $2,700/day Del,
I/S KING JOHN Kobe, Redel. UK Cont.: $2,700/day Del, Kobe,
I/S KING KONG Redel. Kobe: $2,700/day
8,000 dwt: 12.5 kn.: 16.0 + 0.5: 2 decks, 4 holds

I/S ASIAN BELLE Del. FE, Redel. FE: $2,500/day
I/S ASIAN CITY Del. FE, Redel. UK Cont.: $2,900/day
I/S ASIAN STORY Del. FE, Redel. UK Cont.: $2,900/day
10,500 dwt: 16 kn.: 34.0 + 1.5:3 decks, 5 holds

I/S SINKING HOPE Del. Singapore, Redel. FE: $2,600/day
I/S RISING HOPE Del. Singapore, Redel. FE: 12 months: $2,600/day,
Option $2,200/day
I/S SHINING HOPE Del. Singapore, Redel. UK Cont.: 12 months: $2,600/day,
Option $2,200/day.
I/S BOB HOPE Del. Shanghai, Redel. UK Cont.: 12 months: $2,300/day
14,200 dwt: 14.5 kn.: 24 + 1.0: 2 decks, 5 holds

Del, Manila, Redel. charterer's option: 6 or 12 months: $3,300/day
I/S SPLENDOUR Del. UK Cont., Redel. charterer's option: 6 or 12 months: $3,
I/S SISTER ONE 300/day
Del. U.K. Cont., Redel. UK. Cont.: 6 or 12 months: $3,300/day
I/S SISTER TWO
15,000 dwt: 19 kn.: 53.5 + 1.5: 3 decks, 5 holds
Del. FE, Redel. negotiable
I/S BROTHER
16,700 dwt: 13.5 kn.: 19.5 + 1.0: Bulk
Del. UK Cont., Redel. SEA or Europe: $3,000/day
Del. SEA, Redel. SEA: $3,000/day
26,100 dwt: 15 kn.: 35.0 + 1.5: Bulk

i/S SPANKER
Del. SEA: 12—18 months: $3,800/day
i/S THAI PRIDE
Del. SEA, Redel. US Gulf: 12—18 months: $3,200/day
I/S CHINA STAR

I/S MORNING STAR
EA = South East Asia

E = Far East
77
Ship's specifications
Dwt 4,500 5,500 8,000 10,500 14,200 15,000 16,700 26,100
Gross reg. tons 3,000 4,580 5,300 7,000 9,500 10,000 11,100 17,400
Built 1969 1980 1972 1969/1970 1980 1970 1960 1970

No. of decks 1 3 2 3 2 3 1 1
No. of holds 2 4 5 5 5 5 5
Bale cap. ('000 cu.ft.):
Hold No. 1 105 51 60 99 96 120 86 180

Hold No. 2 105 66 90 120 144 180 141 252
Hold No. 3 66 90 120 144 180 141 216
Hold No. 4 66 90 120 144 180 141 216
Hold No. 5 51 99 144 120 141 216
Total 210 300 330 558 672 780 650 1,080
Grain cap. ('000 cu. ft.):

Hold No. 1 115 57 70 111 104 135 99 200
Hold No. 2 115 75 100 135 160 201 160 280
Hold No. 3 75 100 135 160 201 160 240
Hold No. 4 — 75 100 135 160 201 160 240
Hold No. 5 57 — 111 160 135 160 240
Total 230 339 370 627 744 873 739 1,200
Speed (knots) 10.5 17 12.5 16 14.5 19 13.5 15
Fuel consumption per day 13.5 + 0.5 21.5 + 1 16 + 0.5 34 + 1.5 24 + 1 53.5 + 1.5 19.5 + 1 35 + 1.
5
APPENDIX 2
Details of capacities of holds
Upper hold Middle hold Bottom hold
Gr. Bale Gr. Bale Gr. Bale
5,500 dwt type

Hold No. 1 19 17 19 17 19 17
Hold No. 2 25 22 25 22 25 22
Hold No. 3 25 22 25 22 25 22
Hold No. 4 25 22 25 22 25 22
Hold No. 5 19 17 19 17 19 17
8,000 dwt type
Hold No. 1 35 30 — 35 30
Hold No. 2 50 45 50 45
Hold No. 3 50 45 50 45
Hold No. 4 50 45 — 50 45
10,500 dwt type
Hold No. 1 37 33 37 33 37 33
Hold No. 2 45 40 45 40 45 40
Hold No. 3 45 40 45 40 45 40
Hold No. 4 45 40 45 40 45 40
Hold No. 5 37 33 37 33 37 33
14,200 dwt type
Hold No. 1 52 48 52 48
Hold No. 2 80 72 80 72
Hold No. 3 80 72 — — 80 72
Hold No. 4 80 72 — — 80 72
Hold No. 5 80 72 80 72
15,000 dwt type
Hold No. 1 45 40 45 40 45 40
Hold No. 2 67 60 67 60 67 60
Hold No. 3 67 60 67 60 67 60
Hold No. 4 67 60 67 60 67 60
Hold No. 5 45 40 45 40 45 40
79
2.4 Brief for the various port authorities (instructor `B' role)
Port costs (including agency fees) per call ($US)
Ship's dwt: 4,500 5,500 8,000 10,500 14, 15,000 16,700 26,100
Port 200
Kobe 5,500 6,500 7,000 8,400 9,300 9,750 10,000 12,400

Shanghai 2,500 2,800 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,250 4,500 7,000
Qingdao 2,500 2,800 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,250 4,500 7,000
Manila 1,500 1,750 2,000 3,250 3,000 3,250 3,500 6,000
Bangkok 2,500 2,750 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,250 4,500 7,000
Singapore 2,500 2,750 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,250 4,500 7,000
Jakarta 2,000 2,250 2,500 3,000 3,500 3,750 4,000 6,500
Port Kelang 2,000 2,250 2,500 3,000 3,500 3,750 4,000 6,500
Rotterdam 3,500 4,250 5,000 6,000 7,000 7,500 8,000 10,000
Hamburg 5,500 6,250 7,000 8,000 9,000 9,500 10,000 12,000
New Orleans 5,500 6,250 7,000 8,400 9,000 9,500 10,000 12,000
80
APPENDIX 2
2.5 Brief for stevedores (instructor `B' role)

Loading/discharging output (in tons per 24 hours per hold or containers per day)
If a ship has 3 or 4 holds you can only work a maximum of 2 holds at once
If a ship has 5 holds you can only work a maximum of 3 holds at any one time
Cargo: Groundnut Potato Bauxite Tapioca, Grain Lumber Rubber Fertilizers General Contain
kernels pellets Gaplek cargo er
Port
Kobe - - - 5,000 - - -
Shanghai 500 500 - - - - - 60

Qingdao 500 500 1,000 - - - - - 150
Manila - - 2,500 - - - -
Bangkok - - 500 - - - 80
Singapore - 500 - 500 - - - 80
Jakarta - - 500 - - 300 -
Port Kelang - - - - 400 500 - - -
Rotterdam - - - 225 - 450 225 200 90

Hamburg 250 250 1,500 250 425 425 250 90
New Orleans - - - - 6,000 - - - -
Loading/discharging costs ($US per ton or per container)
Cargo: Groundnut Potato Bauxite Tapioca, Grain Lumber Rubber Fertilizers General Contain
kernels pellets Gaplek cargo er
Port
Kobe - 1.50 - - - - -
Shanghai 5.00 5.00 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 80.00
Qingdao 5.00 5.00 1.00 - - - 8.00 -

Manila - - - 1.00 - - -
Bangkok - 5.00 - - - - 70.00
Singapore - 5.00 - 4.00 - - 70.00
Jakarta - - 5.00 - 3.00 - -

Port Kelang - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4.00 4.00 - -
Rotterdam - - - 6.00 - 4.50 6.00 - 8.00 98.00
Hamburg 7.00 7.00 1.00 7.00 5.50 7.00 9.50 98.00
New Orleans - - - - 1.00 - - - -
81
2.6 Agent's brief (instructor À' role)

Canal dues:
Canal dues should be calculated at $US1.00 per ton dwt (note: this is a gross simplification
— for this exercise only)
Canal agency fees should be calculated as follows ($US):
4,500t., 300; 5,500t., 350; 8,000t., 420; 10,500t., 1,100; 14,200t, 2,000; 15,000t., 2,100; 16,
700t., 2,300; 26,100t., 3,400
Bunker prices
Fuel oil: $US70.00 per ton

Diesel oil: $US110.00 per ton
82
APPENDIX 2
2.7 Instructor Guide and Game Briefing
The scenario of a simulation game on cargo consolidation could be as follows:
FEATURE
PREPARATORY ACTION
1 THE SYSTEM
Exercise map, distance table. (
The scenario geographically covers Japan, The
A2, Appendix 2)
Philippines, Thailand, Singapore, Indonesia,
Germany, The Netherlands and the Gulf of
Mexico.
The cargo
Cargo matrices, lists of individual
Different dry bulk cargoes and break-bulk consignments. Stowage factors. (
cargoes as well as containerized cargoes move Appendix 2.1)
from Asian countries to European destinations.
Some of the break-bulk cargoes and some
containerized cargo are trans-shipped via
Singapore.
Break-bulk cargo and containerized cargo move consignments. Stowage factors (
among the Asian countries as well. These Appendix 2.1)
cargoes are partly destined for Singapore, for
trans-shipment.
None: "cargo not available".
Containerized cargo moves from European
ports to ports in Asia.
Limited volumes of cargo move from European consignments. Stowage factors. (
ports to the Gulf of Mexico. There is movement of Appendix 2.1)
bulk cargo and containers from the Gulf to Japan.
The ships
Some of the cargo is carried by a shipping Liner/feeder schedules, tariffs.

line/conference which operates from Agents. Contracts. (Appendix 2.2)
Japan/Singapore to European ports and vice
versa. This liner system is supported by a
feeder system among the Asian countries.
A `market' of charter vessels exists world-wide. List of vessel specs. (e.g. dwt., cubic
Vessels from this market carry bulk cargoes from capacity, no. of hatches,
Asia to Europe; some operate in Asian trades consumption/speed). Rates, with
while others operate outside the system, but may margins for negotiation. Canal dues.
be brought into it. The charter vessels operate Bunker prices. (Appendix 2.3)
partly on time, partly on voyage basis.
83
The ports
For the purpose of the exercise, there is one port Port specs. (e.g. loading and
available in each country. Cargo movements unloading capacities, waiting times)
between the ports and inland origins or and tariffs. Hinterland transport
destinations are performed by an unspecified tariffs. (Appendix 2.4 & 2.5)
'hinterland transport service'.
2 THE PLAYERS
The participants will play the roles of export List of participants. Evaluation and
companies, trading between Asian countries allocation to groups. Group leaders.
and Europe. Four groups will be established Briefing material for participants.
independently, but playing the same roles.
Sixteen active participants are expected,
allowing a maximum number of 4 members in
each group.
The instructors should be prepared to supply As under item 1 above, plus:

information which will allow simultaneous Exercises of calculations, calculation
working of four groups as well as keeping forms, Exercises of stowage plans,
records. The instructors assume the roles of: stowage tables. Briefing.
importers in Europe, the US and Asia;
— other exporters; shipping
lines; liner agents;
shipowners (charterers);
— shipbrokers;
— bunker agents/stations;
— canal authorities;
— port authorities;
stevedores;
inland transport authorities;
— àdvisory services'.
3 THE TASKS in the game when conducted in 3 stages — I, II & III.

(In this exercise a simplified task is employed but the process below is similar)
The groups will face the principal problem of Basic task paper I.
optimizing a transport system with regard to total transport costs. (See
Exercise 13)
The starting position is the use of `conventional' Work methods and possibilities
liner services. The obvious first job is to covered during substantive part of
calculate the relevant costs. Smart groups will course. Expanded task paper II
try to renegotiate contracts and rates or providing leeway for group
discounts. inventiveness and initiatives.
84
APPENDIX 2
The next position is to introduce the concept of 'Cargo compatibility' covered during
cargo consolidation in order to improve the substantive part of course. Task
negotiating position with the line. paper III (not included).
The next position is to introduce cargo

consolidation as a basis for chartering alternative
tonnage. In addition to finding cargo for
consolidated transport, this will necessitate jobs
like identifying suitable ships, negotiating rates
and conditions, considering stowage estimating
voyage charters, negotiating cargo lots and
frequencies with importers, locating return
cargoes.
The subsequent task will be to make a final

choice of `system' based on cost minimization
and customer constraints (e.g. cargo lot sizes,
frequencies).
Unless entirely off track (in principle, the staff Operational problems (e.g. heavy
operating the advisory services will ensure weather, engine-room fire,
against this), groups will conclude with some non-appearance of cargo) which
kind of charter arrangement. The penultimate may influence economic result.
task (optional, depending on time availability)
will be to actually perform a voyage under this
arrangement.
Ultimate tasks will be to make a report on Report format.

considerations and findings, for joint discussion with other groups.
85
Appendix 3
Specimen Examination Questions - Objective Format
Below follow two sample sets of multiple-choice questions and one true/false question
pertaining to two randomly chosen items in the course. The kind of questions indicated may
be used at appropriate intervals for short (say 5 minutes) tests of progress and to motivate
participants for further efforts.
For each question, the trainees should tick the right (best) answer from the list provided. In
the samples, the right answer is indicated by a capital letter (obviously, this would not be the
case with the questionnaires submitted to the trainees). In scoring, the right answer would
rate 1 point, no answer 0 points, wrong answer -1 point.
The need, frequency and detail of tests would vary with different groups of trainees. The
instructor must consider the need on a case-by-case basis, and construct tests as appropriate.
The samples below may serve as models:
The purpose of training is:

(a) to assess manpower needs
(b) to change performance
(c) to provide work incentive
(d) to test performance. The training
objectives should indicate:
(a) what the trainer should present during lectures

(b) what trainees should be able to do after training
(c) that the purpose of training has been achieved
(d) the need for training. In order for tests
to be valid, they should:
(a) be limited in their contents to substance already covered in the course

(b) not be limited in their contents to substance already covered in the course.
86
Information requested of Instructors who
implement IMO Model Courses
Introduction
1 IMO model courses are periodically revised to take into account the changes which have
taken place in relevant Conventions, resolutions and other matters affecting each
course. To help IMO to improve the content of courses when they are revised, the
assistance of all instructors who implement or participate in implementing courses is
requested, whether the implementation is part of an IMO technical co-operation project
or part of a Maritime Training Academy's regular programme.
Information requested and its format
2 To simplify their consolidation by IMO, the technical comments and suggestions for the
improvement of model courses should follow the format that is outlined below. If no
comments or suggestions are to be provided under a topic, please insert "no comment"
against the item.
3 Please identify:
.1 the course number and title

.2 the date and location of its implementation
.3 the approximate number of IMO model courses you have implemented to date and
.4 the approximate number of times you have implemented this particular model course.
4 In commenting on Part A– Course Framework, please comment on the items ('Scope', '
Objectives', etc.) in the order in which they appear in the course; in all cases, please
indicate:
.1 the number of participants who met the entry standards and the number who did not
.2 the course intake and, if the recommendations in 'Course intake limitations' were
exceeded, the reasons for this and your observations on the effect of this on the
quality of the course
.3 if the conditions under 'Staff requirements' were met; if not, please indicate the nature
of the deficiency and give your observations of the effect of this on the quality of
presentation of the course and
.4 any lack of equipment or facilities as compared with the recommendations under `
Teaching facilities and equipment' and your observations of the effect of this lack on
the quality of presentation of the course.
5 In commenting on Part B – Course Outline, please bear in mind that minor variations in
time allocations are inevitable. Major difficulties with allocations of time and any
omissions or redundancies of subject areas should be briefly explained.
87
6 In commenting on Part C — Detailed Teaching Syllabus, please identify the specific

learning objectives concerned by their paragraph numbers.
7 In commenting on Part D — Instructor Manual, please clearly identify the section

concerned. If the bibliography or the practical exercises are found to be unsatisfactory,
please identify suitable alternative texts, as far as is possible, or outline alternative
exercises, as appropriate.
8 In commenting on the compendium, please clearly identify the paragraphs being

commented upon.
9 Any further comments or suggestions you may have which fall outside the scope of the
items listed above may be added at the end. In particular, your views on the usefulness
of the course material to you in implementing the course would be appreciated, as
would the contribution to IMO of any additional teaching material you found useful in
implementing it.
Please address your comments to:
Maritime Safety Division
4 Albert Embankment
London SE1 7SR U.K.
[Telefax (+) 44 171 587 3210]
88
Compendium for
Model Course 6.09
Training Course
for Instructors
Compendium for the course developed under the IMO - Norwegian programme
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This Compendium for the training course for instructors

is based on material developed for IMO by
Petter C. Omtvedt, of Petter C. Omtvedt & Associates,
Maritime and Educational Consultants, 3864 Rauland, Norway
Printed by Ashford Press
Published by the
International Maritime Organization,
London
First Edition 1991

Second Edition 1995
Copyright © IMO 1995
TM 609CE
Contents
Page
Introduction 1
Detailed syllabus 3
Course flow chart
Course Notes
1 The role of IMO and its contribution to training 11

2 Purpose of the Training Course for Instructors 15
Development of a Learning System, Course Design 17

3.1 Learning and performance 17
3.2 What are the main areas in which training can be effective? 22
3.3 A systematic approach to training and course design 23
3.4 Course Development 26
3.5 Learning Objectives 27
3.6 Design constraints and considerations 45
4 Development of an Instructional Strategy 49

4.1 Inputs to and influences on teaching methods 49
4.2 Selection of teaching methods 51
4.3 Principles of learning 60
4.4 Current trends in the use of teaching and training methods 68
4.5 The main teaching methods 70
4.6 Writing course material 92
5 Course Evaluation and Assessment of Participants 95

5.1 Trainee assessment 95
5.2 Objective assessment 97
5.3 Subjective assessment 101
5.4 Marking responses to questions 105
5.5 Constructing an assessment 105
5.6 Course Evaluation 108
6 Course Planning, Organization and Conduct 119

6.1 Planning and organization 119
6.2 Course Conduct 123
Appendix 1: Case study examples 127

Appendix 2: Cargo consolidation - trainee briefing notes 145
Appendix 3: Glossary 158
iii
This compendium is intended to provide part of the substantive input to the course. The
material has been drawn from a wide range of sources and experience. It cannot be
comprehensive, the aim has been to provide sufficient depth in order to create an atmosphere
for further discussion in the hope of assisting participants with their personal development.
During the conduct of the course, it is likely that more notes etc., will be handed out, participants
will be very active in many ways and of course individuals will make their own notes of issues
that are of particular interest to them. When all this is completed, a more meaningful record
will be held.
The detailed syllabus which follows has been written in the form of learning objectives. These
are a series of statements each one of which should be prefixed by the words "The expected
learning outcome is that the trainee can ..................................... ".
The references given against the learning objectives indicate the parts of the compendium
where relevant notes can be found, etc.
The flow chart is included to guide participants through the various paths followed by the
course.
COMPENDIUM
Detailed Syllabus A2 Other refs. and

exercises
1 IMO and its contribution to

training
.1 explain the reasons for the establishment of the 1.1 A3
.2 explain the purpose of IMO

1.2
.3 describe briefly the structure of IMO
1.3
.4 explain how ship standards are maintained
1.4
A4 and A5
.5 describe IMO's involvement with the establishment
of standards of training for seafarers
.6 explain the purpose of IMO's model courses
.7 outline the range of subjects covered by model courses
Purpose of this course Exercise 1
.1 list the issues to take into account when preparing

to implement a training course Exercise 2
.2 determine personal objectives for this course
3.1
Development of a learning 3.1
.1
system and course design
explain what is meant by:
— education
— training a learning
system
.2 explain the purpose of training 3.2
.3 explain the three basic components of performance
.4 describe situations where training should be of benefit
.5 explain the difference between symptoms and causes when

applied to performance at work
.6 describe the effect of learning on the person
.7 explain five areas in which training can improve performance
3

exercises
.8 determine a required job performance — given Exercise 3

relevant information
.9 identify training needs from given information or observation Exercise 11
.10 determine whether a performance gap could be closed by training
.11 discuss how attitudes might be changed
.12 list the stages of developing a training course in 3.3

a simple linear form
.13 compare the simple linear form to a more realistic approach

3.4
.14 describe a suitable organization and procedure for
the development of a course
3.5
.15 explain what is meant by "specific learning objective " (SLO) 3.5.3
3.5.4
.16 state other names used to describe SLO's or similar 3.5.4 &
3.5.5
.17 explain what is meant by the cognitive domain
.18 explain what is meant by knowledge, comprehension

and application
.19 explain what is meant by the affective domain
.20 explain what is meant by the psychomotor domain
.21 state that an SLO must contain a verb and an object also
possibly a constraint, conditions and/or criteria of performance
3.6.1
.22 write SLO's to cover a familiar area of work
3.6.2
Exercise 4
.23 determine additional knowledge and skills required in Exercise 5

a given case
.24 construct a series of SLO's to cover the requirements of 3.23
.25 compare the value of SLO's to the traditional syllabus of

general headings indicating areas to be taught
.26 discuss the value of issuing course SLO's to trainees
.27 discuss the constraints and issues to be considered by a

course designer
4
COMPENDIUM

exercises
Development of an instructional
strategy
.1 explain what is meant by "instructional strategy" 4.1
.2 discuss the factors which influence the choice of

teaching method
.3 explain briefly how the various factors affect the 4.2

choice of teaching method 4.2.2
.4 explain the fundamental responsibilities of a teacher

4.2.3
.5 state that a teacher's role is to plan, manage and
control learning
4.2.4
.6 describe the qualities essential to be a successful teacher
.7 discuss the characteristics of trainees which

influence teaching methods
.8 relate the ability to remember to the use of the

various senses when learning
.9 explain what is meant by passive, active and interactive learning
.10 list activities related to the above

4.2.4
.11 compare the merits of imposed learning with those of 4.2.5
emergent learning 4.2.6
4.3.1
.12 select suitable teaching methods for specified 4.3.2
subject areas 4.3.3
4.3.6 Exercise 14
.13 describe the role of the teacher in the various teaching methods
.14 explain the relationship between motivation and learning
.15 explain levels of motivation in a hierarchical form
.16 explain what is meant by perception
.17 explain the importance of perception in the learning process
.18 describe how learning sequences should be arranged

to utilise and improve perception
.19 explain how classroom configurations affect the learning process
.20 explain the importance of participation and practice
.21 explain how practice and repetition should be arranged
.22 describe how trainees might be stimulated to learn
5
Other refs. and

Detailed Syllabus A2
exercises
.23 explain what is meant by a feedback in the learning process 4.3.7

.24 explain the importance of feedback
4.3.8
.25 describe how feedback might be arranged
4.5.1
.26 explain the importance of transfer
.27 prepare a hand-out for a self-selected topic 4.5.2

Exercise 7
.28 prepare a ten minute lecture on a self-selected topic 4.5.4
Exercise 8
.29 present a ten minute lecture 4.5.3
Exercise 8
.30 evaluate the use of audio visual aids 4.5.3
.31 prepare audio/visual teaching aids
4.5.5
.32 evaluate demonstrations and laboratory work as part of Exercise 6
a learning process
Exercise 9
.33 participate in small group work as leader, member,
recorder and presenter of findings
Exercise 10
.34 discuss the value of group work as a learning process
.35 evaluate field work and visits as part of the learning process 4.5.6
to 4.5.
9
.36 explain what is meant by simulation including the Exercise 11
use of case studies, role playing and games
.37 evaluate the use of case studies as part of the learning process 4.5.9 Exercise 12
.38 evaluate simulation and games as part of the learning process 4.5.10 Exercise 13
4.5.11
.39 state that all learning material should contain: 4.6
– an introduction;
the presentation of new information etc.
a summary
.40 explain the key features of each of the above parts
6
COMPENDIUM
Other refs. and
exercises
Trainee assessment
5.1
.1 explain the various uses of assessments
.2 describe ways of making assessments as good as possible

5.2
.3 explain what is meant by objective assessment
.4 explain what is meant by subjective assessment 5.3
.5 state the types of objective and subjective questions

Exercise 15
.6 write objective and subjective questions
.7 discuss the policy of trainees being given
access to information (books, data etc.)

during assessment
— indication of the marks available for each part
of assessment questions;
.8 explain the use of weighting in assessments; 5.5
.9 discuss the issue and organization required for:
referrals;
appeals;
.10 construct an assessment for a given subject Exercise 15
Course evaluation
.11 explain the purpose of course evaluation 5.6
.12 describe the various levels of evaluation 5.6.1 to

5.6.4
.13 state that evaluation can be cyclic and progressive
.14 discuss how and when evaluation should take place
.15 discuss the reliability and credibility of evaluation

Exercise 16
.16 perform an evaluation of a given course
7
Other refs. and
exercises
6 Course planning, organization

and conduct
.1 summarize the issues to be considered when planning 6.1
a course
.2 construct a flow chart for the purpose of planning 6.2 Exercise 17

and conducting a course
.3 describe a structure of committees which would control the 6.1

complete planning and operation of a course 6.2
.4 determine the extent to which objectives (personal and for the

whole course) have been achieved
.5 outline a personal action plan for continuing self-development

COMPENDIUM
Course flow chart
INPUT EXERCISES OUTPUT

(by the Instructor) (for the participants) (Intended outcome)
IMO's role and

contribution PILOT CASE: Stating required
> Planning the conduct
of a model course
attributes of instructors
and needs for training
The learning style
of this course
Learning and
performance
Systematic v
course design Demonstrating training
Identifying awareness, discussing
Analysis of training needs course design and
problems deriving training needs
Analysis of
training needs
Identifying
training objectives
Setting training Identifying objectives of
objectives training and constructing
Determining course framework
course syllabuses
b
Review of Demonstrating Assessing the use of

instructional aids audio-visual aids instructional aids
Principles of
designing training
materials
Recognizing the
Review of Testing different strengths
teaching methods teaching methods and weaknesses of
different methods,
preparing and applying
Training
effectiveness
Assessment •
Assessing trainees Demonstrating
and evaluating courses learning management
Evaluation
Course planning Making a checklist Demonstrating

and conduct of action for trainers managerial skills
Pilot case re-examined
Demonstrating the full

set of trainer attributes
9
COMPENDIUM CHAPTER 1
1 The Role of IMO and its Contribution to Training

The International Maritime Organization and Model Courses
1.1 Introduction
Throughout this century the carriage of goods at sea has increased dramatically in quantity
and complexity. World demand for oil and chemicals has brought about developments in
shipping that would have not been thought possible a hundred years ago.
Accompanying this progress has been an increasing risk of accidents resulting in loss of
life, injury and pollution of the environment, sometimes on a very large scale.
By the end of the World War in 1945 the need for greater international co-operation was
realized by many Governments which brought about the birth of the United Nations along
with a number of Specialized Agencies to deal with particular subjects.
The United Nations adopted a Convention in 1949 which entered into force in 1958
establishing the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization which met for the
first time in January 1959. The name was altered to the International Maritime Organization
(IMO) in 1982.
The purpose of IMO is summarized by Article 1(a) of the Convention which is as follows:
"To provide machinery for co-operation among Governments in the field of

Governmental regulation and practices relating to technical matters of all kinds
affecting shipping engaged in international trade; to encourage and facilitate the
general adoption of the highest practicable standards in matters concerning the
maritime safety, efficiency of navigation and prevention and control of marine
pollution from ships; and to deal with administrative and legal matters related to
the purposes set out in this Article."
1.2 Structure of IMO

The structure of IMO consists of an Assembly, a Council and four main committees. There is
also a Facilitations committee and a number of sub-committees of the four main
committees.
The Assembly — is the governing body of IMO. It consists of all Member States and meets
every two years unless an extraordinary session is necessary. The Assembly approves the
work programme and determines the financial arrangements. The Assembly elects the
members of the Council.
11
The Council – consists of 32 representatives of Member States and meets between

sessions of the Assembly.
Maritime Safety Committee – this is the committee along with its several sub-committees
which carry out IMO's technical work. Its duties as defined in Article 28(a) of the IMO
Convention are to:
"Consider any matter within the scope of the Organization concerned with aids to
navigation, construction and equipment of vessels, manning from safety
standpoint, rules for the prevention of collisions, handling of dangerous cargoes,
maritime safety procedures and requirements for hydrographic information, log-
books and navigation records, marine casualty investigation, salvage and rescue,
and any other matters directly affecting maritime safety."
Legal Committee – considers any legal matters within the scope of the Organization
Marine Environment Protection Committee – deals with matters concerning the prevention
and control of pollution from ships and calls upon the Maritime Safety Committee when its
expertise is required.
Technical Co-operation Committee – considers any matters within the scope of IMO
associated with the implementation of technical co-operation projects funded by the UN for
which IMO has special responsibilities.
Facilitations Committee – deals with activities aimed at reducing formalities and simplifying
the documentation required when ships are entering or leaving ports.
All the main committees are open to all IMO Member States. The first four committees
have full constitutional status, the Facilitation Committee is a subsidiary body of the
Council.
The Secretariat – provides the administrative and managerial support to the Assembly,
Council, Committees and is responsible for all the services available from IMO The head is
the Secretary-General and the staff consists of some 200 international civil servants and
consultants.
IMO is financed by Member States who pay an amount based mainly on the tonnage of
their merchant fleets.
12
1.3 IMO's Contribution to the setting and maintenance of

standards
Since its inception, IMO has produced some thirty conventions and protocols, and adopted
over six hundred codes and recommendations.
A ship must be constructed, equipped, manned and operated in accordance with the
relevant international agreements. This is traditionally the responsibility of the State whose
flag the ship flies – the flag state. However, in recent years increasing control is being
applied by the States of the ports at which ships call – the "port states". Port State Control
basically confirms that all the required ships' certificates and documents are in order, but in
some cases the control goes further than that and sometimes ships are prevented from
leaving port until deficiencies are put right.
In recent times IMO has been paying attention to the shore management of ships in a
further effort to improve safety and prevent pollution.
1.4 Training of Seafarers

It has long been known that the human element plays a crucial part in achieving the
required standards. Originally, IMO produced documents for guidance for the training of
seafarers and in 1978 the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification
and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW) was adopted. This was a major step forward but
having reached agreement on the standards required the next problem for many countries
was how to achieve these standards.
IMO's technical co-operation programme developed four areas on which to concentrate:
basic training
training for certificates of competency
specialized subject training
post graduate training.
To assist in the first three areas it was thought by a number of Member States that IMO
should develop model courses. The Government of Norway generously provided technical
assistance and finance to enable IMO to produce a large number of model courses.
For the fourth area of development, the World Maritime University (WMU) was set up in
Sweden with the generous assistance of the city of Malmo, the Swedish Government and
others, again including Norway.
The purpose of the model courses is to assist maritime colleges in introducing new
courses, or to update, enhance or supplement existing courses.
13
The range of subjects covered by the model courses are as follows:
Group I Seagoing staff

Group II Seagoing staff (advanced)
Group III Safety/pollution prevention
Group IV Port authorities
Group V Shipping company staff
Group VI Long courses
Group VII STOW certificate courses
IMO produces a catalogue of these model courses which is available either from London
or any of the World Maritime University branches situated in many parts of the world.
14
2 Purpose of the Training Course for Instructors

There are no compendium notes to support this area of work at this stage.
The substantive input unfolds as the course progresses.
15
3 Development of a Learning System, Course Design

First, there are two basic issues which need consideration: they are
— the effect of learning on performance

— the main areas in which training can operate.
On the basis of understanding these issues, the principles of course design could be
approached.
3.1 Learning a n d performance
First, it is important to distinguish "education" from "training". Education usually means the
preparation for careers and for life in general, which involves the learning concepts,
principles, problem-solving methods etc., whereas training rather means the preparation for
a specific job or set of tasks. The content of a training course is therefore more specialized
than an educational programme. Some training courses contain supportive elements which
many would describe as educational. This often applies to long courses.
The basic premise is that training involves LEARNING which is designed to change the
PERFORMANCE of PEOPLE doing JOBS.
Sounds simple? Maybe, but the four capitalized words in the definition - learning,
performance, people, jobs - embraces quite a lot about training. The relationship between
the terms becomes even more involved.
Training courses are often said to be aimed at skill development implying that they are not
knowledge-based, however training often requires the learning of knowledge.
It is worthwhile to take each component of the definition of training and examine it more
thoroughly, beginning with the last word in the definition - JOBS. By doing this it i s
possible to emphasize the importance of the jobs to the design of learning. Further, as will
be seen later, the trainer should begin the process of planning a training programme with
some ideas and information about the work which has to be done.
Jobs are made up of a number of specific tasks that people do. The number of tasks, their
complexity and difficulty, and the relationship between them vary widely from job to job. The
knowledge, skills and attitudes required for job performance also vary. Also there is often a
range of acceptable differences in the way individuals do the same job. Nevertheless, there
is u s u a l l y a core of tasks and skills which are the same for a given type of job. If training
is to improve job performance, the job itself must be fully understood.
17
TRAINING COURSE FOR
INSTRUCTORS
People
When dealing with adults doing jobs, one must take account of the fact that the trainee
brings to the training situation existing knowledge, skills and attitudes regarding that job,
as well as ways of learning. This necessitates paying attention not only to the aims of
training, but also to the aims — and existing skills, knowledge and attitudes of the
LEARNER.
Performance
The performance of people doing jobs means how well they carry out the tasks that make
up their job.
When job performance is judged and found to be below standard, training may change job
performance. This approach to training is based on the need to change job performance,
not on the other often used reasons for training, such as informing, motivating or
rewarding.
Generally, there is a need to change job performance when:
the employee does not know how to do all or part of his/her current job
the employee is given new tasks requiring new knowledge, skills or attitudes
the employee is given an entirely new job requiring new knowledge,
skills or attitudes.
Each of these may require a different training policy or strategy, or they may require no
training at all, as we will see in later sessions.
Generally, training is needed when discrepancies exist between what an employee is

expected to do and what he/she actually does, and only then if these discrepancies can be
reduced through learning. It is important to recognize the difference between the symptoms,
e.g. poor performance and the causes. Figure 3.1 illustrates this. Learning
The world "learning" generally refers to a change of some kind in the learner. Such
changes are often classified as:
— psycho-motor. Physical and manipulative skills such as those
required to operate equipment, a machine or an instrument.
- cognitive. The ability to recall learned materials, and the
development of thinking skills.
— affective. Attitudes, values and interests. 18
POSSIBLE CAUSES OF POOR PERFORMANCE

AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
• HAS THE EMPLOYEE EVER BEEN ABLE

TO PERFORM THE TASK?
YES
N
NO
• IS THE TASK PERFORMED FREQUENTLY?
NO j ARRANGE PRACTICE
YES DEVELOP JOB AIDS
• IS THE NATURE OF THE JOB

UNDERSTOOD?
DEMONSTRATE -
YES,i, NO
IMPORTANCE
4
• IS THE JOB • ARE JOB • IS THE • IS BAD • IS GOOD
BADLY AIDS ENVIRONMENT PERFORMANCE PERFORMANCE
DESIGNED? INADEQUATE? BAD? REWARDED? PUNISHED?
REDESIGN IMPROVE CHANGE IT ARRANGE REVIEW AND

POSITIVE ALTER
CONSEQUENCES
NO
1
• DOES HE HAVE THE PREREQUISITES
FOR LEARNING?
YES I NO
• ARE THERE ANY SUITABLE COURSES? • CAN THE JOB BE CHANGED?

YES NO YES
r NO
ARRANGE DEVELOP CHANGE
RE-ASSIGN
TRAINING TRAINING JOB IMPROVE
SELECTION
Figure 3.1
19
These three classes can be further subdivided as will be seen later.
Learning in all of these areas can be important to the successful performance of jobs. In
fact, one of the most important tasks of the trainer is to define which learning objectives
are important to improve performance.
When learning is measured one may often observe changes in the trainees' performance or
behaviour. This may be through such things as written tests, the demonstration of skills, the
use of knowledge to complete a task, or the change of attitudes.
In summary, the goal of training should be to •
have the training input transferred to the
performance output of the individual trainee. Training ° I n " , Performance "Out"
Whenever a training programme is being „

considered there is a systematic process
Trainee
necessary to determine whether training is

appropriate. This is shown in figure 3.3. Figure 3.2 The purpose of training
Learning has been described as a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a
result of insight, practice or experience. Learning may be simply an addition (new
information); it may be a subtraction (unlearning a bad habit); or it may be a modification (
adjusting by adding new knowledge to old). Learning as change may be for the better or for
the worse; we learn good habits as well as bad ones. Learning may be conscious or
unconscious: we take courses in languages but we unconsciously acquire styles of speech
and gesture from family and friends.
Learning is such a complicated process that no one can really claim to know how it occurs.
We do know that learning takes place more readily in some circumstances than in others,
and that it can to a great extent be influenced. To facilitate learning, a trainer needs to
understand the various factors which bear upon the learning process.
Learning is a life-long activity; we are never too old to learn, but we are often resistant to
change. People often talk about problems as if they safeguarded their position, e.g. "There are
so many problems that change is impossible". What they mean is, do not remove the
20
OPERATIVE SYSTEM
– SYMPTOMS
Locational IDENTIFY PROBLEM

constraints – CAUSALITIES
Technical
constraints
Capital JOB ANALYSIS

PERFORMANCE
constraints PROBLEM? – TASKS
Legal/fiscal
constraints REQUIRED
PERFORMANCE (1)
Political
constraints
CURRENT
PERFORMANCE
(2)
NON- PERFORMANCE
TRAINING GAP
SOLUTIONS (= 1–2)
TRAINING
OBJECTIVES
CONTENTS
Figure 3.3 Basic inputs to course design
21
3.2 What are the main areas in which training can be

Thereeffective?
are really only five:
Knowledge We can teach knowledge. The trainee is being helped to learn, to

understand and to remember facts, information and principles.
Skills A skill is often a physical act or action. Examples are shorthand
a
writing, operating an adding machine, playing trumpet. Skills may
be trained but often a skill cannot be learnt until further knowledge
has been gained.
Techniques A technique usually involves the application of both knowledge and
skill. It is a way of behaviour or thinking. Driving a car and
manoeuvring a vessel are examples of techniques. Application of
techniques may be trained.
Attitudes "Undesirable" attitudes based upon ignorance may be changed by
training. In the case of attitudes based upon other elements (
superstition, fear), the situation is much more complex.
Experience Clearly this differs from the four previous items in that it cannot be
taught in a classroom. It is the result of practising the use of
knowledge, skills and techniques over a period of time and often in a
number of different situations. The experience of others can be taught
which although not so effective as first hand experience does save a
lot of time and ensures that beneficial results are passed on. Practical
exercises during training courses will contribute to participants'
personal experience.
22
3.3 A systematic approach to training and course design

There are several models which provide frameworks for developing training courses.
A traditional training model is likely to involve the following main stages:
1 Identify training needs
2 Set training objectives 6 Evaluation
3 Course design 5 Implementation
Figure 3.4 Traditional model of a training course
The following summary provides details of what is involved at each stage in a systems
approach to training.
23
ACTION
STAGE
Assess
1 Identifying training needs
(a) The job — required knowledge,
skills, attitudes
When there is a gap between (b) The person — actual knowledge,
required and actual performance, skills, attitudes
there is a problem. Depending on (c) The gap - does one exist? Is it a
its cause, there may be a training gap?
training need. Can we satisfy the
need?
2 Setting training objectives Define clearly
(a) What must the trainee know
and/or do?
(b) How well and to what standard?
3 Course design Determine
Plan how the training will go (a) What must be learned — how,
when, how long will it take?
(b) Who will train, where and with
what resources?
(c) What training methods should be
used?
4 Course preparation Plan and prepare materials

— lessons, exercises, lectures
teaching aids, hand-outs, support
literature
Implementation
This is where "training" normally starts and
finishes. It can be easy if the first four stages
Do it!
have been done well.
Find out
6 Evaluation
How much learning has taken place?
Were the objectives achieved?
What improvements can take place?
Another way of conceiving the

training model is to view it as a
dynamic process in which all six
stages form subprocesses which Needs-
are highly interrelated and inter- assessment
dependent. This is more realistic process
than the first model.
In this approach to the design of

training programmes we are
Objective-
dealing with a dynamic, cyclical setting
process in which each phase has process
many relationships to, and is
therefore integrated with, every Design +
other phase. It is, however, preparation
advisable to use the first model in process
order to preserve some structure,
at the same time recognizing that
the dynamic model is certain to
have some influence on events. Figure 3.5 Dynamic processes model

Setting the aim
Generally speaking, the main purpose of organized instruction is to direct trainees' learning
in a certain direction; this learning may be intellectual, emotional or physical. The required
direction of learning is the "learning objective"; the change in direction is brought about by
the planned learning activities. The first step in teaching then is determining the learning
outcome to be expected from the classroom/laboratory situation. In other words, what kind of
learning product is being sought? It must be known what skills and motivations the students
have before the learning experience and what it is desired that they should possess
afterwards, i.e. what changes in thinking, feelings and skills should take place.
Only if instructional objectives are identified and stated clearly can a true teaching process
and a worthwhile evaluation be made.
25
3.4 Course Development

When a training need has been identified the next task is to write the learning objectives
and an outline of possible learning activities, course material and evaluation.
A common procedure is to appoint a group of teachers each with expertise in a particular

subject area. It is suggested the development should proceed as follows:
(1) Define desired outcomes or specific objectives in behavioral terms — objectives must be
stated in definite trainee behaviours; they are not to describe what the teacher is going
to do; each statement must describe something that the trainee will be able to do after
the learning experience.
(2) Identify suggested activities — the teachers' group should list a brief description of
learning activities which is a suggestive list only; teachers will employ their own
personal techniques, using those which are thought to be the most effective.
(3) Develop a list of suggested materials — text books, audio and visual aids and any
other helpful materials. NOTE: It is no good having objectives written in terms of
using particular equipment if students are not to have access to this.
(4) Suggest evaluation procedures — these suggestions must naturally be related to the
objectives developed in (1) i.e. the method of evaluation procedure must indicate the
extent to which the trainee can fulfil the objectives. There are wide varieties in
evaluation procedures, these are covered in subject area 5.
26
3.5 L ear n i n g Obj e c t i v e s

These serve as guides for both teaching and evaluation. With clearly defined outcomes, it
is easier to produce better teaching and better evaluation.
Instructional or learning objectives are intended outcomes towards which trainees

progress; they are the end results stated in terms of change of behaviour. In constructing
learning objectives we are always concerned with the products of learning rather than the
process by which this is intended to be achieved, i.e. it is trainee oriented, rather than
teacher oriented.
Learning Experience General Learning Outcomes

(Process) (Product)
Study of lifting blocks and tackles in the Knowledge of parts of blocks

practical seamanship room Skills in using tackles
Skill in reeving tackles
Ability to select correct tackle
Understanding mechanics of tackles
Computing M.A. and V.R. of tackles
Etc.
First — it should be noted that objectives help to make clearer a number of pertinent points
regarding the teaching — learning situation. They establish direction (they are more than just
a list of contents). NOTE. At this stage the objectives are general objectives — that is — not
specific or detailed.
Second — note the difference between "study of' and "knowledge of': one is a process, the
other an outcome or product.
Third — consider the products "knowledge", "skill" and "ability". Knowledge can be
measured directly by means of a paper and pencil test (it is not however a behavioural
objective): skill is much more subjective since it has a large physical element involved in it:
ability is the last learning outcome and sometimes cannot even be achieved in a single
course: it is evaluated by both written objective and subjective tests. It may involve concepts
and principles.
3.5.1 General considerations when preparing Learning Objectives
A systematic approach reduces confusion and provides greater assurance that important
learning outcomes will not be overlooked.
It is now necessary to proceed from the general to the specific. First, here are some
general areas of learning together with various means by which trainees might
demonstrate their achievement.
Terminology
Knowledge Specific Facts
Concepts and Principles
Methods and Procedures
Concepts and principles
Understanding Methods and procedures
or Written material, graphs,
Comprehension maps and numerical data
Problem situations
Factual information
Application Concepts and Principles
Methods and procedures
Problem-solving skills
Thinking Critical thinking
Scientific thinking
Laboratory skills
Performance skills
Skills Communication skills
Computational skills
Social skills
Social/scientific
Attitudes
This list reveals the wide variety of general learning outcomes which can be considered
when a group of teachers is developing a list of learning objectives in a particular area. All
logical and relevant outcomes should be included when it comes to producing the final list of
objectives. This theme is developed in much more detail under 3.5.3.
28
3.5.2 Stating the Objectives as Learning Outcomes
The list of objectives should be detailed enough to convey clearly the intent of the
instruction. This is best achieved in two steps; first by stating the general objective: second
by listing under each general objective a sample of the specific types of behaviour that
students are expected to demonstrate.
Trainees should understand scientific principle "xxxx" - - - - - - - (General Objective)
Specific learning objectives:
Describe principle "xxxx" in his own words.

Identify examples of principle "xxxx".
State tenable hypotheses based on principle "xxxx".
List the differences between principle "xxx" and principle "yyyy".
Explain the relationship between principle "xxxx" and principle "yyyy" and "zzzz".
NOTE: — the general learning objective is a verb (understands).
— it is not necessary to be repetitious and state 'Trainees should" every time.
—each specific objective begins with a verb which is observable in some way by
an outside observer.
Verbs such as "understands", "knows", "recognises", "appreciates", are conceptually
internal to the mind of the trainee leaving the teacher to judge what is an acceptable
degree of "understanding", etc. These verbs are often used in general objectives but are
not sufficiently precise for specific learning objectives.
The following example illustrates an extract on the marine environment from a course
written in learning objectives.
29
Example: The Marine Environment
Each phrase is understood to commence with the words "the Trainee should be able to" —
General Objective
1. Appreciate the principal oceanographic characteristics which make up the marine

environment and their relevance to marine vehicles.
(S.L.O's) Specific Learning Objectives
1.1 State that a wind is a large scale movement of air caused by differences in
atmospheric pressure between localities.
1.2 State that winds are named from the direction from which they blow and are
measured in degrees clockwise from north.
1.3 List the terms used to describe variations in wind speed from steady as: gusts,
lulls, freshening, moderating; and in direction by: backing and veering.
1.4 State that wind speed can be measured by the rotating anemometer. 1.5
State that wind speed is classified in metres, per second.
1.6 Sketch on a map of the world the direction and names of important regular
winds (e.g. Trades).
1.7 State that winds affect the maintenance and decay of wave systems as well as
their generation.
1.8 State that ocean waves carry energy and are random in height, length and
direction, etc.
This is what is meant by stating the specific learning outcomes in 'behavioural terms'. It is
terms like these which make precisely clear what the students will have to do in order to
demonstrate their understanding. 'Realizes', `sees' and 'believes' are non-behavioural
terms: no outside observer can get into a student's mind to discover what he realizes or
believes.
Unanticipated Learning Outcomes
No matter how carefully a set of instructional objectives has been prepared for a course,
there are likely to be some unanticipated effects of the teaching. These effects may be
desirable or undesirable, and the majority of them is likely to be in the affective domain, e.g.
as a result of instruction trainees may become more dependent or more independent, more
conforming or more creative, more interested in the subject or more disinterested, etc.
Outcomes of this type are likely to result from the method of instruction rather than from the
content of the course. Objective tests on attitudes can be constructed but even so it is never
possible to anticipate all outcomes.
Summary
Learning and instructional objectives must be viewed, in behavioural terms, and it is usual
to include more than one type of behavioural change. In addition to the more obvious
knowledge outcomes, those in the areas of understanding application, thinking skills,
performance skills, and even attitudes, interests, etc. should be considered. Suggestions for
objectives in these and other areas may be obtained from any standard Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives some of which are shown on the next few pages. These should be
used as aids only and teachers should develop their own lists of instructional objectives to
take account of the unique features of their course of studies, type of trainees, etc.
The procedure for preparing and writing learning objectives for a particular course includes
the following steps:
Identifying the general objectives by analysing the purposes and content of the course,
the teaching methods used, the lists of objectives previously prepared (if any) by
specialists.
Stating each general objective in broad enough terms so that it embraces many specific
behavioural outcomes.
Defining each general objective by listing a representative sample of the behavioural

outcomes desired.
These general objectives must be realistic to the time allowed for teaching and for the
facilities and aids available.
The next step is write a number of specific learning objectives under each general objective
however, before proceeding further it is best to consider the various areas and levels of
learning.
31
3.5.3 Division into Domains
A full taxonomy divides objectives into three major areas:
(1) Cognitive Domain -- which is concerned with knowledge outcomes and intellectual
abilities and skills
(2) Affective Domain which is concerned with attitudes, interests, appreciations and
modes of adjustment
(3) Psychomotor Domain which is concerned with motor skills.
Each of these domains is further divided into categories and sub-categories which follow a
definite hierarchical pattern.
Descriptions of three of the major categories in the Cognitive Domain:
The first three categories described below cover much of the basic training/education
needs for maritime operations, the remainder, analysis, synthesis and evaluation are
useful in more advanced work.
1. Knowledge. Knowledge is defined as the remembering of previously learned material.
This may involve the recall of a wide range of material, from specific facts to complete
theories, but all that is required is the bringing to mind of the appropriate information.
Knowledge represents the lowest level of learning outcomes in the cognitive domain.
2. Comprehension. Comprehension is defined as the ability to grasp the meaning of
material. This may be shown by translating material from one form to another (words to
numbers), by interpreting material (explaining or summarizing), and by estimating future
trends (predicting consequences or effects). These learning outcomes go one step
beyond the simple remembering of material, and represent the lowest level of
understanding.
3. Application. Application refers to the ability to use learned material in new and
concrete situations. This may include the application of such things as rules,
methods, concepts, principles, laws and theories. Learning outcomes in this area
require a higher level of understanding than those under comprehension.
32
Examples of General Instructional Objectives and Behavioural Terms (verbs for

use in specific Learning Objectives) in the Cognitive Domain:
Illustrative General Illustrative Behavioural

Instructional Objectives Terms for Stating Specific
Learning Objectives
Knowledge
Knows common terms Defines, describes, identifies, labels,
Knows specific facts lists, matches, names, outlines,
Knows methods and procedures reproduces, selects, states
Knows basic concepts
Knows principles
Comprehension
Understands facts and principles Converts, defines, distinguishes,
Interprets verbal material estimates, explains, extends, generalizes,
Interprets charts and graphs gives examples, infers, paraphrases,
Translates verbal material to predicts, rewrites, summarizes

mathematical formulae
Estimates future consequences

implied in data
Justifies methods and procedures
Application
Changes, computes, demonstrates,
discovers, manipulates, prepares,
Applies concepts and principles to
new situations produces, relates, shows, solves, uses
Applies laws and theories to

practical situations
Solves mathematical
Constructs charts andproblems
graphs
Demonstrates correct usage of a

method or procedure
33
Analysis, synthesis and evaluation are included below for interest only and to put the first
three categories into perspective.
Analysis
Breaks down, diagrams, differentiates,
Recognizes unstated assumptions
discriminates, distinguishes, identifies,
Recognizes logical fallacies in
reasoning illustrates, infers, outlines, points out,
Distinguishes between facts and relates, selects, separates, subdivides

inferences
Evaluates the relevancy of data
Analyses the organizational structure

of a work (art, music, writing)
Synthesis
Writes a well-organized theme Categorizes, combines, compiles,
Gives a well-organized talk composes, creates, devises, designs,
Writes a creative short story or report explains, generates, modifies, organizes,
Proposes a plan say for an plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates,

experiment
reorganizes, revises, rewrites,
Integrates learning from different areas
into a plan for solving a problem summarizes, tells, writes
Formulates a new scheme for

classifying objects (or events, or ideas)
Evaluation
Appraises, compares, concludes,
Judges the logical consistency of
written material contrasts, criticizes, describes,
Judges the adequacy with which discriminates, explains, justifies,
conclusions are supported by data
interprets, relates, summarizes, supports
Judges the value of a work (art, music,
writing) by use of external standards of
excellence
Descriptions of the Major Categories in the Affective Domain:
1. Receiving. Receiving refers to the student's willingness to attend to particular

phenomena or stimuli (classroom activities, textbook, music, etc.). From a teaching
standpoint, it is concerned with getting, holding and directing the student's attention.
Learning outcomes in this area range from the simple awareness that a thing exists to
selective attention on the part of the learner. Receiving represents the lowest level of
learning outcomes in the affective domain.
2. Responding. Responding refers to active participation on the part of the student. At this
level he not only attends to a particular phenomenon but also reacts to it in some way.
Learning outcomes in this area may emphasize acquiescence in responding (reads
assigned material), willingness to respond (voluntarily reads beyond assignment), or
satisfaction in responding (reads for pleasure or enjoyment). The higher levels of this
category include those instructional objectives that are commonly classified under "
interest"; that is, those that stress the seeking out and enjoyment of particular activities.
3. Valuing. Valuing is concerned with the worth or value a student attaches to a particular
object, phenomenon, or behaviour. This ranges in degree from the more simple
acceptance of a value (desires to improve group skills) to the more complex level of
commitment (assumes responsibility for the effective functioning of the group). Valuing is
based on the internalization of a set of specified values, but clues to these values are
expressed in the student's overt behaviour. Learning outcomes in this area are
concerned with behaviour that is consistent and stable enough to make the value clearly
identifiable. Instructional objectives that are commonly classified under "attitudes" and "
appreciation" would fall into this category.
4. Organization. Organization is concerned with bringing together different values, resolving
conflicts between them and beginning the building of an internally consistent value
system. Thus the emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values.
Learning outcomes may be concerned with the conceptualization of a value (
recognizes the responsibility of each individual for improving human relations) or with
the organization of a value system (develops a vocational plan that satisfies his need for
both economic security and social service). Instructional objectives relating to the
development of a philosophy of life would fall into this category.
5. Characterization by a Value or Value Complex. At this level of the affective domain,
the individual has a value system that has controlled his behaviour for a sufficiently
long time for him to have developed a characteristic "life style". Thus the behaviour is
pervasive, consistent, and predictable. Learning outcomes at this level cover a broad
range of activities, but the major emphasis is on the fact that the behaviour is typical or
characteristic of the student. Instructional objectives that are concerned with the
student's general patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional) would be
appropriate here.
35
Examples of General Instructional Objectives and Behavioural Terms

for the Affective Domain
Illustrative General Illustrative Behavioural Terms

Instructional Objectives Stating Specific Learning Outcomes
Receiving
Listens attentively Asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives,

Shows awareness of the importance holds, identifies, locates, names, points to,
of learning
selects, sits erect, replies, uses
Shows sensitivity to human needs
and social problems
Accepts difference of race and
culture
Attends closely to the classroom
activities
Responding
Completes assigned homework Answers, assists, complies, conforms,

Obeys school rules discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs
Participates in class discussion practices, presents, reads, recites, reports,
Completes laboratory work selects, tells, writes
Volunteers for special tasks
Shows interest in subject
Enjoys helping others
Valuing
Appreciates good literature Completes, describes, differentiates,
Appreciates the role of science (or other explains, follows, forms, initiates, invites,
subjects) in everyday life joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports,

Shows concern for the welfare of others selects, shares, studies, works Demonstrates
problem-solving attitude
Demonstrates commitment to social
improvement
36
Organization
Adheres, alters, arranges, combines,
Recognizes the need for balance
between freedom and responsibility compares, completes, defends, explains,
Recognizes the role of systematic generalizes, identifies, integrates,
planning in solving problems
modifies, orders, organizes, prepares.,
Accepts responsibility for his/her own
relates, synthesizes
behaviour
Understands and accepts personal
strengths and limitations
Formulates a life plan in harmony
with own abilities, interests, and beliefs
Characterization
Displays safety consciousness Acts, discriminates, displays, influences,
listens, modifies, performs, practices,
Demonstrates self-reliance in working
independently proposes, qualifies, questions, revises,
Practices co-operation in group activities
serves, solves, uses, verifies
Uses objective approach in problem
solving
Demonstrates industry, punctuality
and self-discipline
Maintains good health habits
37
Examples of General Objectives and Behavioural Terms

for the Psychomotor Domain
Illustrative General Illustrative Behavioural Terms for

Instructional Objectives Stating Specific Learning Outcomes
Writes smoothly and legibly Assembles, builds, calibrates, changes,

Draws accurate reproduction of a cleans, composes, connects, constructs,
picture, map, specimen, etc. corrects, creates, designs, dismantles, drills,
Sets up laboratory equipment quickly fastens, fixes, follows, grinds, grips,
and correctly
Types with speed and accuracy hammers, heats, looks, identifies, locates,
Operates a "named machine" skilfully makes, manipulates, mends, mixes, nails,
paints, sands, saws, sharpens, sets, sews,
Operates "specified equipment" safely
and skilfully sketches, starts, stirs, uses, weighs, wraps
Performs skilfully on the violin
Performs a "named sequence"

correctly
Demonstrates correct form in
swimming
Demonstrates skill in driving an
automobile
Repairs an electric motor quickly
and effectively
38
3.5.4 Three stages in formulating an objective in behavioural terms
First identify the terminal behaviour by name; you can specify the kind of behaviour that
will be accepted as evidence that the learner has achieved the objective – the learning
performance or verb – this will be associated with the thing that to be learnt – the object.
Second try to identify the desired behaviour further by describing the important conditions
or constraints under which the behaviour will be expected to occur and, if necessary, –
Third specify the criteria of acceptable performance, by describing how well the learner
must perform to be considered acceptable.
From this you will see that a learning objective will contain up to four parts, the:
1. learning performance or verb – it is what the trainee has to be able to do
2. object being learnt
3. conditions or constraints
4. criteria of performance.
The first two parts are always required, the remaining parts are used as required.
Examples:
1 2 3
1. I Defines I stress as force divided by cross-sectoral area

I I I
The learning objective could have been written as:
2. Defines stress – this leaves the objective open to interpretation.
39
3
1 2
in a diagram/chart/drawing
3. Identifies standard symbols using V = I.R.

4.
Calculates resistance
between copper conductors using
5.
Makes soldered points an electric soldering iron
6. as the product of force and distance

Defines work
for numerical fractions
7.
Calculate lowest common
denominator
Learning objectives can be written for all levels of learning, for example:
— Expresses draught and displacement as a graph.

– Compares heat losses given, laboratory results.
– Derives a given equation from first principles.
- Applies the concept of electro-magnetic induction to an explanation of how a simple a.c.
generator works.
Designs a prescribed system to a given specification.
Chooses a safe procedure to perform a specific function.
Prepares an agenda for a specified meeting.
40
Try to answer these questions:
1 An objective stated in behavioural terms would say what the learner would do to
demonstrate that the objective had been achieved.
Tick those of the following lesson-objectives which are stated in terms of student-
behaviour:
(a) To teach the students the rule of the road.
(b) To solve three equations using factors.
(c) To be able to recall the recipe for a cake.
(d) To be able to list and name the parts of a lathe.
(e) To really understand the theorem of Pythagoras.
2 Many lessons involve the communication and acquisition of information followed by

its application in classwork or practical work. Objectives should then state the
behaviour required to show 'ability to apply' as well as 'to recall' the information.
Tick the statements which would show achievement of both recall and application:
(a) To know the method of long division and to solve three exercises.
(b) To be able to develop a formula relating distance travelled and time taken and to
solve three problems using the formula.
(c) To demonstrate Pythagoras' theorem using an aid and to follow up with
classwork.
(d) To really understand how to weigh objects to 0.1 g.
3 Some words do not define objectives clearly and are open to widely differing
interpretations. From the following tick those that should be avoided in formulating
behavioural objectives:
to know to recall to list
to apply to appreciate to analyse
to solve to construct to identify
to demonstrate to comprehend to compare
41
The following summarizes why learning objectives are needed.
Learning objectives provide the necessary foundation for:
— planning the structure of courses

- determining the objectives of course sessions
— deciding on teaching materials and techniques
enabling instructors to work together and support each other even while teaching
separately
motivating trainees by enabling them to understand the reasons for their training
— establishing criteria for assessment and evaluation
— looking for the relevant information needed to evaluate the effectiveness of training.
Assessment is normally based on the specific learning objectives. It follows that if the
student can satisfy the specific objectives, then the aim of the training must have been
achieved.
Specific learning objectives describe in precise terms what the trainee must be able to do at
the end of the training to show that the desired knowledge, skill, attitude or approach has
been learnt.
The objectives for a session must be clear and reasonable, that is, attainable. They should be
written down — and be communicated to potential trainees and their organizations. They
must be realistic.
Some examples for training/learning objectives in various areas of maritime transport
training are given overleaf.
42
General Objective Specific Objectives
The student will have a The student should be able to:

thorough knowledge of define the payback method
shipping investment describe and calculate the average rate of
appraisal techniques return
– explain the time value of money
- calculate and interpret the net present value
(NPV) and the international rate of return (
IRR)
– explain the impact of financing and inflation
on shipping investments.
The student will have an The student should be able to:

introductory knowledge – explain the principal differences between
of shipping business liner, bulk dry and oil trades
describe main features of commodity trade
- explain fixed and variable costs
– describe voyage, time and bare-boat
chartering arrangements
explain freight rate formation in bulk and liner
sectors.
The student will have a The student should be able to:

working knowledge of describe freight rate systems
liner freight rates describe liner shipping costs
– explain how price discrimination operates
– calculate rates for specific cargoes.
3.5.5 A few checkpoints would be useful to help determine realistic

learning objectives
1. What should be the result of the training?
By the end of the course, what should the trainees have learned? Learning involves a
change of some kind in the learner, and that would be in one or more of the following
three things:
Knowledge. Recall, understanding and interpretation.

Skills. Doing: analytical, physical or interactive "people" skills.
Attitudes. Degree of interest in the job, willingness to use knowledge and skill,
motivation.
What should trainees be able to do as a result of the training that they could not do
before? In other words, what behaviour should be changed — the applied sum of
knowledge, skills and attitudes equals the required performance improvement.
2. It must be possible to assess the result. It must somehow be possible to
measure, in terms of quantity or quality, that
– knowledge and skills, or attitudes, have changed as a result of training;

- changes in knowledge and skills, or in attitudes, reflect in work behaviour on return
from training.
5. When must the training be completed? When should the changed behaviour show at
work?
6. How is the freedom to plan training limited by:
– budgets/resources;
time available for training and for pre-course assessment of training needs;
– availability of instructors;
– problems such as motivation trainee selection, the organization, authority, etc.;
time required for adequate preparation.
Determining aims and then objectives is the first step in developing an instructional strategy.
The objectives do not tell us how to get there — only the results we want. They are not a
description of a course or its content, although experienced instructors will recognise the
characteristics of a course when they see the objectives.
44
3.6 Design constraints and considerations

When designing a course, it is not enough to attend only to its syllabus or content although
this is an all too common practice. The course designer needs to specify objectives, teaching
methods and forms of assessment, as well as content. All of these affect each other and no
decisions can be taken about any one of them in isolation. Thus the course design model (
see Figure 3.6) shows them as interconnected.
Apart from the constraints inherent in the course aims, there are many other constraints
within which the course designer has to work. They may affect every one of the
components of the model, and the need to identify them must, therefore, be kept in mind
when considering each component.
The course designer has to take account of the environment in which the course is to exist.
This is shown in the model as consisting of resources, costs, attitudes and politics. The
resources are those already in existence or potentially available for the course, whereas costs
apply to any additional funding that the course will require. Attitudes refer to the attitude of
people who are to be involved in, or affected by, the course, e.g. students and their teachers,
other teachers in the department and in other departments, etc. Politics may be those within
the institution, the local or the wider community, even the Government.
Finally, to verify that the course is designed in such a way that the aims are likely to be
satisfied, it is necessary to evaluate it. For this to be possible, it is important to build
evaluation procedures into the course design, as indicated in the model, and to carry out
the evaluation at the appropriate time.
45
AIMS
EVALUATION
COSTS POLITICS
OBJECTIVES
f"\
CONTENT t METHODS
ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES ATTITUDES
AND ABILITIES
Figure 3.6
3.6.1 Questions to consider when designing a course
1. Is there a sound reason for offering the course?
— Is it required by the Government or some reliable agency?

— Is demand sufficient? Will it be repeated?
2. What are the likely characteristics of potential trainees?
— What abilities/interests are trainees likely to possess?

— What previous experience/education is needed?
— What is the age of the trainees? Are they familiar with training courses?
3. Are the objectives clear and rational?
— Are they specific enough?

— Is further analysis required?
46
COMPENDIUM
CHAPTER 3
4. Are the contents and sequence of the course appropriate?
— Is the content sufficiently comprehensive? Any gaps?

— Is the level of difficulty appropriate?
— Is the sequencing logical?
5. Are the proposed teaching methods valid?
— Are the methods feasible?

— Are other methods better?
— Is the allocation of time sensible?
6. What resources would be required to run such a course?
— What staff are needed, both internal and external?

— What learning material and industrial information is needed?
7. Should students be assessed? If so, how?
8. How should the course be managed?
9. Should the course be evaluated?
— What would be the purpose of evaluation?

— What methods of evaluation are available?
— What would the outcome be used for?
47
4 Development of an Instructional Strategy

4.1 Inputs to and influences on teaching methods
The purpose of this work is to enhance knowledge and experience of the tools and
methods available for teaching.
"Instructional strategy" means the teaching arrangements for a course or part of a course, e.g.
for one particular session or for a set of learning objectives. Developing a strategy involves
choosing teaching methods (or combinations of methods) and deciding on which instructional
aids should be used and how they should be designed. `Teaching method" is the format of the
instruction: lecture, exercise, etc. "Instructional aids" are materials and presentation techniques
that support instruction, e.g. overhead transparencies, hand-outs, etc.
As shown in Figure 4.1 the design of training materials influences the planning and
presentation of lectures etc., as well as that of instructional aids such as hand-outs and
overhead projector transparencies. Teaching methods include situations where trainees
are passive, active and interactive.
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS
Visual
Audio-visual
FACTORS AFFECTING TEACHING METHODS

CHOICE
Passive
Learning objectives
Participants Active
Interactive j
CRITERIA OF CHOICE
Effectiveness
Efficiency TEACHING PLAN

FOR
COURSE/SESSION
Figure 4.1 The inputs to an instructional

strategy
The choice of teaching method is influenced by several major factors, such as learning
objectives, the qualifications of the trainees, the comparative effectiveness of different
teaching methods, constraints on time, availability of facilities, finance, etc.
These factors and criteria are illustrated in Figure 4.2.
OBJECTIVES SUBJECT AREA
KNOWLEDGE
PARTICIPANTS:
ATTITUDES
— numbers
SKILLS
— qualifications
/ CHOICE
OF
METHOD
HUMAN TIME:
RESOURCES: — development
— trainers — conduct
— staff
TRAINING
MATERIAL MATERIALS:
RESOURCES: —books
—rooms —films
—equipment —slides etc.
Figure 4.2 Factors influencing the choice of teaching method
50
4.2 Selection of teaching methods

The diagram below further illustrates the main factors in more detail which affect the
choice of teaching and training methods:
Human Factors Objectives
- Environment - Knowledge
— Teacher (instructor) — Skills
— Participants — Attitudes
Subject Area Time and Material Factors
— Specific subject — Time

— Inter-disciplinary problems — Finance
— Teaching facilities
Principles of Learning
Motivation
Perception
Participation and practice
— Mass instruction
— Individual approach
— Sequencing and structuring
— Stimulus and reinforcement
Feedback
Transfer
Figure 4.3
These will now be dealt with in turn.
51
Human factors
4.2.1 Environment
Experienced people often have the capacity to learn directly from each other, provided a
favourable atmosphere is created and methods are used which stimulate this learning.
Discussion groups, working parties, syndicates, consultancy assignments and practical
projects are well suited for this purpose, but those will only work well if the participants feel
comfortable in their surroundings. Sitting in rows facing the teacher and being talked at may
not be the best arrangement and might even be hostile to some trainees. Often the best
results are obtained when trainees are made to feel secure and not be in fear of exposing
their weaknesses.
The complexity of the problem is increased by social and cultural factors.
It must be remembered that many of the participative teaching methods were developed in
the United States — a country with its own particular social and cultural characteristics, i.e.
high achievement motivation, little respect for formal authorities, priority given to action
before contemplation. These and other cultural factors may be quite different in the country
to which one or another teaching method is to be transferred.
4.2.2 The teacher

The teacher's knowledge, managerial and teaching experience and personality are all
factors of primary importance and are intentionally mentioned at the beginning. To put it
bluntly: the teacher has to have a clear and significant message to pass, and his
personality has to be acceptable to the trainees so that effective communication links can
be established quickly and easily. If these conditions are fulfilled, a well-chosen and
properly used method is likely to ease and stimulate learning.
Each teacher has to assume responsibility for choosing the best methods for each particular
teaching assignment. The teacher ought to be able, therefore, to make a rational appraisal
of abilities and to try to employ methods likely to enhance the impact it is hoped to make.
Role-playing, for example, is an exercise requiring some knowledge of psychology, a lot of
experience with various types of human problems and the ability to react quickly in
discussions. That is why a teacher who does not possess these qualities, but has an
analytical mind and experience, might give preference to say the case-study method.
52
To be successful an instructor must:
Want to teach. Above all, the instructor must want to teach and enjoy doing it. Enthusiasm is
infectious and readily transmits itself from instructor to students. So does the lack of it.
– Know what to instruct. The instructor must know the subject well beyond the demands of
the syllabus. Remember the iceberg. Only about one-fifth of its mass is visible above the
water. The rest of it is there all right – below the water, invisible, but supporting the part
which is visible. Much of the instructor's knowledge and skill may never "rise above the
water" in the lecture room, but it has to be there to support the rest. Trainees will lose
confidence if there is only a veneer of knowledge at the instructor's disposal.
Know how to instruct – be trained in instructional techniques – being the best operator or
the best technician is not enough to be a good instructor. There are many instructional
techniques which are used in training situations. Each one has its advantages and
disadvantages and may be more effective in one situation than another. So the instructor
must know how to choose the right one and, having chosen it, how to use it.
Know how people learn. A great deal of research has been done over the years into the
way people learn and more particularly in recent years into the way in which they acquire
skills. There are a number of obstacles which act as barriers to learning and there are ways
of overcoming them and making the learning process easier, quicker, more effective. The
instructor must know about these, including the use of a variety of aids.
Have the right personality. Much could be written under this heading but we are going to
assume that readers of this know already what we are talking about. A very well-known
booklet on instructional techniques says that a good instructor is "firm, fair and friendly".
We could write pages on personality and not improve on this.
– Be able to communicate. This is self-evident but it needs to be said. We have all met
people who simply cannot communicate. Some of their faults may be "curable" by training,
others not. Possibly they fail to communicate because they have not learned to put
themselves in the trainee's position and see the problem through their eyes, and thus to
understand their difficulties. This is what the instructor must do vis-a-vis the learner.
Be flexible. The instructor must be flexible enough to make changes, very often at the last
minute, in the planned programme and approach. With the best will in the world and the
best management, there will always be crises and unforeseen circumstances. The
instructor will naturally want to avoid too many changes and interruptions but if it is
remembered that fundamentally the task is to manage learning processes, the reaction in
an emergency will usually be a wise one.
53
4.2.3 The Trainees
Methods of teaching must take into account:
(a) the intellectual level and educational background of the participants

(b) the participants' age and practical experience and
(c) the social and cultural environment.
For example, in training programmes intended to supervisors or middle managers who

have had only a basic education and who have been away from schools for a long time,
lectures should be replaced by short talks using visual aids extensively; concrete
examples should be given and no high-level theories presented; simplified case studies
should be used instead of long and complex cases; simple programmed books should be
recommended instead of comprehensive textbooks.
In regard to the participants' practical experience, a distinction must be made between

young people with little or no experience and participants with practical experience, either
from managerial functions or from specialist work in various functional departments.
In the former case, much of the information is new to trainees, and it is difficult to link the
teaching process with any previous experience. However, these trainees are open-minded,
they can be very inventive and are often more receptive to new ideas than the latter group.
When training people with experience, only additional knowledge has to be imparted; and it
is essential to make an appeal to the participants' experience by relating the teaching to it.
However, in this group some of the participants with practical experience may take the
attitude of "knowing better in advance"; if so, the teacher's main problem may be how to
change their air of self-complacency and make them aware of what they need to learn to
do their jobs better. In such cases it is rarely sufficient for the teachers to talk about new
methods and techniques of management. Practical assignments, discussions of case
studies or simulation exercises are more likely to help the participants realize that they
have gaps in knowledge and skills and that training may be the answer. It is important to
preserve the dignity of all participants and to carefully prevent dominant trainees
overwhelming those who are reticent.
54
4.2.4 Range of teaching methods
The objectives of educational and training programmes are defined in terms of changes to
be effected in knowledge, attitudes and skills – which should afterwards lead to improved
action. Training situations will be concerned with various types and levels of knowledge,
attitudes and skills. A preliminary analysis of needs will help to identify what objectives a
particular training programme ought to have. Methods will then be selected with regard to
their ability to impart new knowledge, influence attitudes, develop new skills and/or
techniques.
Selecting training methods is complicated because:
— There are many methods to choose from, with different uses, advantages and limitations.
The same method may achieve a number of different objectives, on the other hand a
number of different methods may have to be used before a single objective is achieved.
There are many variables influencing which methods are most appropriate on each
occasion.
There will rarely be one, ready-made 'best' method.
To plan training sessions, one must know the range of methods to select from and the
features which may influence selection.
Most of our senses can be used for learning. The more senses we use, the more likely we
are to understand recall. Research suggests that various learning activities allow us to
remember and understand to different extents:
We remember – 10% of what we read
20% of what we hear
30% of what we see
50% of what we hear and see
75% of what we say
90% of what we say and do
This is shown graphically in figure 4.4.
How much we understand is much more complex.
So the trainer talking to trainees is probably the least effective, and yet this is the most
widely used method, possibly because it "gets through the work" quickly and requires the
least preparation. This issue will be developed as the course progresses.
55
90%
ABILITY
TO
RECALL
10%
WHEN WE
O~ ~ cp„. ,9O
Figure 4.4
56
Figure 4.5 illustrates various teaching methods and their relationship with trainee:
- involvement
– self-assessment
– self-disclosure.
Low High
TRAINEE INVOLVEMENT
LEARNING IMPOSED
(DIDACTIC)
LEARNING EMERGING
(EXPERIENTIAL)
(SELF-) ASSESSMENT
(SELF-) DISCLOSURE
'RISK'
Figure 4.5
64' ~~ a /d
/0 I
1
/ /
,0 0s i
a n/
a s
,~ \ /
tva p ~ J 4 /
.% /\
/?t Sp lay
/
CI)
U)
wz
W
1-
w
U-
W
58
4.2.5 Subject area

Some subject areas have special features. For example, operations research techniques
and many areas of engineering are based on the extensive use of mathematics and
statistics. They are usually taught through a combination of lectures and exercises during
which the techniques are practised. This may be supported by assignments. In certain
cases lectures may be replaced by or supplemented with written learning programmes.
In subjects which are concerned with behavioural aspects of communication, leadership

and motivation, training methods may be selected and combined in ways which give the
participants numerous opportunities to analyse human behaviour, and at the same time
directly influence the attitudes and behaviour of the participants themselves. These
programmes use case studies, business games, role-playing and various forms of group
discussions, assignments and exercises.
It is often possible to choose from several methods to deal with a particular subject or
problem. Lectures, discussion and case studies are useful in virtually all subject areas.
However, particularly when training personnel in managerial and decision-making
positions, the principal problem is not how to deal with specific subject areas and
functions. It is much more important to:
explain the relationship between various functions and show the complex character of the
decision-making process
— help the participants to avoid a one-sided and over-simplified approach to
multidimensional situations
promote general management skills, which essentially lie in an interdisciplinary approach,
and to combine and co-ordinate the various functions of management.
In such cases, use of participative methods can be of great help.
59
4.2.6 Time and material factors
The choice of teaching methods is affected by the available time for preparation and
delivery, financial resources and facilities. For example:
Preparation time (which affects the cost of the teaching material as well) varies for the
different teaching methods. As a rule, complex case studies and business games require
the longest preparation, and may include testing, using teachers or experimental groups,
and making necessary revisions.
The length of the course predetermines the kinds of methods which can be used, the
longer the course, the better are the chances that the teacher will be able to use business
games, complex cases and practical projects.
The time of day is more important than many course designers would imagine. For
example, in the post-lunch period (1330 – 1500) it is more desirable to have enjoyable
and attractive sessions which require active involvement.
The teaching facilities may be a limiting factor in some cases. Factors such as the number of
rooms available for group discussions or syndicates or the accessibility of teaching aids
should be determined in advance and the methods amended to suit the circumstances.
The expertise of instructors may not cover the whole course. If they cannot be further
trained or if experts cannot be brought in then the course would have to be curtailed,
postponed or cancelled.
4.3 Principles of learning

Training, like any other educational process, fulfils its role by creating situations which are
favourable to learning and in which learning actually takes place. Principles of learning are
not put into effect through the teaching methods alone. Motivation to learn, for example,
depends on a number of other variables, such as the challenge of the participant's present or
future job, own "achievement motivation" or the stimulation provided by the environment.
However, the method used in teaching and training can influence motivation to learn and
therefore should be examined and applied with this in mind. Figure 4.7 (overleaf) illustrates
various inputs to the learning process.
LEARNING PROCESS
TEACHER • STIMULUS • (
From the teacher
supervisor or other)
• TRAINEE'S
MOTIVATION •
(Attitude, willingness
desire etc.) • TRAINEE'S
PERCEPTION •
REINFORCEMENT
FROM EXPERIENCE
• STIMULUS • BY PRACTICE,
FROM TRAINEE'S REVISION,
PREVIOUS REPEATS ETC.
EXPERIENCE
(PARTICIPATION?)
AND BELIEFS
• TRAINEE'S
RESPONSE•
Figure 4.7
Some selected aspects of the relationship between principles of learning and teaching
methods will now be discussed.
61
4.3.1 Motivation
Perhaps the most important factor in learning is motivation to learn. Experimental evidence
indicates that little learning takes place in the absence of motivation. What motivates one
person to learn may, of course, be quite different from what motivates another. For some
people, it is the interest or challenge of the task (intrinsic motivation); for others, it is the
anticipated reward or punishment (extrinsic motivation, e.g. money, certification); for still
others, it is the need for recognition or status. Up to a point, the stronger the motivation, the
more learning takes place, but beyond a critical level, the learner becomes too anxious and
tense to learn effectively.
Perhaps we should consider the human needs to be satisfied in order to have a better
understanding of motivation. Satisfaction of human needs extends in hierarchical form.
When a need has been satisfied, it is no longer a need and the individual is motivated to
try to satisfy the next level of need. After the basic needs are met, the higher needs play
an important part in motivating the student to learn effectively.
Figure 4.8 illustrates the hierarchy of motivation.
Trainers and instructors should have an adequate understanding of the part that "needs
satisfaction" can play in effective learning, from the basic problems of participant comfort (
lighting, seating and ventilation) and fatigue (the timing of training) to an awareness of
trainees' need to feel accepted and respected by colleagues and by the instructor. If these
needs are met in large measure, participants will be more likely to try to satisfy their needs
for creativity and self-fulfilment in the learning experience.
The motivation to learn is enhanced if the presentation of the material is interesting,

emphasizes applicability and shows benefits to be drawn from application. To some extent
this can be obtained through any method, including a good lecture; however, many
participative methods are directly concerned with applying theoretical knowledge to real life
situations. The diverse ways in which they can be combined and sequenced can add to the
enjoyment of learning and help to minimize participant fatigue.
62
WHAT MOTIVATES PEOPLE?
ORDER OF SATISFACTION
OF NEEDS
•ACCEPTABILITY 3
• SOCIAL ADVANTAGE
Figure 4.8
4.3.2 Perception
Perception is what gives us our ability to observe the world, which is revealed to us
through our five senses. We `perceive' when we:
recognize (objects, sounds, tastes, smells, feel);

discriminate (between colours, facts and fallacies);
relate (parts to a whole, like objects to each other, a principle with its practice); —
select (what interests us or what we should focus our attention on).
Most important of all, perhaps, perception is what helps us to use the knowledge we have
in an entirely different situation from that in which we learned it. For instance, I may have
learned to use a knife to cut with, but I might subsequently use it to remove a cork from a
bottle, open the lid of a tin, to turn a screw, or to paint a picture. Perception is such an
important thing that many modern toys for children are designed to develop these
qualities.
A trainer also relies on the perception of the learner when he arranges the material so that
it makes sense to the learner and allows him to build up a coherent structure easily.
63
Instructional material may be organized by:
— moving from the known to the unknown;

progressing from the simple to the complex;
relating the material presented to known tasks.
To influence the perceptions of other people, a trainer must attempt to understand their
perceptions and relate the material to their understanding. Learning will be to no avail if the
instructor is not realistic in discussing the subject in relation to the students' background and
experience. Unless the learning is a meaningful experience in terms of their needs and
aspirations, they will not learn as effectively and they will not make the effort to apply the
knowledge and skills to their various jobs. Subject matter should be related to their:
background (aims, fears, problems, satisfactions, social and economic

needs, health, age, experience);
education (level of education, knowledge of the subject or related subjects);
abilities (capacity to learn — for instance, rate and amount of learning; capacity to do
certain things, e.g. physical ability).
There are also individual differences in trainees' skills, motivation, previous experience,
intellectual capacity, attitudes and working habits, so that no two people will perceive
information in exactly the same way. This is much more important than many teachers
realize. The trainees' interpretation of what has been taught will be greatly influenced by
their backgrounds and experiences.
As we grow older our perspective processes become more and more complicated as we
receive an every-increasing amount of information. What happens to this information when
we receive it? It is either stored or forgotten, depending on such things as whether it is
interesting or necessary, useful or not, understood or not, etc. High motivation or interest in
learning, active participation in and sufficient practice of the learning and its relevance and
applicability to trainees' current interests or work will act to offset forgetting, and thus these
various factors in the learning process become doubly significant.
64
4.3.3 Participation and practice

Experiments have shown that the more a trainee participates in the learning situation, the
more effective will be the learning. If the learner is not called upon to respond actively,
there will be fewer opportunities to check the accuracy of the response and provide
feedback for control and reinforcement. Participation also means practice or repetition of
the behaviour to be learned, which is necessary for remembering and for transfer of the
classroom learning to the real life situation.
As a rule, the deeper the involvement, the higher the motivation, the more the participants
retain and the better they are equipped to apply what they have learned. It is important to
remember, however, that the best method, although considered to be highly participative,
does not ensure that each person will be fully involved. Involvement also depends on
organization of case study preparation, group make up, leadership style and other factors.
Participants are likely to be passive if they consider the material to be of poor quality or the
performance of the teacher to be inadequate.
Most trainees need to repeat the behaviour several times before they remember it.
Repetition needs to be carried well beyond the first perfect performance – the principle of "
overlearning" – to consolidate learning and offset the effects of forgetting. This need not
mean a great deal of repetition all at once, but may entail a certain amount at intervals.
Follow-up exercises, reviews and refresher courses also aid memory and the ability to
transfer the learning to real life applications.
4.3.4 Individual approach

Training programmes must take into account the fact that individuals have different
capabilities and learn at different rates (this should not be confused with levels of ability
and intelligence). Individuals have personal styles of study and application and should
ideally be able to use individual control of their performance. The overall course design and
methods of teaching should aim to provide, therefore, not only work in groups and teams,
but also the opportunity for individual reading, thinking, exercising, and application of
knowledge.
4.3.5 Sequencing and structuring

Some methods are more suitable than others for introducing new topics and ideas, for
correctly sequencing them or for explaining the structure of a complex area. This is where
lectures and/or reading assignments can be the most appropriate method.
65
4.3.6 Stimulus, response and reinforcement

Motivation alone will not produce learning, however. Attention has to be given to the
particular stimulus, to the checking of the accuracy of the response, in a rewarding
situation. Rewarded behaviour is learned and tends to be repeated under similar
conditions in the future, whereas non-rewarded behaviour tends not to be learned. Once
trainees observe or discover the things that are reinforcing (rewarding) it becomes
possible to shape their behaviour by reinforcing the desired responses.
Reinforcement and reward are always important aspects of the learning process. Evidence
seems to indicate that the more frequent and prompt reinforcement is, the more effective
learning will be. If the teacher has a genuine interest in the trainees, he will seek active
ways of rewarding successful responses. A kind remark is a reinforcer, or a personal
compliment, or sometimes, simply personal attention. Success is also a great reinforcer,
perhaps the best. As the old adage says, "Success breeds success". In self-discovery
techniques and programmed learning, success is a built-in reinforcer and motivator for
learning.
4.3.7 Feedback
Of course, in order to learn effectively, the learners needs to know if they have been
successful: this may be confirmed by the instructor, by the reactions of colleagues, or by the
learning situation itself. The more the learner knows about what he is doing, the more
rapidly is he able to make improvements in his performance. This is the important principle
of feedback, or knowledge of results, and it is the most common and probably the single
most important source of reinforcement for the human learner.
For feedback to be effective, it should be given as soon as possible. We shoot at a target

and observe the result: there is immediate feedback to correct and reinforce the learning. If
feedback is delayed, it is more difficult for a learner to determine which of his actions has led
to a successful outcome. Absence of rapid feedback is a major problem in traditional
correspondence courses when several weeks or more can elapse before results of efforts
are known. Modern distance learning programmes have to some extent overcome this
problem.
If the learning situation can be arranged so that the learner is given a series of
intermediate goals, and is provided with constant, precise feedback as to the progress
being made this helps to maximize the effect of this principle and helps avoid boredom.
The case study, role play and discussion methods are good illustrations of learning using
feedback; similarly with business simulations, where the results of decisions are fed back
to participants immediately, providing useful information for new decisions, very good use
66
of feedback is seen in programmed learning, where immediate reinforcement follows the

participant's response to each new segment of information.
Different types of feedback from the participants occur and/or have to be provided in
learning situations. Two important aspects of feedback are:
the participants' competence and behaviour (as seen by the other course participants, by
the instructor and by the trainee himself);
on what was actually learned, and on the ability to apply it effectively.
Feedback should be as rapid as possible; this occurs naturally in many group situations.
Direct feedback on the soundness of decisions is an integral part of simulation exercises,
whereas in the case of discussions the only feedback on the individual's analytical abilities is
the opinion of other participants and of the discussion leader. Good feedback on
behavioural patterns can be provided by participation in role-playing and business games.
Practical exercises and application projects provide feedback on the practical usefulness of
learning.
4.3.8 Transfer
This principle requires that education and training helps the individual to transfer what has
been learned to real situations. Some teaching methods, such as lectures, study of
literature or discussions often do not pay much attention to transfer. On the other hand, in
many participative methods the element of transfer is strong. For this reason the methods
of simulation and practical application projects are considered by some teachers as the
most effective ones.
From experience, we know that learning is easier when we can see its relevance or
applicability to our own situation. Wherever possible, there should be a close relationship
between the training programme and the work to be actually performed. Obviously, if
procedures for maintenance are being taught, they should be those currently used in the
company. For various management skills, the best techniques for positive transfer appear to
be simulation, case studies and role-playing, providing they are realistic and appropriate to
the level of trainees.
The opposite effect is demonstrated when trainees return from a course full of ideas, only
to find themselves prevented from trying out the new procedures they have learned. For
example if principles of democracy in human relations are taught to students who then
return to an autocratic situation, they will be unable to apply these principles. If we cannot
apply what we learn, we tend to forget it.
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4.3.9 Summary
The more a trainer can arrange the learning situation so as to utilize the principles of
learning, the more likely the learner is to learn. A training programme, or a teaching
technique, will be judged by its ability to:
— encourage active participation;

— provide the results of attempts to improve; promote a meaningful integration of learning
experiences that can be transferred from the
classroom to real life situations;
— provide reinforcement for appropriate behaviour;
provide practice and repetition when needed;
— motivate trainees to improve personal performance;
assist trainees willingness to change.
4.4 Current trends in the use of teaching and training

methods
Although a long-term trend towards professionalism continues and the standards of
education and training are constantly improving, there is no unanimous agreement on the
best methods to use in attaining the various objectives of education and training. On the
contrary, the differences between institutions and their programmes are still important and
in some cases go as far as complete rejection of certain methods.
The use of classical teaching methods is decreasing in training. Statements such as "the
lecture method is useless and has to be completely eliminated from personnel
development" can even be heard; such statements are, of course, extreme and lacking in
realism.
The different approaches to the use of participative teaching methods are influenced
mainly by the diversity in overall concepts of training and by differences in appreciation of
the value and potential of individual methods.
The case-study method was first used to introduce an empirical approach to training;
emphasis was put on the study of typical cases of past practical experience. While today it
is an exception to meet a trainer who considers the case-study method as the answer for all
training, it is fair to expect that the analysis of selected cases of practical experience (and
hence the case-study method) will continue to be important in the future.
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During the past twenty years the greatest progress has probably been made in simulation
methods (games, exercises, simulation models, role-playing, etc), which are now at the
centre of interest in the teaching of management. It is interesting, however, to note that
there are different schools of thought on the effectiveness of simulation in management
education.
The first emphasizes the high motivation and the transfer capabilities of teaching by
simulation and therefore considers simulation as a very promising teaching tool which will
gain in importance.
The second rejects simulation since to improve performance, trainees should develop their
own style and understand their own response patterns when called upon in actual
unstructured situations. There is also the fear that simulation may cause carelessness
when making decisions because the trainee knows that the situation although realistic is
not real.
In spite of a certain validity in the arguments against their use simulation methods are
likely to continue to evolve and to be used increasingly in training programmes. Those
programmes which concentrate on decision-making use various types of games,
simulation exercises and model-building.
In order to enhance the practical usefulness of training and to make sure that the trainee
will learn from solving practical problems, some educational and training programmes give
priority to the project method and to real consultancy assignments used as a training tool. It
should be mentioned, however, that such practical application projects used as training
devices will have to meet professional standards and will fulfil their tasks only if competently
prepared and supported. Such levels of competence might be beyond what could be
reasonably expected of trainees. There is also the problem of timing and fitting in
commercial deadlines etc. to the training programme.
In the present period of rapid change, obsolescence of knowledge and skills is a matter of
major concern. One of the remedies to this is cyclical retraining of personnel. It is becoming
clear, however, that retraining in specific areas might not be enough. The individuals
themselves must continue to learn, so that they can foresee and understand change,
innovate and act correctly in new situations. This should be their principal skill which, again,
is linked with a specific attitude – never to stop learning. This requirement concerns all
levels of education and training, without exception.
69
That is why good educational and training programmes do not swamp the participants with
enormous amounts of detailed information (which tomorrow may be obsolete) but help
them to learn how to learn. Course curricula are consciously being designed to force the
trainee to deal with new situations in a changing environment, from problem identification
and analysis to the making and implementing of original solutions. This, again, calls for the
use of participative methods – especially practical project methods, carefully chosen
simulation exercises and models, case studies with a strong element of change, and various
group assignments which build on the combined knowledge and expertise of all members
of the group.
It is no exaggeration to say that the two above-mentioned features of training – concern

over their relevance to the continuously changing real-life situation and emphasis on
learning how to learn – are becoming the determining factors in the selection, use, and
further evolution of teaching and training methods. Since each method has its strengths
and weaknesses, a mixture of methods based on the teacher's assessment of their potential
and in certain c a s e s emphasizing one particular method around which the programme is
built is the predominant feature of management education and development activities today,
and will probably continue to be in the future.
4.5 The main teaching methods

Changes in behaviour are rarely brought about by telling people to change, or by talking
about change. Rather, trainees must practice and observe behaviour, both their own and
that of others, and its appropriateness to the type and direction of change they know is
required. They must have an active role in their own learning.
Newer training methods relate the training experience to the activities and problems of the
actual work. Where this cannot be done in the job, course methods increasingly set up a
real or simulated learning process for the job skills, rather than traditional talking, reading
and discussion methods. The significance of this will be observed as we examine the main
training methods.
Factors which influence the choice of teaching method are basically a s follows:
The instructor's aims
What behaviour are you attempting to achieve? What, therefore, is the required
combination of:
increased knowledge
improved skills; are these analytical, technical or interpersonal skills?
influencing attitudes.
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Generally, as we move along the scale from knowledge to skills, techniques, and attitudes,
we will require more learning through active methods such as practice, simulation and role-
play.
The trainees
Is it one person or a group? How many in the group?
Interactive skills cannot be learned by one person, and large groups will limit your scope for
interactive methods, particularly role-play. Further, there is no point in using methods to
exchange or pool knowledge and skills if these are non-existent among the participants.
How much experience do they have already of what you are training — their existing
knowledge, skills and attitudes?
What are the learning methods they are accustomed to and might prefer?
Time
How much time is available? When will the training take place, day or evening? Will this
affect the learning process?
The instructor's skills

Which methods are the trainers most comfortable with?
The main training methods are outlined below:
4.5.1 Reading — books, journals, reports, hand-outs, etc.

Advantages Gets uniform information to a lot of people.
Convenient and inexpensive.
Limitations Strictly for knowledge only. If that is all you offer

then why not produce a correspondence course.
A solitary process, with no feedback; does not
ensure understanding.
Only works with one sense — eyes.
They may simply be read and filed, or returned to
the library.
Does not distinguish individuals' needs.
Is time-consuming compared with other methods.
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To make best use of reading First motivate trainees to want to learn.

Specially produce material for the course group;
keep it brief, clear and logical. Very useful to:
reinforce learning by putting structure to
points
give supporting information once trainees
understand its significance
brief trainees for practical exercises.
4.5.2 Lecturing
While in modern training emphasis is being put on other teaching techniques than those of
lecturing and written presentation, these techniques continue to be indispensable. Given
their relatively low learning impact — in general terms — there is all the more reason to take
pains in their construction.
The capacity for learning is directly related to motivation. The manner in which substantive
input is presented will directly influence motivation. Course materials, apart from being
substantively impeccable, should provide incentive, arouse curiosity and maximize
involvement.
Formal lecturing is widely used to build up knowledge which must be gained before
practice or participative training sessions will be of any use. If there are large numbers of
people to be trained, scarce teaching resources, or few hours available for instruction,
lecturing may be the only alternative.
The lecture method has its limitations. Since it does not demand the active involvement of
participants, it is largely unsuited to the teaching of skills or techniques, which require
practice. It is also of limited value in promoting behavioural or attitudinal changes, which are
often important when training people.
Apart from the fact that sixty minutes of unrelieved talking is difficult to assimilate or
remember the major disadvantage of the lecture comes from the fact that it is one-way
communication. The listeners remain passive, for the most part (and the effect of this is
shown in Figure 4.9). Unless the speaker is sensitive to the audience, there is no way of
knowing whether or not they are taking in what is being said. There is little opportunity to
clarify meanings, to check on whether or not the trainees really understand what is being
presented, or to handle the wide diversity of abilities and attitudes which they represent.
Lecturing does allow the teacher to get through the syllabus in the time available.
Unfortunately, however, sometimes the trainees are not able to do the same.
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COMPENDIUM CHAPTER
4
It is essential that the lecturer considers communication problems before starting the lecture.
The nature of the audience must be studied, adapting topics to their interests and level of
understanding; the material must be organized in a manner most likely to teach effectively,
using aids where appropriate. There must be variation in presentation, including time for
questions and discussion which will involve the audience and reveal to some extent what
learning is taking place.
ATTENTION SPAN IF PASSIVE
REST
PERIOD
12 TO 15 TIME
MINUTES
SUBSEQUENT
SPANS
TEND TO REDUCE
AFTER 50 MINUTES LECTURING THE SPAN MAY BE 3 TO 5 MINUTES
Figure 4.9
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Planning the lecture

Before starting to prepare your lecture, you must be able to answer four basic questions:
Who is your audience? WHO
What is the purpose of your talk? Which specific WHY

learning objectives will the trainees achieve?
What is the time available HOW LONG?
What is the subject matter? WHAT
The audience. Who are they? Civil servants, top managers, technicians, operatives,
specialists? Is their attitude likely to be friendly? Curious? Indifferent? Hostile (or sceptical)?
What does your audience know about the subject? What can you assume that they know
before you start your lecture? Know the characteristics of your audience: their background,
likes and dislikes, cultural features, level and nature of education. Are they used to listening
to lectures? How fast will they be able to take in what you say? This will also involve their
knowledge of your language and the clarity with which you speak.
Purpose of talk. What is the end result you wish to achieve (remember the learning
objectives)? What do you want the audience to do or understand better as a result of your
talk? Your approach will certainly vary depending on whether you wish to:
— give general information on, or on appreciation of, a subject;

— gain acceptance for a new point of view;
— change basic attitudes;
give detailed information.
You must not assume that trainees can achieve a learning objective simply because you
have included a related topic in your lecture.
Time available. What is the total time available? How much of it will be taken up by
formalities? How much time will you leave for questions and discussion? A good instructor
respects the clock by narrowing down or adjusting his lecture to suit the time available. He
knows that it is better to have an audience still interested and wanting to know more after a
short and fully-used period than to have them tired and uninterested after a talk that has
been unnecessarily long. He also knows that a 'sag-point' in the audience's interest occurs
after about twenty minutes, and he plans his talk and his delivery so that interest is
reawakened and passive listeners are reactivated from time to time.
Subject matter. Poor choice of subject or lack of sufficient knowledge about it will ruin a
lecture. It is important to speak from your own knowledge and experience, but at the same
time your topic and approach must be relevant to the needs and interests of the audience.
74
Preparing the lecture
The first step is simply to gather material together. Mark down a few basic headings under
which you can list ideas. Jot down everything you think you want to cover, consulting
reference books and texts or previous lecture notes if necessary. Note down illustrative
examples, anecdotes and quotes. Look up facts and figures. You may also think of ideas for
discussion, questions, exercises or visual aids, and these should be recorded alongside the
points they will support.
After you have collected enough raw material, the next step is to sort it into "must say", "
should say" and "could say" categories. What do you want the audience to remember at the
end of the lecture? Put your emphasis on this and narrow down your subjects accordingly,
also bearing in mind the time available. Do a little well, rather than a lot badly.
At this point you are ready to reorganize your notes into logical order and work out a more
detailed outline, using the following basic structure:
The introduction, which should be brief and to the point, presents the theme and
objective of the talk in a manner designed to arouse the interest and curiosity of
the audience right from the start. Opening remarks need to be planned and
rehearsed with some care, as it is very largely that first impression which will
motivate the audience to go on listening or "switch off'. Above all, try to avoid
beginning with an apology.
In the body of the talk, the main theme is developed in logical steps so that the
most important points will be remembered. Add illustrative examples, related to
the audience's experience where possible, anecdotes and instructive
demonstrations to substantiate the points being made. Use visual aids to help
the audience understand and remember what is important. You may also want to
allow time for questions and discussion to clarify meanings. Keep an eye on the
time so that audience participation does not prevent you from returning to your
main points.
The type of conclusion you use will depend largely upon your objective, but at
least give a brief recapitulation, in different words, of your main points (this is
made easier when a visual display has been developed throughout the talk),
plus some indication of "where do we go from here?
Draft the talk. Prepare notes from which you will speak. Whatever type you use — cards,
paper sheets — they should be easily readable (wide spacing, key words highlighted) and
sequentially numbered to avoid possible confusion. Above all, notes should be notes and
not a complete text. However, if you do write out sections of your talk in full, make sure
75
that what you write is in spoken language. Check that you will be able to cover the material
you have selected comfortably in the time available. Try it out on a friend or with a tape
recorder. Put approximate timings in the margin of your notes as a guide.
Plan and prepare visual aids. Various teaching aids may be employed to make the lecture
more interesting and more easily assimilated by the listeners by engaging their sense of
sight. The fact of having to make visual aids often forces lecturers to clarify and organize
their thoughts. Charts and graphs may make quantitative data more meaningful.
Photographs, drawings and diagrams may clarify the details of complex objects and
structure; real objects or models may serve the same purpose. The lecturer has many
means for presenting these teaching aids. They may be distributed to the audience before,
during or after the lecture. They may be displayed on racks or tables in the room. They may
be projected as slides, filmstrips or films.
Rehearse. Rehearsing the lecture is an essential step, even for most experienced
lecturers. This may reveal points which are unintentionally unclear, transitions that are
made too abruptly for the listeners to follow, and other errors that can creep into even the
best planned lecture. Try out your visual aids, finalizing plans for their arrangement,
ensuring that they are readable and clearly visible in the training room. The chief value of
the rehearsal is in familiarizing the speaker with the speech. Even experienced lecturers
suffer from stage fright on occasions. One or two dry runs through a lecture can build a
speaker's confidence in delivering the material.
Delivering the lecture. The written word can only be of limited help when it comes to
advice on speaking technique. What is needed is practice followed by constructive
criticism. Some of the essential points to keep in mind are set forth below.
Setting the scene. Make sure that you arrive at the appointed place ahead of time so that
you can check the physical arrangements such as layout of the chairs and tables, lectern,
teaching aids, provision of chalk and eraser. Try out any unfamiliar pieces of equipment you
intend to use. Sometimes your lecture may be part of a session which has a chairman, in
which case you may also use the time to talk with him and to size up your audience if you
haven't met them before.
Covering the material. Start punctually. Speak from your notes if necessary but do not put
your nose into them. In any case, do not read verbatim all your lecture. Leave time for
questions at the end. If you have more than one main point it may help to pause at the end
of each one for questions. Finish on time. When the scheduled closing time comes, if some
people are still asking questions and seem to want to go on doing so, you may have to
close the session but arrange to deal with outstanding issues at some other time.
76
Posture. If you have a choice, speak from a position that is comfortable for you but
appropriate to the situation. The main advantage of standing is that everyone can see you;
it is also the convenient position from which to manipulate most visual aids. However, with a
small group seated around a conference table, the informality of sitting may be desirable.
Some speakers prefer to use a lectern because it holds notes at standing height.
Appearance. Have a look in the mirror. Speakers should make sure that there is nothing
about their personal appearance which is out of harmony with the occasion or which is
likely to irritate the audience or distract their attention. Clothes should be neat and suitable
for the occasion. One should look confident and friendly (even if nervous) as audiences are
very susceptible to first impressions.
Manner. Be poised. Any kind of leadership requires a certain confidence and dignity to gain
and hold the attention of the group. Be courteous. Careless choice of language or humour
or a thoughtless gesture may create barriers to communication which will be difficult to
overcome later. Be sincere. Say what you mean and say it as if you meant it. Be yourself,
and convince the audience of your own interest in the subject. Establish eye contact with
your audience. Speak to all the audience. If it is a large audience, look first at one part and
then at another.
Gesture. Any actions and gestures must be natural and spontaneous; if they are forced
then it is best to do without them. They should also be purposeful and not just flapping of
the hands. Mannerisms — jiggling coins, playing with the chalk, walking about the platform
for no apparent reason — should be avoided, as they are distracting and sometimes
extremely annoying. Get your weight evenly distributed on both feet and then anchor
yourself. Try to avoid leaning on the table or the lectern or putting your hands in your
pockets. Consider carefully before smoking during your lecture.
Voice. The tone of the voice can be altered to convey confidence, emotion, emphasis and
indignation. Pace and volume should be varied occasionally to avoid monotony. Speech
should follow the rate of thought and remarks should be allowed to tell upon the audience.
Don't be afraid of pauses and silences — they can be effective if employed to emphasize,
to create suspense for what is to follow, to allow an idea to sink in or to mark a question.
Don't garble — it is always better to speak slowly than to speak too quickly. Throw your
voice to the back row so that all can hear. This does not mean that you must shout.
Vocabulary. It is best to use everyday language, avoiding slang, which could be

misunderstood, preferring short, familiar words and keeping sentences short. Be very wary
about using "funny" stories — especially if you are not a born story teller or if the audience is
unknown to you. Only choose stories that are relevant to the point you are trying to make.
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TRAINING COURSE FOR
4.5.3 Audio Visual Aids
The use of visual aids in training has increased dramatically over the past twenty years, so
much so that sometimes they are used when there appears to be hardly any purpose
served.
However, there are many good reasons for using visual aids at appropriate times and
these are summarized below.
Most trainees will be able to think at a much faster rate than that at which the instructor
speaks; therefore a relevant picture or diagram, etc. will help to focus their thoughts.
Seeing something can have much more impact than hearing about it. Combining hearing
and seeing should help the learning process.
Visual aids such as an overhead projector are useful for displaying key words or brief
summaries; these can reduce misunderstandings and clarify the main issues.
The most common lecture aids used by trainers are:
chalk boards or marker boards
flipcharts
— overhead projectors
- projected slides.
Along with these, films, videos and slide/audio tape presentations are often used as
separate aids to give support to the subject being taught.
Audio tapes are rarely used in group teaching unless it is to prepare trainees for an exercise or
similar which might have been obtained elsewhere. Audio tapes can be extremely useful for
individual work to guide a trainee through a written sequence including
diagrams either on a course of private study or to make up for some weakness which has
been detected.
Beware! Audio tapes take longer to prepare than you might think.
Cine films and video presentations can be very useful. Obviously the former can be used
for larger audiences than the latter where the size of a television screen is restrictive. Many
training films/videos are available for purchase and are mostly very good. The
problem is not knowing whether the content is really suited to your purpose until after it
has been bought. Titles and even accompanying brief descriptions cannot convey the
detail required. If possible it is advisable to preview programmes before buying.
Some excellent films contain far too much detail for trainees to absorb while being shown.
This can be harmful because trainees become familiar with topics and can be misled into
thinking that they have learnt enough. This problem can be overcome, especially when
using videos, by only showing a small excerpt relevant to the part of the subject being
covered. Afterwards the trainees can play the whole film as often as they wish. Quite
laborious but worthwhile.
Short training sequences can be produced "in house" on video quite successfully; be
careful to display the sequence – not the people; don't even consider using dialogue and
keep it brief.
Coloured slides projected on to a screen are commonly used to support lectures. They are
of immense value when the subject covers any applications or processes in ship operation.
Pictures of the particular item being talked about bring the subject to life both for
experienced and inexperienced trainees.
With a little concerted effort a good library of slides can be built up in a year or two.
Chalk and/or marker boards are so common that hardly any comment is necessary except
that it is sometimes surprising to see such important aids in poor condition often with
inappropriate surfaces and poor lighting. The simple flipchart is not very portable otherwise
its use in displaying prepared diagrams, sequences, key words, etc. would be much more
extensive. Even so flipcharts are cheap to produce and are very useful.
The overhead projector and prepared transparencies are perhaps the most useful of all the
classroom aids. Complete lectures can be built up around the display of material. Providing
the transparencies are well prepared, by hand is quite adequate, large audiences can see
clearly what is being shown. The trainer faces the trainees, which is very important,
transparencies can be shown in any order and are easily re-shown, complicated diagrams
can be built up using overlays and, of course, the instructor can write or draw on
transparencies using permanent or wipe off markers during the session. Often financial
constraints slow down progress but it is worth considering that several overhead projectors
which would be in continual use could be bought for the price of one piece of equipment
which might only be used once a year.
Models – working, cut away, magnified, miniaturized, composite, together with specimen
and samples all have their place as training aids. Sometimes these can be shown on film,
videos or slides as well as being passed around or displayed in the classroom. This can
help to ensure that trainees are focusing their attention on what was intended.
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Computer based programmes are often interactive and therefore fully involve the trainee
usually with good results. The equipment and software are normally bought in and can be
quite expensive. The production of those programmes is highly specialized and consumes
much more time than any other teaching method. A similar problem exists as with bought in
films and videos, i.e. does the programme cover the specific learning objectives that your
trainees require?
This course is about basic teaching practice; therefore this sophisticated area will not be
pursued further. Needless to say, the principles of learning and the management of the
processes apply equally well to computer programmes as to any other techniques.
4.5.4 Short talks and meetings

Advantages Flexible, easy to organize and the most familiar
methods.
Especially useful for Can be an organized and systematic way of
Limitations
reaching a large number of people at the same
time.
Giving new facts or information.
Stimulating interest.
Emphasizing main points of reading.
Summarizing the results of group work.
Does not ensure uniformity of understanding.

Not suitable for development of skills.
Requires discussion for feedback. Works only
on one sense — hearing. Can be tiring for
trainees.
To maximize the value of talks Do not use talks as the only method.
Include discussion.
Carefully plan a logical structure and include
visual aids.
Never simply read notes.
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4.5.5 Discussion and group work

Advantages Clarifies misunderstandings and adapts to needs.
Generates interest and stimulates thinking.
Involves everybody and can change attitudes.
Especially useful for Pools ideas and information.
Exploring problems for which answers are not

known.
Limitations Developing different aspects of a problem.
Practical only if group members have some

knowledge or experience of subject.
Not good for presentation of new material.
Practical only with small groups of about 4 to 6 in
number.
Requires more time to cover subject.
Requires a skilful discussion leader.
Play an uncommitted, neutral role.

The instructor should Guide the group with well-chosen questions.
Provide information only when needed.
Allow group members to supply their own
conclusions and not provide standard answers.
When forming working groups Have specific objectives in mind.

Mix abilities.
Decide whether it helps to mix backgrounds/
experience.
Ensure all participate and vary the spokesperson.
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Group leadership roles
The 'authoritative' leader makes it clear to the group that he has the authority, knowledge
and responsibility to control the discussion. He expresses his own viewpoints and doesn't
tolerate opposite or alternative views, dominates, gives directions and orders. He will
criticize or disapprove of a free discussion as 'laissez faire' and ineffective.
The 'democratic' leader encourages everyone in the group to participate in the discussion
and express views, ideas, feelings. Tries to understand; asks questions, clarifies unclear
statements; praises and encourages positive discussion types. He is polite to negative
discussion types, but firmly reminds them of the task and the fact that everyone has a right
to participate and should be given the opportunity to be heard.
A discussion leader should:
- introduce the topic at the beginning of the session;

— structure the discussion;
lead the discussion democratically rather than in an authoritarian way;
establish rules with the group, e.g. not to barge in, but to raise a hand
and wait for one's turn;
seek and give information and opinions;
never dominate the discussion;
overcome negative, aggressive, destructive influences;
remind dominant participants to be brief and considerate;
ensure that everyone gets the opportunity to speak;
encourage shy, quiet participants;
recognize and reward contributions;
not put down participants for being wrong;
- harmonize and create a good working atmosphere;
summarize the discussion at the end.
Group member roles
The group members' tasks are largely similar to those of the leader in order for the
discussion to be effective. Participants learn more in a supportive group than in a
competitive and threatening atmosphere. Further important functions of the members are:
to seek all relevant evidence and ask for clarification, explanation, illustration, expansion,
etc., of the information or view given;
- to elicit the opinions and feelings of other participants, including the reticent ones; to clarify
the relationship between various facts, ideas or viewpoints and to tie together elements
that may appear unrelated and would otherwise be ignored.
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There can be certain dysfunctional behaviours in a group discussion which are destructive and
reduce group cohesion and productivity, e.g.:
blocking progress by constantly reacting negatively to all ideas and proposals put forward
by other participants;
being aggressive, disapproving, distrusting, insulting, making jokes at others' expense,
etc.
constantly seeking attention and recognition by telling irrelevant anecdotes or mentioning
experiences and achievements in irrelevant contexts;
dominating, demanding, interrupting others.
Some strengths of group dynamics

In a small group:
One cannot withdraw as easily as in a large group; one has to listen.

One cannot help but react, comment, state one's own views. Shy
participants are less inhibited.
All participants are actively involved.
When speaking, one is aware if the others do not listen and respond.
There is more interaction in small groups than in large groups.
Size of group
Less than three can expose individual weaknesses too much and therefore can reduce
participation. More than six allows individuals to opt out and not participate as required.
The optimum group size, then, might be four or five; much depends on the characteristics of
the individuals involved.
Part of the management skill of the instructor is to observe each group in action and to
rearrange their composition for later exercises if the balance of knowledge, experience and
personalities can be improved.
Assessment of group activities is included in Section 5.4.
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4.5.6 Simulation
The main types of exercise used in simulation are: case studies, role play, and games. In
all cases realistic work problems are presented to trainees for analysis and similar
treatment leading to the formulation of solutions or recommendations. The process evolves
as the trainees participate uncovering or creating issues as they progress.
Discovery learning is a powerful training method. The trainees are placed in situations
which allow principles and concepts to be discovered for themselves rather than receiving
them ready-made and predigested from the trainer. It is not, however, a matter of throwing
trainees into a situation entirely unaided, or allowing them to do whatever they wish. It has
to be a carefully thought-out and structured sequence in which, through the performance of
set tasks, the trainee may formulate hypotheses and test them out, seek out information,
and gain awareness of the skills and knowledge that are necessary for progression. In
contrast to the conventional methods of providing theoretical matter and then expecting
trainees to apply it, information is only provided when and to the extent it is required. The
relevance of information is recognized and used immediately by the learner.
A simulation is a form of dynamic model. Reference systems can be of several different

sorts, only selected items from the reference system are included. The central features of
the model are from real life situations.
The main advantages of simulation are that the level of insight and understanding is
deeper when trainees have discovered something for themselves. They raise the level of
interest and thinking, and they make trainees use and reinforce what they have learned.
They are especially useful for developing systematic thinking, problem-solving and
interpersonal skills along with changing attitudes and training for specific tasks. However,
there are disadvantages in that learning points may emerge in an unstructured way and
need careful thought; also effort is necessary to prevent the "play" taking over from
learning. Simulation needs more training time, and preparation by the trainer and the
trainee, furthermore, the responsibility for setting aims, preparation of material and
organization for the course developer is considerable. In addition a great deal of research
is needed for realistic source material.
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4.5.7 C a s e Studies
Students may work individually on case studies, but it is more usual to tackle them in groups.
Afterwards, their conclusions are subjected to critical appraisal. The aim of the case-study
method is to give the learner practice in dealing with day-to-day problems, but away from the
immediate pressure of events, under the guidance of a trainer and in collaboration with fellow
learners. The case may be a narrated incident or a file of papers to be studied, or both. Paper
or video presentation may be used.
Case studies can embrace more than one session or topic and be used for a variety of
purposes. A number of case studies can be based around the same material or
organization.
There are several basic types of case study:
case problem: this briefly presents the facts and the problem itself.
case report: this provides the basic elements, with little supporting information, and gives
the decision(s) and results.
case study (history): this is a longer, more complete account, not necessarily with a readily
identifiable problem, but containing the results and sometimes the implications and
analysis.
research case: this is the most comprehensive, and includes more on observable events,
factors and a complete diagnosis.
Appendix 1 contains examples of the above. They are included solely to give an indication of
the range of possibilities.
Generally, case studies have the following characteristics:
Whilst essentially anonymous, they are based on real or realistic situations (including
simplification of reality where necessary).
They are problem-centred both in content and as a teaching method.
They require a great degree of student participation compared to straightforward lectures.
In general, case studies may cover an unlimited range of topics which concern issues,
problems and opportunities that require judgemental decision-making. Individual cases
may focus on one particular aspect or many aspects of organizational operation and/or
individual problem-solving.
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Facts should be presented in such a way that the case is open for thought, objective
discussion and the evaluation of action.
The study should describe:
(a) the setting of the case

(b) the issues and circumstances
(c) the people involved
(d) the events
(e) any other information pertinent to an analysis.
Cases can be concerned with internal relations within or between departments, divisions or
groups or between individuals; alternatively, a case may not directly involve other people but
concentrate on the decision-maker and his or her direct confrontation with a problem
presented by the external environment or circumstances. The nature of the cases presented
would relate to the aims and objectives of the course programme.
It is unrealistic to expect a case study to have a neat beginning or a neat ending, as each
case represents a small portion of the total level of activity, and for this reason it is
improbable that the case study will provide the facts — a facet of the case study which
reflects reality with respect to the actual decision-maker, who seldom has or is able to
gather all the facts or have all the information available before the decision is made. (Nor
do those who make decisions use all the pertinent facts that are available.)
4.5.8 Role Play

Role play takes discovery learning a stage further. Trainees make their own 'live' case
study, by acting it out as though in real life. In the discussion afterwards trainees will learn
from the analysis of events how their chosen approach affected issues and the effects of
other approaches.
Trainees have: — roles to play

— goals to aim for
activities to perform
constraints on what can be done
positive and negative feedback as a result
of their actions.
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4.5.9 Games
The term "game" is applied to those simulations that work wholly or partly on the decisions
of the players. They may be based on almost any process. Simulation games are
potentially powerful teaching methods in terms of learning skills and attitudes. It is
important to use the following guidelines:
— Work carefully on the aims. Do the learning results justify the time?
— Prepare thoroughly with research to make the exercises relevant and plausible. The
teacher must be completely familiar with all aspects of the case and the subject it is
designed to teach.
Plan how the exercise will be used. Use it to help trainees to achieve specific learning
objectives.
Ensure that the required skills and knowledge have been taught previously.
Make it interesting.
Plan how you will organize the learning points which emerge into a form which will assist
students to apply them.
In a gaming simulation the game roles, goals, activities and constraints and the linkages
between them are patterned from real life, or, in the terms used above, they simulate those
elements of the real-world systems.
Participants are given a scenario and a role profile. They are given goals (objectives) to
orient their behaviour, resources to attempt to meet their goals, rules to govern the actions
they may or may not take and instructions about the order of play.
The educational aims of gaming simulations include:
Increasing motivation and interest:
— in the subject matter in the general

field of study in doing further research
on the topic.
By conveying information or reinforcing information already given in another format, say

a lecture, can be related to:
facts
systematic understanding
the relationship of a specific role to an overall system
a broadened awareness of options, policies and issues
probable consequences of particular policies or events.
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Developing skills in:
critical thinking and analysis

— decision-making
— interactional issues such as bargaining and negotiating
– communication
proposal writing, summarizing for radio
or newspaper accounts, budget preparation
– preparing for future tasks such as applying for a job,
managing people in a team, or coping with emergencies.
Changing attitudes:
social values, such as competition or co-operation

— empathy for those in other roles.
Self-evaluation or assessment by others of:

— knowledge, skills, assumptions, attitudes or leadership qualities.
Games are time-consuming. However, they promote great depth of learning and extend
the scope of what is learnt. In terms of quantity of information per period of time, a well-
prepared lecture is difficult to beat. However, offering information is no use unless it is
understood and accepted by the listeners. The learners in the conventional classroom
situation are passive recipients and consequently their attention may wander. The game,
while handling less quantity of information or the same amount but over a longer period,
has the benefit of requiring the participants to be active and to use the knowledge they
acquire immediately. The distinction between being told something and experiencing it is
true and relevant here.
Lectures proceed in a sequential linear fashion. As a result trainees may find it difficult to
see the whole picture, the totality, especially where one is concerned with teaching the
simultaneity of events and actions. For example, making wrong decisions in a game
through concentrating upon particular aspects of the situation while ignoring others has an
immediate and memorable impact.
The most important point is that participants are active learners. They must make
decisions, pay the consequences, articulate conditions and make the system work. After
play, the post-game analysis focuses on what happened and why, how that relates to the
real-world counterpart and the limitations of the gaming simulation.
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4.5.10 Writing Games
Much of the following applies equally to preparing case studies and simple role play
exercises.
There are five main stages in designing a game:
Stage I: Setting objectives and parameters

Stage II: Development of models
Stage III Decision about representation
Stage IV: Construction and modification of the gaming simulation
Stage V: Preparation for use by others
Stage I: Setting objectives and parameters
Define clearly the subject matter, purpose, intended operators and participants, and the
context for use of the proposed gaming simulation.
What resources (in terms of time and money) are available for development? How the time
is used will depend to some extent upon later decisions.
What are the resources of potential users (the client group)? Later decisions about the levels
of abstraction, time constraints, specificity, complexity, computer methods and so on cannot
be made soundly without estimates of the knowledge, time and monetary resources of the
end-user.
Stage II: Developing the model
This involves developing a conceptual model of the system and deciding which elements
are to be included in the gaming simulation. This stage involves case-study work. The
system should be detailed verbally and graphically, if possible using literature and other
sources.
The substantive content of the real-world system to be simulated must be set out. Roles,
goals, activities, constraints and external factors must be identified. Psychological stresses
should also be identified at this stage if they are to be included.
Unless time is taken to understand the system, it will not be possible to simulate it even in
a highly abstract form.
The model should be written out and shown schematically. Selection of the elements to be
included in the gaming simulation will come from a serious review of aims and audiences as
specified in Stage I.
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Stage III: Decisions about representation
When the basic model has been developed and decisions about elements to be included
have been made, you are ready to proceed with translating it into an operating model.
Here you must make a set of decisions that relate to both style and form.
First, you must decide about the style of gaming simulation, considering four important
questions:
What is the appropriate level of abstraction?
What time frame should be employed?
Should there be linear, radial or interactive structure to the flow of activities? How
much and what type of interaction should take place between participants?
Second, the form of the gaming components must be determined. Here decisions must be
made about how each element of the model that has been selected for inclusion in the
gaming simulation is to be represented. Each element can appear in one of the several
ways: in the scenario, in the roles, in the procedures and rules, in the visual imagery and
symbols (e.g. in maps, a game board), in the external factors (e.g. as chance cards or radio
broadcasts or letters received by a player or players, or as an announcement by the
operator) or as part of the accounting system (e.g. the statements or submodels governing
the initial distribution and subsequent redistribution of resources).
Stage IV: Construction and modification
Now the actual game must be put together and appropriate data must be loaded into it. In
Stage III you decided which pieces of the model would be included in the scenario and
which in roles; new scenarios and role descriptions must be written. Other game elements
must likewise be constructed and materials must be acquired. When all parts are
assembled into a prototype, the gaming simulation must be field-tested, debugged,
retested, and so on until it operates successfully. Considerable trial and retrial is usually
necessary before the game generates the behaviours and outcomes characteristic of the
reference material. Each "bug" leads the designer back to a re-examination of the
conceptual model and the design decisions as well as to possible failures in the
construction process, in search of a missing element or one inaccurately linked to others.
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COMPENDIUM CHAPTER
4
Stage V: Preparation for use by others
When you are satisfied that the gaming simulation works well, it must be prepared for use
by others. This means an operator's guide must be prepared and tested, for the author must
not be one of the "necessary materials" for a successful run!
4.5.11 Summary
The use of the simulations can be supported as a basis in the development of
management judgement, model formulation and analysis and decision-making for the
following reasons. They:
give a broad exposure to numerous management problems;
improve the balance between thinking and routine collection of
data; capture real-life professional challenges;
improve control of learning quality;
establish methods for developing managerial judgement;
produce lively and participative class discussions.
Case experience reduces the time-consuming burden of data collection and allows the
student the time to be concerned with the organization of the data for meaningful analysis
and subsequent development and interpretation of models. Given that, prior to the class
discussion, all students have read the issues and undertaken some development, the class
discussion should prove a lively and experiential form of learning, with challenges and
defence. The experience also puts students in a variety of roles within the organization,
providing experience in both line and staff functions, demonstrating the role of each.
Simulations are therefore potentially powerful teaching methods in terms of learning skills
and attitudes.
The main disadvantage of simulations is their preparation which is a long, arduous process,
also the time taken when used is much longer than would be taken to simply tell the
students. There is also the danger that over use would produce careless responses by
trainees because wrong actions do not result in serious consequences.
But remember – our understanding improves as we hear, see and DO!
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4.6 Writing course material

There are common themes in the preparation and planning of all training material which if
applied, at least in part, will help the trainee to learn more thoroughly. As you might expect
this advice reinforces guidance given elsewhere in this course.
There should be three parts in any learning material. They are the:
Introduction
Presentation —
Summary.
The Introduction
The introduction should prepare trainees for more learning by previewing what is ahead.
The intention is to motivate trainees into wanting to learn more. The trainees need to see
reason in what they are to do, the work must be attractive to them and they must have
confidence or faith in the quality of the material. Motivation is assisted if trainees understand
what they might be expected to do when they have completed the next step or topic. This is
where specific learning objectives would provide the answer; if learning objectives have not
been constructed/defined then this would be a good time to write some. You will then know
the purpose of the material you are writing.
Trainees learn best if the new work is linked to something they have already done. In other
words they should feel familiar with the new concept being introduced. An important part of
this theme is to explain where the new developments fit into the overall pattern of the
subject. This then paves the way for later new work within the overall structure.
Presentation
The presentation of information is the heart of the matter and is where inexperienced
trainers would start. There are a number of issues requiring attention, which apply in all
learning situations.
It is important to limit the amount of new information in a session. Just how much can be
accepted in one group will depend upon many things including the complexity of the topic,
the relationship of one piece of new information with another and the capability of the
trainees. Research some years ago suggests that up to about seven new steps or ideas
are enough to make into a group.
Whenever possible use illustrations, even if they are only blocks with words or titles in them.
If a trainee uses eyes as well as ears the brain has a better chance of absorbing the matter.
Continue the linking with other aspects of the subject throughout the material.
Relate the matter to applications particularly those in which you expect trainees to have
interest. Make sure they know where the subject is relevant and, equally important, where it
does not apply — its limitations, restraints, similarities with and differences from other
theories, etc.
Make sure the language used can be understood by the trainees. Too many teachers use
words which are not in common use by the trainees without giving an explanation each time
a "suspected new word" is introduced. Far better to use correct language which is within the
scope of the trainees. The use of appropriate text and the layout of learning material could,
alone, be the subject of a separate course. Here it has to be sufficient to draw attention to its
importance.
Ensure that trainees practice each new step forward soon after it emerges. This applies to
all steps and where possible, after practising the new step further practice should include the
preceding steps until the whole new group of steps is being practised. The practice should
be as near to real life work as possible, e.g. it is better for trainees to do things rather than
describe how to do them. It is not good enough to tell trainees something and then, without
further learning or reinforcement, expect them to answer examination questions or go back
to work and perform well. It is common for an instructor, at the end of a lecture, to ask if
there are any questions and then in their absence to assume that everything has been
understood. Obviously more is required.
Practice by trainees should not be confused with feedback although it is natural enough to do
so. It is only after sufficient practice that trainees should have reached an acceptable level (
achieved learning objectives). Observation during practice will indicate how well trainees have
learnt but that is not the purpose of practice and it is a good idea to separate the two as much
as possible.
Feedback tells the trainee and the trainer whether responses are correct or not, and why. At
this stage confidence should be building up in those who have learnt well and indications for
remedial or other action should appear for those who have not.
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The Summary
The last section should be a review intended to help trainees retain the new learning for
future use. The review should summarise the work just completed using different words
where possible. At this stage it can be useful to re-state the learning objectives that should
have been achieved not forgetting a reminder of how, where and when they can be
applied. When applicable, some reference material should be prepared using memory
aids, glossary or useful work place information and, finally, possibly some more practice
which could be part of an assessment.
5 Course Evaluation and Assessment of Participants

Evaluation of courses, monitoring of trainees
So far in the course, assessment of trainees as well as evaluation of training and training
courses have been mentioned in various connections. These issues are obviously related,
although the techniques that are involved will be selectively applied at various stages of the
training process.
For instance, testing trainees prior to admittance to courses and testing/monitoring their
progress during training can be accomplished by the application of a variety of techniques.
On the other hand, the broader issues of course evaluation, final testing, possible grading of
trainees and evaluation of the effect training has on their job performance after training
would involve a wide spectrum of techniques. These are dealt with in this section.
5.1 Trainee assessment

An assessment is any process in which performance is judged, estimated or measured.
This process, of course, takes place outside training in our everyday life, where we are
constantly forming or adjusting our opinions of people: this is a form of assessment.
In training, assessments are very important and are a central issue in the learning/teaching
process. The results of trainee assessments can still be affecting a person's life a great
many years after the assessment was made.
Most assessments in training are informal; this is so even when the course contains formal
assessment. Informal assessments are usually oral and/or non-verbal, they are immediate
and personal and should provide attention, encouragement and motivation to the trainee.
They also provide almost continuous feedback to the instructor on a number of aspects of
the effect of the course as it progresses.
There are basically two ways in which assessments are used; one is integral with the
learning system, the other is as a final test or examination.
When used as an integral part of the course, assessments can be at various, regular or
frequent intervals, often described as "continuous". They help to identify strengths,
weaknesses and potential and provide very useful information to both the instructor and
the trainee on such things as the achievement of objectives and the suitability of the
teaching methods being employed.
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Final assessments provide the same kind of information but by then it is usually too late to
be of benefit to the trainees who have taken part. Very often final assessments are used to
rank trainees, although this is unnecessary if the purpose of a course is to enable trainees to
achieve objectives. In such cases it should only be necessary to determine whether or not
trainees can accomplish the defined tasks.
Even so, there is often pressure to provide a ranking of trainees on a scale. This is often to
enable others in authority to more easily make a choice on such things as allocation of
places in higher education or selection for employment or promotion. Thus, final
assessments are very important to trainees.
In many IMO model courses, in-course assessments are appropriate, with the final test
possibly covering only those parts of the course dealt with since the previous test.
However, sometimes there is a case for a final assessment to establish whether trainees
can assemble knowledge or skills obtained from various parts of the course in order to
show that they can adequately deal with certain applications. It is impossible to say what
or how assessments should be performed, so much depends on the nature of the course
and the scope and restraints indicated by the learning objectives.
Assessments are not perfect but careful attention will greatly improve their credibility.
To improve the status of assessments, instructors should:
be certain of the purpose of the assessment

see that they are of benefit to both the trainee and the instructor
ensure that assessments are not added as an afterthought; they should be integral with
the syllabus and the instructional strategy
check that questions, tasks, etc., are within the terms of the learning objectives; in
particular, that trainees are not asked to perform differently from the verbs which have
been prescribed
use more than one technique
— always produce model answers or solutions and marking schemes
always have someone else read and check the draft, look for ambiguities, even try to mis-
read if possible.
There are policy issues which have to be resolved when planning assessments, and some of
these may well be outside the instructors' jurisdiction or influence. For instance, an end
examination might be required by a licensing authority or a governmental department. If
externally set and/or if the examiners pay scant regard to the course learning objectives,
then past examination papers have to be used to dictate the contents of future courses, and
this is most unsatisfactory.
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One of the early issues is to determine whether any formal assessment is necessary and, if
so, its purpose and who it is intended to benefit. It has to be decided what proportion of the
objectives tested must be achieved by trainees. Achievement of certain objectives may be
seen to be important, and weighting may be given to the marks awarded in such instances.
Some objectives may be essential to proficiency. If so important, presumably some provision
will be made for further attempts in case of failure. It will have to be decided whether
trainees are to be advised on the maximum marks allocated to each question or to parts of a
question. The issue of how much access to information by trainees is to be allowed, as in
real life situations, ought not to arise as this should have been defined by the learning
objectives.
There are basically two types of question used in assessments: they are "objective" or "
subjective". However, there are some types of questions which are almost objective but
have a small element of subjectiveness and vice versa. All have inherent weaknesses and
all have a useful place in most assessments. Care should be taken when interpreting the
results if only one type is used as their inherent weakness can produce misleading
information.
5.2 Objective assessment

Objective testing means testing which is not subjective – in other words there is only one
acceptable answer. Objective questions are not necessarily concerned with the testing of
learning objectives, although that often is the case. Too many people think objective
testing means the use of multiple-choice questions only, this is because they are so
frequently used, but in fact there are several types. The situation becomes confused
because unfortunately, different names are given to the same type of question.
The writing of objective questions can take a deceptively long time, but an advantage is that
the results of assessments can be produced rapidly and can, if appropriate, even be carried
out by the trainees themselves. This is important for in-course assessments and is often
essential in short courses. Objective questions covering areas of knowledge are relatively
easy to write and tend to proliferate, whereas valid, penetrating questions covering the
higher intellectual levels are much more difficult to produce and therefore are not so
common. This tends to give the mistaken impression that objective questions belong to the
lower levels of learning, such as recall, and that only subjective questions are appropriate to
the higher levels, such as comprehension and analysis. This is not necessarily true: well-
written objective questions can be applied to very high levels of assessment.
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It is important to be aware of the various types of objective questions available for use.
Eight types are described below, most of which are accompanied by simple examples.
1 Direct question requiring a short answer.
Example
What are the two principal aims of the International Maritime Organization?
1 ...................................................................................
2 ...................................................................................
Comment
The length of the dotted lines limits the expected answers.
2 Incomplete statement to complete.
Example
Complete the following statement:
Most accidents on board ship could have been avoided if those involved
Comment
There could be variations of acceptable answers; therefore the question is not strictly
objective.
3 Completion of statement from a given selection of words.
Example
In the following statement, fill in the missing words from the selection given beneath:
Carbon dioxide is a gas. It is not but can be to

personnel because concentrations reduce the amount of
present which is to support life.
harmful: oxygen: colourless: human: toxic: essential: large:

Comment
Could be made more difficult, if required, by including additional distracting words to

the selection, which reduces the possibility of producing the correct solution by a
process of elimination.
4 Multiple choice – select one answer from a choice of, say, four
Example
The mass of water displaced by a ship, measured in tonnes, is termed

(a) the gross tonnage
(b) the displacement
(c) the net tonnage
(d) the deadweight
Tick the correct answer.
Comment
This is the most widely used type of objective question. The chances of a correct
guessed answer can be reduced by having more distracting answers to choose from or
by awarding, say, one mark for a right answer, none for no answer and subtracting one
mark for a wrong answer. The difficulties are that for the first suggestion good
distracters are often hard to find and for the second suggestion, subtracting a mark
penalizes the honest but wrong attempt which is to be expected when the distracters
are all plausible. A more acceptable process may be to accept the weakness of three
distracters with simple marking and allow for this in the overall assessment plan.
5 Multiple-completion choice – select two or three separate phrases from a given

selection to answer the question.
Comment
Not often used because of the time required to construct the required number of
realistic but incorrect distracting answers.
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6 True/false.
Example
When a fluid flowing through a straight, smooth circular section pipe passes through a
short length of restricted diameter its pressure decreases. True or false?
Comment
Obviously there is a 50% chance of guessing the correct answer and such questions
can trivialize the subject; therefore the technique should be used with caution. Useful to
stimulate revision and for semi-informal assessments.
7 Matching blocks/lists.
Example
Match each term with its definition:

Note: there are no matches for one definition and two terms.
Definition Term
A The difference between load 1 Fresh water allowance

displacement and light-ship displacement 2 Tonnes per centimetre
B The difference between draughts immersion
forward and aft 3 Reserve buoyancy
C The enclosed volume above the water-line 4 Freeboard
D List due to transverse movement of cargo 5 Angle of loll
E The vertical distance between G and M 6 Dead weight
F The vertical distance between the 7 Free surface effect
fresh water line and the summer load line 8 Metacentric height
G The vertical distance between the deck 9 Trim
and the water-line
H The loss of stability due to slack liquid
on board
Comment
In this question, distracters have been added in an attempt to reduce the chances of
solving by eliminating after inserting a few known answers.
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8 Sequence or priority order.
Comment
This type can only be used where there is only one acceptable sequence or order of
events or words to be arranged from a given random selection.
5.3 Subjective assessment

In addition to the above objective questions there is a range of other types of question
which are in the main subjective. They can be designed to give varying degrees of
freedom, as indicated in the examples given below.
Problem solving is useful for all levels of knowledge, skills, and techniques both
mathematical and descriptive.
Written responses are widely used, unfortunately on the mistaken assumption that the use of
language, thinking and learning are almost inseparable. In real life, both at work and socially,
relatively little communication is by extensive writing, most is verbal. Written responses are
used in assignments, classwork, homework projects, etc.
The question arises as to whether a written response to a question should allow complete
freedom or whether some direction should be given. For example, asking for an essay o n
a ship's visit is open-ended, whereas a question such as "give an explanation of the most
significant factors affecting fuel consumption" or "explain the issues which determine
periods between dry-docking" provide some constraint, and a question such as "explain the
five most important factors affecting crew morale" provides even more guidance and more
constraints, so that the answers from many trainees, when marked by different instructors,
can, to some extent be comparable. The responses to open ended questions are very
difficult and sometimes impossible to mark consistently. Questions can reduce the range of
responses by giving some direction as shown in the following examples.
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Guided response
In these cases, the questions contain clues on the organization of the answer.
e.g. - Explain the most likely reason for deterioration of fuel consumption when a ship is
sailing in tropical waters and describe two ways of possibly reducing the problem.
Structured questions
These can be simple, as in the example below where the question is in three parts and
guidance on the response is given by the format:
Give two effects of pollution of the sea, state the cause of most pollution and explain
how it might be prevented:
effects
main cause ..........................................................
how prevented
Structured questions can be written in a logical sequence of sub-questions. These help to

provide a structure and proper sequence to the required response. Structured questions are
often used for interpretation of diagrams, graphs, charts, etc.; when used as part of an
informal assessment they are a useful teaching aid.
In addition to providing a logical sequence, the sub-questions draw attention to important

points and can encourage short, precise answers. They also have the advantage that they
can be arranged in ascending levels. In such cases, the sub-questions should be
independent so that an early wrong answer does not jeopardise the remainder.
Comprehension and interpretation
These exercises are useful but, if over-used, trainees find out that a standard type of
response is awarded good marks, and this is unsatisfactory.
Extended writing
Often gives complete freedom. Gives the scope for self-expression but is difficult to assess
consistently. Used widely for ranking but is very subjective. It helps if assessors and trainers
follow a taught structure.
102
Project work including practical skills and assignments
In these cases, a single assessment after completion of a project does not give credit for all
the contributory skills such as planning, research, field work, observation, information
retrieval, analysis, interpretation, selection, practical skills, power of expression, synthesis,
final conclusion, recommendations, etc. Therefore it is much more satisfactory if assessment
takes place at several stages of the production process.
Trainees need to be given the qualities of good reports or work and ought to know how the
project is to be assessed.
Assessment of projects can be entirely subjective, and a broad category ranking can be
acceptable, however it would be better if:
Objectives can be agreed with the trainees so that later their achievement can be
assessed objectively.
Each component of a project is rated, say, 0 to 3 and also weighted by a multiplier and the
totals converted to a percentage.
Often the assessment of projects involves both subjective and objective testing.
In a group project it is difficult to assess the inputs of an individual, but a subjective

assessment can assist if it has been made on the basis of group and individual interviews. A
typical score sheet is given overleaf which could be adapted to meet a number of
requirements.
103
Summary score sheet
Name: Training Course:
ACTIVITY/SUBJECT Rating (R) Weight (VI) Score Max. Score

(1 to 5) (1 to 3) (R X attainable
(M)
1 Performance i n a working group
.1 As participant (contribution to
group result)
............... 1 ............... 5
.2 As co-ordinator (managerial
capability) ............... 2 ............... 10
.3 A spokesman (effectiveness in
presentation of group's
position)
............... 3 15
2 Participation in discussion
.1 Frequency
.2 Quality and pertinence ............... 1 ............... 5
of interventions Individual assignments
............... 3 ............... 15
.1 Recall of factual information (
overall rating from objective
tests)
.2 Logic of presentation
.3 Clarity of presentation 5
............... 1 ...............
............... 2 10
4 Prospective trainer characteristics
............... 3 ............... 15
.1 Language (vocabulary, diction)
.2 Mannerisms, appearance,
interest
.3 Ability to interact with others ............... 2 ............... 10
............... 3 ............... 15
............... 3 ............... 15
RX W= ............ M= 120
TOTAL TOTAL
OVERALL SCORE = R X W (total) X 100 =

as a percentage M(120)
The instructor should keep records of scoring for each assessed event, i.e. the scores on this form are the
aggregates of all such assessed activities during the course. This form, properly amended, could also be used
to record scores of individual events.
104
Oral testing
Oral testing can be used to assess all areas of understanding and it adds to the validity of
an assessment. Orals are useful to check if responses are from half-understood but well-
memorized notes. Being on a one-to-one basis, such testing is expensive; it can also be
inconsistent and is often subjective. Specially trained and selected assessors are
necessary to perform good oral assessments.
5.4 Marking responses to questions

Marking objective questions
The marking of answers to objective questions is consistent and quick and should not
produce any problems. It is the preparation of such questions which is often a difficult and
lengthy process.
Marking subjective questions
On the other hand, the marking of responses to subjective questions is time-consuming and
notoriously inconsistent, even when performed by the same person, and can be affected by
a number of extraneous matters. A safeguard, as in all forms of assessment, is to produce
both the detailed marking schemes and the model solutions at the same time as the
questions and have them verified by colleagues. It helps also to mark the same one solution
until all trainees' attempts are completed and then move to the next question. Any breaks
should be followed by an overlap period so as to re-establish a consistent standard. Marked
scripts should be checked at random for consistency. A second opinion should be sought on
borderline cases.
5.5 Constructing an assessment

As suggested earlier, on a short training course, where time is limited, it is possible that the
most appropriate assessment will be a series of objective questions in order to give speedy
feedback. Objective questions can cover an impressive breadth and depth of a syllabus in a
very short space of time, but there is the inherent fact that to some extent questions can be
correctly answered by guessing.
Therefore, even in these cases, the objective assessment is best complemented by some
form of subjective assessment, even if it is only the instructor's observations.
105
When preparing assessments the following should be borne in mind:
– You will need a lot of time for preparation. It takes time and thought to ensure that your
assessment validly achieves what it sets out to do.
– Be absolutely clear about the purpose of your assessment.
– The object of assessment is normally to ascertain whether the trainee has achieved the
knowledge and/or skills stated in the syllabus.
Draw up a specification grid to cover both the content of the assessment and the skills or
abilities to be assessed.
– Avoid the temptation to over-assess those parts of the syllabus which are easy to test.
Use a variety of techniques – multiple-choice questions, structured questions, extended
writing, practical, orals, and so on – to provide balance and to assess a wide range of
skills, abilities and attainments.
– It may be necessary to use several questions and/or techniques to satisfy one learning
objective.
Model answers or solutions, with the allocation and distribution of marks, should always
be prepared.
– Consider carefully the weight to attach to each part of the assessment to ensure that
appropriate value is given to all of the skills and attainments which are course objectives.
– Take care that there is no disproportion between time allowed and the difficulty or length
of the answers required.
Avoid setting trick questions about obscure and difficult points.
– Phrase questions clearly and unambiguously, and give clear instructions on how to
answer.
– Avoid setting questions which are dependent on an ability to answer an earlier question.
If you use past assessment papers for guidance, check whether they really are examining
the curriculum you have been teaching.
Check the test which you have devised for ambiguities, inappropriate vocabulary, legibility,
typing errors. Ask someone else to check it too.
Finally, remember that there are two fundamental questions to ask in preparing an
assessment. Does it validly test the skills and knowledge you have been teaching, using
the appropriate forms of question? Will the trainees understand clearly what they are
expected to do?
106
Summary of assessment techniques
Objective Problem Guided Structured Comprehensive Extended Projects

tests solving response questions and free
interpretation writing
Recalling facts, good inappropriate inappropriate useful inappropriate inappropriate inappropriate

principles, and
concepts, etc. useful
Diagnostic tests
Understanding and useful appropriate of limited useful appropriate inappropriate useful

application of but use
facts, principles limited
concepts, etc
Analysis of of limited appropriate useful of limited of limited useful useful

facts, principles use use use and and
and concepts, appropriate appropriate
etc.
Synthesis, inappropriate useful appropriate inappropriate of very useful useful

evaluation and limited use and and
creative thinking appropriate appropriate
5.6 Course Evaluation
Evaluation of training may be used in a broad sense to mean any attempt to obtain
information (feedback) on the effects of a training programme, and to review the value of
the training in the light of that information.
The primary purpose of evaluation is to improve training by discovering which training

processes are successful in achieving their objectives, i.e. to "sort out the good training
from the bad".
Evaluation can also be put to use as an aid to learning. Its effects are likely to be
beneficial, since it i s a primary principle of the psychology of learning that knowledge of
results facilitates good learning. Evaluation can help trainees to learn more effectively.
Levels of evaluation
The processes which occur as a result of a successful training programme can be divided
into four levels. Evaluation can be carried out at any of these levels.
1. The Reactions level. Trainees reaction to the training (from opinions and attitudes
about the trainer, the method of presentation, the usefulness and interest of the
subject-matter, their own enjoyment and involvement, etc.).
2. The Learning level. How much the trainees acquire knowledge, skills and
attitudes about the subject-matter of the training which they are capable of
translating into behaviour within the training situation.
3. The Job Behaviour level. To what extent do trainees apply this learning in the
form of changed behaviour back on the job.
4. The Functioning level (Efficiency and Costs). How has this changed job behaviour
affected the functioning of the processes or organization (or the behaviour of
individuals other than trainees). These changes can be measured by a variety of
indices, each of which can be expressed in terms of costs.
These four levels can be seen as a chain of cause and effect. The chain can be broken at
any of its links: a trainee may react correctly but fail to learn; or might learn, but fail to apply
the learning on the job; or job behaviour may change but this may have no effect on the
functioning of the system. Thus, ideally we should evaluate at every level. If we ignore the
more distant levels, we will only discover the more superficial changes. If we ignore the
immediate levels of reactions and learning, we are in danger of being unable to explain any
changes that we discover, because we have not followed through every link in the
chain. In many cases, however, it may be impractical or undesirable to evaluate at every
level.
108
COMPENDIUM CHAPTER
5
Setting evaluation objectives
The choice of evaluation criteria depends on the objectives of the training. Therefore, post-
training evaluation is intimately connected with the investigation of training needs and the
training objectives established at the planning stage.
Ideally, we should set the objectives of training at each of the four levels. For instance, as a
simple example, the objectives of a course for seamen might be defined in the following
manner:
to establish a high level of involvement and interest (Reactions) in order that
trainees may effectively learn certain facts, certain skills of seamanship, and
certain attitudes towards the securing of vehicles (Learning) so that they may
use these facts and apply these skills on the job (Job Behaviour) in order that
the safe loading and discharge of a ro-ro ferry (Functioning) may be speeded
up.
If these objectives were precisely defined and established, it would be possible to evaluate at
every level. The more precise the objectives, the more precisely can training be evaluated.
The level(s) at which training is evaluated should be the level(s) at which the objectives of
training are set.
When and how to evaluate?
Evaluation data at any of the four levels can be obtained during training, immediately after
training, or at a specified time (or times) after the end of training. In each case, the data
should, if possible, be compared with information on the situation before training took place.
Figure 5.1 illustrates diagrammatically progressive and cyclic timings of evaluations whereas
Figure 5.2 introduces the idea of a positive search for weaknesses in which the method gives
no time to crediting for strengths.
Evaluation data or assessments can be either quantified (measured, systematic, numerical)
or unquantified (descriptive, unsystematic, verbal). The two types of data have
complementary advantages and disadvantages. Because of their narrowness and
specificity, quantified data should never be taken at their face value, but should be
interpreted in the light of unquantified data.
109
There is a wide range of possible techniques at each level of evaluation. However, all
evaluation techniques (with the exception of some at the "functioning" level) are variations
on the two themes of watching and asking (observation and questionnaire/interview). The
advantages and limitations of these two types of technique are complementary and they
should be employed together whenever possible. Evaluation should be tailor-made to fit
the needs of the situation.
IDENTIFICATION
OF
TRAINING NEED
PLANNING and DESIGN

COURSE CONDUCT A
ERROR ELIMINATION
— DELIBERATE SEARCH
FOR WEAKNESSES
ESSENTIAL TO HAVE IMPROVEMENTS

A GOOD ATTITUDE
Figure 5.1 TOWARDS CRITICISM
Figure 5.2
110
5.6.1 Level 1 — Reactions
Information about trainees' reactions to training may be obtained during training,

immediately after training, or some time later. During training the skilled and sensitive
trainer will of course obtain a great deal from listening to their conversations. However, in
some circumstances it may be desirable to supplement this unsystematic information by the
use of rating scales for sessions. These are forms on which, at the end of each training
session, trainees are asked to place a tick on a number of seven-point (or five-point)
scales. For instance, a rating scale form might look like this:
very well presented
1 2 4 5 6 7 very badly presented

very stimulating
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 totally unstimulating
For me in my present job, the session has been
extremely useful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 totally useless
The information on the forms can be quickly analysed in the form of histograms, and the
results can, if desired, be fed back to the trainees and used as a basis for discussion.
Rating scales on immediate reactions are most useful for "steering" purposes, i.e. for
deciding what to do next on an ongoing training programme. They should not be used if the
training programme is so inflexible that changes cannot be made in the light of the
information obtained. It is also risky to use them for deciding which sessions to include in
repeats of the same programme; for this purpose it is better to obtain information on long-
term rather than immediate reactions.
The traditional time for obtaining feedback on trainees' reactions is at the end of the
training programme. This is probably the least satisfactory time at which to obtain this
information, since it has neither the advantages of immediacy nor those of objective
distance.
111
Information on long-term reactions to training can be obtained from trainees by

questionnaires or interviews some time after the end of a course. This approach can be
most useful for reconstructing training programmes, so long as it is not confused with an
evaluation of learning or job behaviour. A typical questionnaire is shown below.
Training Course Evaluation Form

1 Please indicate your overall impression(s) of the course/subject:
Excellent Too long
Too directed
Good Too short
Too participative
Fair Just right
The right mix
Poor Other
Other
Comments:
2 To what extent did the programme meet:
Large extent Some extent Little extent
Individual needs
Organizational needs
3a. Which session was most beneficial? Why?
b. Which was least beneficial? Why?
c. What aspects do you like? Why?
d. What aspects do you dislike? Why?
112
COMPENDIUM
CHAPTER 5
Training follow-up
5 Identify three practical ideas obtained from the programme that were of benefit
and interest to you.
How do you intend to apply them in the next 12 months?
6 To
wh
e
ae
xtd
n
o
y
to
h
n
a
e
rtu
a
fg
ite
yto
le
u
rm
cv
e
ie
id
p
lw
o
rlvie your contribution to your own work?
A great deal
Some
Very little
Not at all
How?
Where?
When?
Why?
What aspects will you incorporate into your performance objectives?
7 Should this development programme use:
All outside speakers
Mixed outsiders and internal employees
All internal speakers

8 Would you recommend that others attend the course?
Yes
No
Not sure
Why or why not?
9 What is the most important thing we can do to improve future programmes?
10 General comments about the programme:

5.6.2 Level 2 — Learning

The purpose of evaluation at this level is to obtain information on the amount of learning
that trainees acquire during the training programme, irrespective of whether they go on to
apply the learning on the job. Trainee assessment techniques have already been dealt
with. These are now referred to in general terms and their use is placed in the context now
being covered, i.e. course evaluation.
Learning can be roughly divided into knowledge, skills and attitudes, and the three will be
discussed separately. Learning of knowledge can be assessed by various forms of tests
and examinations. Form of evaluation of knowledge learning is used in programmed
instruction, where knowledge is assessed at every stage of the learning process. However,
even if programmed learning is not being used, it is possible to construct tests consisting of
objective questions (i.e. not subjective; in other words, questions to which there is only one
correct answer) which can be administered at the end of the training programme. If the
knowledge to be assessed includes a large element of "intellectual understanding" (i.e.
comprehension, application, analysis and synthesis) it may be necessary to use some of
the more academic type, although carefully designed objective questions can be very
effective even at this level. Examinations, despite all their faults, are still the best method of
assessing some types of knowledge. Examinations do not have to be written; observations
or oral examinations are better for many trainees.
The learning of physical skills can also be assessed by tests, though in this case they must
be practical tests in which the trainee is given the opportunity to demonstrate the skill. Here
again, ideally, the test should be performed at the beginning and at the end of training: and
also, in the case of long training programmes, at one or more points during training in order
to measure the change effected by training. Provided that the elements of the skill in
question have been identified, it should be possible to assess the trainee's performance
during demonstrations of skill. This is true even of social skills.
Changing attitudes is an objective of most training programmes even when their primary
objectives are in terms of knowledge or skills. It is difficult to measure changes in attitudes
and any assessment requires elaborate attitude scales, but changes of attitude are fairly
easy to recognize. Their complexity, together with the narrowness of the range of attitudes
measured, makes them inappropriate for most training programmes although subjective
observations are often sought.
115
5.6.3 Level 3 – Job behaviour
The purpose of assessment at this level is to discover whether trainees have applied their
learning in the form of changed behaviour on the job. A variety of techniques can be used,
but perhaps the most important thing is that trainers should actively involve themselves as
far as possible in the job situation of their trainees, so that they obtain a large amount of
unsystematic information about their job behaviour.
For manual jobs, where the knowledge and skill elements of the job have been broken down,
it is possible to evaluate job behaviour almost completely by means of systematic
observation. For more complex jobs (e.g. managerial and supervisory), it is not possible to
obtain such complete information on job behaviour, and it is necessary to choose between
several approaches, or to combine more than one approach. The following are among the
techniques that can be used:
Activity sampling – for discovering the percentage of time spent by the trainee on
different aspects of the job.
Observer diaries – used to obtain a continuous record of the trainee's pattern of activities.
Self-diaries – trainees keep a record of their own activities over a specific period, often by
ticking in the appropriate columns on a pre-designed form at half-hourly or hourly intervals.
They are both less expensive than observer diaries and also more acceptable to trainees,
especially at managerial levels.
Observation of specific incidents – the trainer or evaluator observes the trainee's

performance during a specific incident related to the subject-matter of the training. This is
clearly similar to the skill-testing above, except that it takes place in a job setting instead of in
a training setting.
Appraisal by superiors – an obvious method of evaluating job behaviour after training, but
many conventional appraisal forms are ill-designed for this purpose. It is necessary to tie
the appraiser down by asking for concrete descriptions of job behaviour.
Self-appraisal – a variation of appraisal and can be used in conjunction with other forms
of appraisal.
All of these methods can of course be used before training, in order to identify training
needs and objectives, as well as after training, in order to evaluate its effects. In the case
of training programmes which are spread out over a long period, with the trainees returning
to the job between training sessions, they can also be used at various stages during the
training process in order to "steer" the training.
116
5.6.4 Level 4 – Functioning

Evaluation at this level consists of any attempt to measure aspects of the effects of trainee's
job behaviour – whether on the productivity or efficiency of the trainee's department or on the
morale of their subordinates as expressed by absence rates, labour turnover rates or the
incidence of disputes. Any index of functioning which is related to the training objectives can
be used, and once the effect of the training on the functioning of the organization has been
isolated it is often a relatively small step to assess the cost of benefits resulting from the
training.
The main difficulty is determining to what extent changes are the result of the training rather
than of other factors. If the objectives of training have been very precisely defined it may be
possible to evaluate at this level. In other cases it will probably prove too difficult.
Control groups
If one adopts a strictly scientific approach to the evaluation of training, it is necessary to

have a control group which does not undergo training, but is carefully matched with the
trainee group in respect of all other factors. One can then compare changes in the trainee
group with changes in the control group, and so isolate the effects of the training. However,
the practical difficulties of obtaining matched control groups in real-life industrial settings
are usually insuperable. But it must be admitted that if there is no control group there is
always an element of subjectivity, or perhaps we should call it "intelligent guesswork", in
assuming that any changes which are observed have resulted from the training, and not
from the changes which have been going on at the same time. The more we can map out
the complete chain of cause and effect between the training process and the ultimate
changes, the more we can reduce the element of guesswork.
Is evaluation worthwhile?
Evaluation is simply the obtaining of selective information about the effect of training; the
value of that information is determined by its usefulness for the people who receive it, e.g.
trainers, trainees or their superiors. It must be remembered that evaluation exercises may
themselves be costly and time-consuming, and may also have unforeseen side effects.
One should not evaluate by any method unless one foresees the use to which the
evaluation data will be put, and judges that this usefulness makes the evaluation
worthwhile.
117
6 Course Planning, Organization and Conduct

6.1 Planning and organization
Normally the responsibility of the instructor starts with a given course plan, possibly a
group of applications, or previously selected participants and a location and — after
conducting the course — ends with assessment of the trainees and sometimes evaluation
of the course.
The instructor would not necessarily be responsible for or involved with the design and
development of the course, although that is also common. In such cases internal or
external approval may be necessary. Figure 6.1 shows a typical internal academic
approvals and examinations management structure. Whatever the system, the instructor's
responsibility will involve two distinct stages: planning the conduct of a course, and
actually conducting it.
COURSE DESIGN
AND PLANNING (
ACADEMIC STAFF)
ADVICE FROM
OUTSIDE ACADEMIC BOARD
APPROVAL (VALIDATION)
COURSE COMMITTEE
COURSE LEADER ACADEMIC
ALL COURSE TEACHERS BOARD
STUDENTS
EXAMINATION
BOARD
THE COURSE H COURSE LEADER
COURSE TEACHERS
EXTERNAL EXAMINER?
ACADEMIC BOARD
REPRESENTATIVE
APPEALS PROCEDURE
Figure 6.1
119
Course planning comprises two distinct aspects: course organization and preparation of
teaching material.
The type of organization which may be the responsibility of the instructor appears from the
table of questions on the following two pages.
Given the replies to these questions, the instructor may then commence to plan each session
of the course, involving the sequence of the substantive contents, the choice of teaching
techniques, the preparation of written materials, hand-outs, visual displays, the use of
exercises and their preparation, intervals for discussion and recapitulation, tests for
assessment of progress and the need for repetition.
Most of these issues were discussed in previous sessions of this course. The purpose of
summarizing and briefly reviewing them in this session is to bring the details together and
convey an understanding of the totality of preparatory work in which the instructor will be
involved. This summary also serves the purpose of clarifying uncertainties which the
exercises may have revealed.
Checklist
Trainees Answer My concerns
1 How many will participate in the course?
2 How will trainees be selected?
3 How well are they acquainted with each other?
4 How much training in this training area

have they previously received?
5 To what degree will they bring relevant

work experience in the topic area?
6 To what degree will there be opportunities

for them actually to use what they learn
when they return to the job?
120
Answer My concerns
7 How will participants be oriented to the course?
Staff
8 Are there qualified co-trainers or support

staff available for the course?
9 To what degree are the staff experienced in

using interactive instructional methods?
10 Is there a "continuity person" or course co-

ordinator available to ensure that the
work of instructors is co-ordinated?
11 Are course instructors held accountable for

the quality of the learning experience?
12 Can we afford to use "outside" people on

the staff?
13 What about staff instruction and compatibility?
Time
14 How much time can be allotted to the course

itself?
15 How much participant pre-work is reasonable?
16 What will be the length of daily sessions?
17 Is there enough time to have a reasonable

expectation of achieving course objectives?
121
TRAINING COURSE FOR. INSTRUCTORS
Preparation of teaching material

The scope of teaching preparation facing the instructor appears from the following: Answer
My concerns
1 To what extent are materials and hand-outs

readily available for the course?
2 To what extent must materials be adapted/

written/prepared for the course?
3 What permission must be sought to

duplicate copyrighted material?
4 Will there be typing and copying facilities

available during the course?
To what extent must the training site

be adapted?
6 How adequate are the audio-visual

supports (projectors, flip charts, videotape
equipment, recorders, etc.)?
7 Are lesson plans prepared?
8 How much money is budgeted to

support this course?
9 Are there suitable organizations and/or

technical sites available to be visited
and studied during the course?
10 How can computers aid in conducting

the course?
11 Are there films, video tapes, slides and

overhead transparencies available on
the subject?
122
6.2 Course Conduct

Course conduct involves the actual delivery of the teaching efforts, exercises,
recapitulations, tests and discussions in accordance with the course plan and in such a
way that the aims of the course and the learning objectives are achieved.
The principal steps in the planning process have already been discussed. The principal
issues of setting aims and objectives in accordance with identified needs, learning and
performance, choice of training strategy and methods, as well as principles for
constructing course material and evaluation/testing, have also been discussed.
The detailed studies and exercises related to individual teaching techniques remain. The
general principles of course conduct apply to all techniques and these are concerned with
contributing to the necessary receptiveness and motivation of the trainees. No matter which
teaching method is chosen there are essential requirements concerning the behaviour and
response of the instructor.
6.2.1 The following guidance is given to emphasize very important issues in the
conduct of courses:
Encourage trainee participation and interaction, for example:
ask questions;
encourage trainee questions;
direct trainees to perform;
ask for specific trainee responses;
identify non-participants and take action to involve them;
promote group discussion, when appropriate.
Respond appropriately to questions and comments from trainees:

— listen attentively and acknowledge questions and comments;
— give accurate, concise answers;
- promise to get answers which cannot be provided during the session;
— prompt trainees to discover answers to their own questions by rephrasing questions or
redirecting them to other trainees;
— answer questions seriously and without sarcasm.
Put trainees at ease:

— do not use threats;
— emphasize prospects for success;
— show trainees what is expected of them;
— keep trainees informed about what is happening on matters which affect them;
— inform trainees of entire learning sequences and the part each lesson or unit plays towards
achieving learning objectives;
— keep trainees informed continuously as to where they are in the course sequence;
— assist trainees who seem fearful or who are having difficulties;
— show tolerance for trainee's problems.
Reinforce desired behaviour of trainees:

– provide timely and complete feedback on performance;
— provide incentives for performance;
remove disincentives and demotivators from the learning environment;
reward good performance.
Treat all trainees in a non-discriminatory manner:

– provide equal opportunities for performance assistance;
– do not use racial or ethnic slurs.
Demonstrate a positive attitude toward trainees, subject matter and environment:

— appear enthusiastic and interested;
- demonstrate concern about trainees' well-being.
Practice effective preparation for teaching:

— be guided by well thought out lesson plans;
- have sufficient course materials and supplies on hand;
— try to avoid mistakes and "panic changes";
- have proper equipment in good condition and check that it works.
Set a good example of behaviour in accordance with local policies and practices:
- follow local rules and practices and schedules for class hours, meal
times, breaks, etc.;
- abide by regulations of the training centre or other "codes of conduct"
that may apply.
Maintain control over the instruction:

— keep discussions on track and within time bounds;
- stick to schedules;
- maintain order and progress in spite of distractions.
Adhere to instructor's guide:

– maintain the planned sequence of learning using your lesson plans;
- use materials; aids, tests, etc. called for;
– deviate only when necessary and when justified.
Identify and eliminate obstacles to learning:
— diagnose results of assessments and take appropriate remedial action;
- minimize or eliminate environmental distractions;
– overcome trainee's avoiding problems or their unproductive behaviour;
- identify learning difficulties, and analyse and correct them.
Keep trainees informed about how their learning can be used, and its value in
performing their jobs and in their careers:
– refer often to the specific applications of knowledge and skills
back on the job;
– strive to get trainees to personalize the value of skills and
knowledge in relation to their jobs and careers.
Present materials in a professional manner:

– speak clearly and audibly;
– maintain appropriate rate of delivery;
use frequent eye contact;
– address trainees by name;
avoid over-elaboration;
avoid reading material to trainees.
Use appropriate instruction methods:
establish contexts for learning;
review and summarize key points referring to the relevant learning
objectives with learner involvement.
Administer exercises effectively:

– ensure that all trainees have the materials required;
- provide clear directions and ensure that trainees know what
is expected of them;
- be available for help when needed, including prompting help;
- monitor trainees' progress;
- provide assessment and feedback on the results.
125
Administer assessments effectively:

ensure that complete test materials are available;
ensure that trainees understand what is expected of them;
monitor trainees' progress, and provide help when needed;
- keep trainees informed about time available;
- evaluate results of tests and provide feedback to trainees.
6.2.2 Evaluation
The instructor should point out those principles of evaluation that are relevant when a course
is being evaluated by its participants. It should also be explained how the results of any
evaluation might be used.
6.2.3 Summary
A course should end with a review of the main areas which have been covered. Reference
should be made to the learning objectives including any not covered, giving reasons, and any
additional ones to meet trainees' needs detected during the course.
During this process trainees should be reminded of the relevance of the parts of the course to
their work, career development, ambitions, etc. It is important to bring the course to an end in
a structured manner and not just let it wither away as material is used up. If this should
happen some of the hard work put into the preparation and conduct will be spoilt by an
unsatisfactory end. In other words keep the trainees motivated, stimulated and interested all
the time right up to the end. Better to end the course a little early on a high note than to fill out
some remaining time with low key material.
126
COMPENDIUM APPENDIX 1
Appendix 1 *
Case Study Examples
This appendix contains one example of the modelling process and four examples of case
studies; these are; a case problem, a case report, a full case study and a research case.
They are included to indicate the range of possibilities available in different areas of work.
Trainees are not expected to work through them on this course.
The modelling process of a case study is as illustrated below:
Definition of problem
III or opportunity
Modelling objectives (
1
possible techniques)
Modelling strategy
1
Model development
1
Data collection
1
Analysis
1
Results
Validity
Action recommended
1
Implementations
* This appendix is based on material from the Humberside Polytechnic,

The Maritime Transport Centre
127
Example of the Modelling Process

Case example: Fork-lift breakdowns
Definition of problem or opportunity:
A container terminal having 24 identical fork-lift trucks experiences a great deal of machine
downtime. There are currently three mechanics who repair breakdowns. However, the
terminal manager has observed as many as 10 machines stopped and waiting for a
mechanic, while at other times the three mechanics are all reading a popular magazine,
having nothing to do.
Modelling objectives:
Provide guidance as to the proper number of mechanics for the container terminal, providing
for the efficient use of mechanics' time without fork-lift trucks lying idle waiting for repairs.
Judgement:
What approach should be used? Queuing theory; simulation; linear programming;

scheduling techniques?
Modelling strategy:
Develop relevant cost comparisons for various feasible numbers of mechanics.
Model development:
Formulate a cost equation for total cost analysis of the cost of machine waiting-time plus
the cost of mechanics.
Data collection:
Collect data on frequency of breakdowns and repair times. Develop a frequency

distribution.
Check to see if data resemble assumptions of finite queuing model, Poisson arrivals and
exponential service times.
Analysis:
Using finite queuing models, determine average waiting time per breakdown. Establish the
opportunity cost of lost production per hour or per day. Calculate costs for various numbers of
mechanics.
Model results:
Display total costs for various alternatives and examine the results.
Judgement:
Should minimum-cost alternatives be selected? What if a mechanic is absent? Are data on

the terminal environment representative of reality? Will the addition of one mechanic solve
the problem? Is the design of the fork-lifts appropriate for the work? Is there some human
factor which is resulting in the high failure rate?
The example illustrates how the modelling schematic may be applied to a management
operational problem in the context of a typical container terminal. However, it must be
recognized that most real work situations go through an iterative process.
Sensitivity analysis can also be conducted in an attempt to isolate those critical variables
where the accuracy of the data is extremely critical. Even so, the doubt or question
regarding the validity of the results will always confront the decision-maker.
Judgement development:
To develop management judgement as part of the decision-making process, trainees must be

provided with experience in the exercising of judgement during the modelling process. The
problem situations confronted by the trainee in the case study must coincide with and reflect
the types of problems and situations as they arise in the real world, complete with
complexities, vagaries and uncertainty. This requires that, in the case studies, the techniques
used should not be given to the student, but rather the student should select from a wide
range. In a similar way the results of the modelling process must be compared with the real-
world situation and judgement exercised as to whether or not the model has been responsive
to the challenge of promoting a guide for the decision-making process.
129
Example of a "Case Problem"
The Port of Ganam

(Part I)
This type of case study briefly presents the facts and the problem itself.
The Port of Ganam, the only port serving the economy of the Republic of Kingston, could
claim to be one of the most typical examples of a medium-sized general cargo port in a
developing country, faced with moderate traffic increase and ever-increasing demands from
the shipping lines to provide improved facilities to give a faster and less costly service.
Task
The central Government of Kingston, under pressure from local shipping interests, decides to
consider future port needs, and to weigh carefully the merits and disadvantages of various
alternatives. A special Port Planning and Development Commission is formed, its terms of
reference being to decide on the development plan that will offer the economy of Kingston
the highest net benefit in the next 25 years.
Basically, two schools of thought exist regarding possible alternative developments.
The first believes that the traffic in Port Ganam up to 2017 is too heterogeneous and too
small to warrant investment in one or more highly specialized berths. They are firm
believers in the concept of the multi-purpose terminal. They insist that the early provision of
such a facility will greatly benefit Port Ganam, and they suggest construction should start
as early as 2003, for commissioning in 2007.
The second group feels that the time has not yet come to construct other than conventional
general cargo facilities, and that, from 2016 on, a container terminal should be in operation to
cope with the increasing container and roll-on roll-off traffic. It is obvious that before (and
even after) the date, other additional facilities will be required, and they therefore propose
the construction of new break-bulk berths: one in 2007, one in 2008 and another by 2021.
This assumes that the cargo mix on the conventional berths would be increased to 150,000
tons (assuming a 67% berth occupancy, but a daily output of 610 tons).
On the basis of this scenario, provide a broad assessment of the implications of these
alternatives for shippers.
Part II of this case appears later in appendix 1 under "Example of a Research Case".
130
Example of a "Case Report"
Seatrade Container Line
This type of case study provides the basic elements with little supporting information and
gives the decision(s) and/or results.
Whilst the basic objective is to show how a particular company decided how best to
establish a containerised transatlantic service, it can be used for a variety of purposes such
as the preparation of profit/loss accounts, investment appraisal or strategic analyses.
Introduction
SEATRADE CONTAINER LINE is the newly formed container subsidiary of a well-

established European shipping company, which, until the late 1970's, had operated a
successful break-bulk liner service between the US Gulf, South and North Atlantic ports and
North West European countries. Spiralling operating costs and increasing competition from
other container lines caused the company's Board of Directors to agree that a shift into
container shipping should be contemplated.
Objectives
The objectives of this case study are to review the factors that a shipping line would need
to have recognized and taken into account before establishing a containerized transatlantic
service.
General considerations
At the start, the marketing research department would consider the following:
(a) Market share: in order to establish the characteristics of the vessel(s) to be purchased,
the company would need to make a decision as to what share they are seeking. The
share would be determined by a combination of many factors, including:
– total trade on the routes under study;
- line's traditional (break-bulk) share;
– type of goods currently carried; are they all/part containerizable?
- attitude of line's main customers to containerization;
– what the competition is doing.
131
(b) Port to be served: the change-over to a container service may involve the line in a switch
of ports served. The choice of ports is very much a matter of going where the cargo (
market share) is likely to be; therefore careful examination of the trade as mentioned in (
a) is essential. A number of other issues are important, such as:
– Port rotation sequence: a major concern of any container operator is to handle any
container the minimum number of times. Therefore, the order of ports served may be
influenced by the anticipated container flows, which come from the market study. The line
must also consider the balance between loaded containers and empties (MT's), as the
lighter MT's should be carried as high up in the ship as possible.
– Port turn-round time: shipowners make more money when their ships are steaming
between ports, therefore the line will be looking carefully at the service offered by various
ports. Some ports have a better record of reliability and speed of handling containers than
others, and some countries' labour relations are more questionable than others.
(c) Service frequency: having established in broad terms the volume of trade and the ports to
be served, the line must next think carefully about the frequency of calls at a given port.
This decision is a trade-off between the cost of more or faster ships and the reduced
revenue expected from too infrequent a service. It must be borne in mind, however, that:
- ports and shippers like lines to make regular calls (e.g. every Monday; or every
Monday/ Wednesday/Friday). Periods between calls not based on 7 days can be a
nuisance to a port and this could be reflected in their charges;
– some customers demand a more frequent service than others.
(d) Service type: there exist two recognized ways of serving a group of ports at either or both
ends of a trade:
– Milk round: the vessel calls at all ports in a pre-arranged sequence before resuming its
major ocean passage.
– Feeder service: the mother vessel calls at one main port at each end of the major
ocean route and feeder ships distribute the cargo to other ports in the region.
Each of the above has advantages and disadvantages, and the line must consider a
number of factors: (i) ease of loading containers into ships; (ii) round-trip voyage time for
the "slowest" container (will the customer be satisfied); (iii) costs of the operations, and (iv)
what the competition is doing.
132
COMPENDIUM
APPENDIX 1
(e) Vessel characteristics: very much dependent on the type and frequency of the service
and the market share. Fast ships (25–30 knots), much the vogue of the early 1970's,
have been replaced by more fuel-thrifty vessels of between 16–22 knots. At a certain
theoretical vessel size, it probably costs more to achieve a 10% increase in carrying
capacity by increasing the speed by 10% than by increasing the unit size of the vessel.
Although the capital cost of the two alternatives may not be all that different, the
operating costs could be the deciding factor.
N.B. An incremental increase in the capacity of a given service by adjusting the vessel
speed upwards is not practical because of the effect it would have on the service
frequency.
Whatever ships are chosen, it must be remembered that they should be steamed at
less than their top speed. This would allow the Master to speed up if necessary (e.g.
if he has lost time due to weather) and arrive on schedule in port.
(f) Number of containers: dependent on many of the factors outlined above in (a), (c), (d)
and (e); the number of containers required is a most important decision. The cost of
container equipment is so high that a line cannot afford to keep more containers than
necessary. Containers can be owned, leased (either long- or short-term) or rented on
a single-voyage basis.
Depending on the financial strength of the company and the difference between the
peak and minimum container requirements (the trade may be seasonal), the line will
1%e a combination of these alternatives.
Containers and chassis are very easy to lose, and a liner with poor control of
equipment is literally throwing away money. In any event, it should be recognized
that, at any given time, there will exist the following disposition of containers:
– containers at the shipper's (or consignee's) premises for loading (or return);
— containers in transit to consignees;
- containers travelling from shippers to ports or to inland container depots (ICD's);
— containers on the way from !CD's to the ports;
- containers dwelling in ICD's or ports waiting for on-shipment to the vessel or
consignee;
– containers (MT's and loaded) in ocean transit. The line is always striving to
maximize the time a container is full and in transit.
133
(g) Commercial operation: there are a number of ways that a line can offer its service,
such as:
– as an independent operator;
– as a member of a conference (open or closed);
– as a member of a consortium.
In principle it is very difficult for a line to join a closed conference, although, in the case
of our break-bulk operator, he may already be a member of a conference. Open
conferences are only encountered on the liner route serving the United States of
America, and the line can apply to join and not be refused entry by the other
members. A new operator may choose the independent route, to be allowed much
more freedom of action.
Consortia are frequently encountered today, especially on the long-haul high-volume

routes. Lines joining together to form a consortium are basically achieving a co-
ordinated/rationalized service. Although conferences are also hoping to rationalize
their members' services, the major difference between a consortium and a
conference lies in the marketing of the service. Members of a conference market
separately and compete side by side on supposedly common terms. Members of a
consortium have agreed, as a minimum, on a more rational approach to their
marketing. A consortium can be, and often is, a member of a conference.
(h) Tariff structure: when the service has been decided upon and the vessels have been
chosen, the line knows in principle its operating costs. Within a conference the freight
rate structure is set down, so the potential revenue is calculable. If the line operates as
an independent, the freight rates charged by the conference and other competing lines
will serve as a guideline when deciding upon a tariff structure.
(i) Company structure: to realize all of the well-thought-out plans of the marketing
research team, the line will have to establish an operational structure (technical and
commercial) to support the business. A crucial element in this planning is the
development of a sales strategy and the appointment of agents.
134
Example
In the example of the Seatrade Container Line, two alternative services were considered:
milk-round and feeder. Costs were calculated and budgets prepared using the data
assembled by the marketing department. We will examine the data and decisions for the
milk-round service as this will best illustrate all factors necessary to understand how a
service can be mounted. The data sheets which would be included in this type of case study
would provide all of the information necessary to prepare a profit and loss account. From the
individual cost and revenue sources, the nature of the organization of a container service
can be deducted. In this case the data sheets were as follows:
Title
Data Sheet No.
Port Calls, Frequency and Fleet Characteristics
2 Total Trade in Number of 20' and 40' Boxes
3 Port Pairs — Steaming Distances
4 Market Share
5 Freight Rates
Voyage Schedule
6
Terminal and Port Charges
7
8 Other Expenditure
135
Example of a "Full Case Study"
Seatrade Container Line
Based on the previous example, this example develops the Seatrade case report into a full
case study.
The case study is longer than the case report and provides a full historical account with a
clear problem for analysis. Many sub-problems and issues can be based on the contents of
this single case.
The purpose of this case study is to determine the students':
(a) understanding of the nature of strategic planning and the analytical components
within the strategic management process;
(b) ability to relate their understanding of shipping technology and of operations/policy/
economics to strategic planning issues;
(c) ability to select and apply relevant analytical techniques to enhance the quality of
strategic management;
(d) ability to present a management report in which problems are clearly stated,
analysed and resolved with well-supported arguments and recommendations.
This provides an example of a student-centred case study. Note that the trainee receives
several pieces of information relating to both the environment within which the company
operates and proposed strategies which have to be evaluated.
The case study may involve group work, and considerable existing/acquired knowledge
and skills are required.
The example is based on real shipping decisions but the names of the companies have
been changed.
136
The following pages contain:
Description A: Seacargo Container Lines (SCL) — Consortium

Description B: The Humber Shipping Company
Annex 1: SCL Vessels — Operational Features
Annex 2: Estimated Share of Slots Deployed
Annex 3: North Atlantic Operating Systems
Annex 4: SCL Investment Option A
Annex 5: SCL Investment Option B
Task
Prepare a detailed report to the Chairman of the Humber Shipping Company advising on
the alternative planning strategies which are proposed by Seacargo Container Lines.
Description A: Seacargo Container Lines — Consortium
SCL was formed in 1965 when four companies each put four $7 million, 622 TEU
container/ro—ro vessels (the G1's) into service. The companies, comprising CGM of
France, Holland-American Line, Wallenius Lines of Sweden, and Humber Shipping of the
UK, are all quoted on the stock market.
SCL was, and remains to this day, the only liner shipping entity on the US North Atlantic route
that opted to cater for non-container cargo. SCL's attitude to cargo handling was from the
outset flexible and three-dimensional. Like many liner operators, SCL wanted to embrace a
ro—ro capability within its container-orientated service strategy. Within Wallenius, the world's
leading carrier of export cars, as a member of the consortium, SCL aimed to incorporate the
regular transatlantic traffic in export cars into its revenue-earning potential.
SCL's initial investment in four vessels was successful, undertaken as it was during a
period of expanding North Atlantic trade and low fuel prices. Technical information
regarding the G1's is given in Annex 1. These vessels were jumboized in 1976. In
1969—70 SCL planned a phase of expansion when it received delivery of its G2-class
vessel — six in all. Details on the G2's are also given in Annex 1.
137
SCL, with relatively small fuel-thirsty vessels and with the necessary part-time devotion to
rolling loads and cars arguably prejudicing their container handling/stowage performance, did
manage to survive the North Atlantic over-tonnaging and freight-rate wars of the late 1970's.
SCL considers that any container disadvantages within its fleet design, vis-a-vis the fully
cellular ships deployed by all of its major competitors, are more than compensated for by its
ability to accommodate large yachts, power transformers, railway engines and Volvos. (It
also regularly loads export BMW, Mercedes, Renault, Peugeot and Jaguar cars.)
Even though it carried less containers in 1983 than in 1974, 1978 or 1979, and saw its
container load factor fall to under 70% for only the second year since before 1973, SCL
produced an operating surplus in 1983. In fact no operating deficits were incurred for any
of the years 1973–83.
SCL is sure that it is because of its very uniqueness in being able to load virtually anything
that its mixed-mode vessels afford extra protection against rate wars. Only 20% (in terms of
cargo weight) of SCL's total US transatlantic business is ro–ro. This sector of its traffic takes
up more than 20% of SCL's total loaded space and pays better for doing so. Of total ro–ro
traffic, 60% is eastbound, with major exporters such as Massey Ferguson, Caterpillar,
Deere, International Harvester, Clark International and Hesston Corporation included among
SCL's clientele.
Container-wise, SCL's market share has improved since 1973. Then, in the days of the
proposed US Atlantic container-freight revenue pooling agreement, which did not
materialize, SCL was granted a 20.25% share (the biggest, against US Lines' 18% and
Sea-Land's 17%). Significantly, ro–ro and cars were outside the pool plan, so SCL's claim
to being the leading operator on the North Atlantic was probably accurate.
Allowing for some of the slots offered by today's two remaining US-flag North Atlantic
container operators (Sea-Land and US Lines) being taken up by US military cargoes and
their trans-shipment activity in the trades linking the US East Coast with the Middle East
and the Far East, it is estimated that SCL is currently providing 23% of all remaining US
North Atlantic slots on offer. This compares with an estimated SCL share of 21% in 1973
and 20% in 1977.
Looking purely at conference shares of slot deployment, and still discounting US military
cargo and trans-shipment traffic, SCL's status as market leader is even stronger. In the US
North Atlantic sector SCL was, in 1983, providing an estimated 31% of the slots on offer
north of Cape Hatteras, as against an estimated share of 17.3% for Sea-Land and 16.8%
for Hapag-Lloyd (see Annex 2 for details).
COMPENDIUM
APPENDIX 1
This is just as well, since not only has the container freight market contracted during 1983
and 84, but SCL, deploying more slots than anyone else, has also had to contend with the
rising activities of non-conference lines. Although the Soviets no longer present the threat
they did in the 1970's (since the International Longshoremen's Association's boycott), the
demise of Seatrain and Farrell Lines created a vacuum that was quickly seized upon by the
leading outsiders, Trans Freight Line (TFL) and CAST.
The chief executive of SCL was recently reported to say that he "prefers to compete with
sophisticated outsiders like TFL and CAST, as opposed to a cluster of seasonal small-fry
operators". He also "rejoiced in the knowledge that both CAST and TFL are investing more
and more in their services, thus building up their costs to a point nearer that of SCL and other
conference lines".
SCL nevertheless is facing some real problems.
(i) SCL's vessel-cost structure and total cost structures have changed markedly in
recent years, as represented in the tables below:
Percentage shares of SCL's total vessel costs
1973 1978 1983
Capital 45% 32% 20%
Bunkers 18% 36% 50%
Other operating costs 37% 32% 30%
139
Percentage shares of SCL's total cost structure, 1973 to 1983
1973 1978 1983
Vessel operating costs 19% 23% 26%
Terminal costs and 28% 27% 27%

port charges
Capital and equipment 26% 19% 16%
Inland transportation and

container positioning 12% 13% 14%
Commissions paid 15% 18% 17%
(ii) SCL's planners predict that with the present fleet, and allowing for an average
increase of 7.5% in the price of bunker fuel oil from the end of 1984, then the
following bunker costs per slot offered may be expected by 1989:
1973 1977 1983 1989
G1's $38 ($1108) ($275a) —
G1 's jumboized $ 67 $180 $260
G2's $45 $160 $440 $580
Estimated cost for G1's had they not been jumboized.

COMPENDIUM APPENDIX
1
The main cellular container competitors have significantly modified their operating
philosophies. For example, Sea-Land have deployed new diesel-powered 1,678 TEU
vessels in addition to their SL7's, which have been slowed down from 33 knots to 27
knots. Sea Land, like a number of other operators, have extended their route itineraries
to include additional ports and have extended round-voyage times by seven days to
allow a day-of-the-week service to be maintained. However, a number of SCL's main
competitors still rely on the use of feeder services, unlike SCL which can afford vessel-
diversion and route-segregation strategies.
Details of operating itineraries are given in Annex 3.
(iv) SCL now require a definite fleet-replacement programme since the G1's are nearly
twenty years old (although they were jumboized in 1976).
Corporate planners within SCL have argued that a "strategic gap" exists between the
company's objectives and what can be achieved by modifying their existing strategy.
The corporate planning department has produced essentially two alternative approaches to
future strategy. The first (Option A) involves a programme of radical new investment in its
North Atlantic fleet and the second (Option B) involves re-engining the G2 class and then
diversification into new round-the-world services. Details of these options are given in
Annexes 4 and 5.
Description B: Humber Shipping Company

The Chairman of Humber Shipping recently recalled how the company had assessed its
North Atlantic freight position in 1965-66. Humber considered it had three options.
According to the Chairman, it could have attempted to go it alone; it could have sought ties
with a US carrier for an all-container service (the regulatory constraints were not so great
then); or it could join SCL.
Humber opted to join SCL because it offered the chance to broaden Humber's interests
outside of the UK; because it brought non-UK-flag lines onto the UK market through SCL
rather than as a French/Swedish/Dutch competitor, which it would have been anyway; and
because Humber felt at the time that SCL's proposed hardware (the G1's) was and would be
more competitive in a period of rate instability than the other tonnage options being looked at
in the mid-1960's (basically, the fully cellular containership).
Humber's Board also felt that the multinational nature of the SCL consortium's organization
made it easier to raise the necessary equity and debt finance. Although Humber Shipping
had been well established in the UK-Continent short sea trades it had only a limited
involvement in deep-sea liner shipping, owning a fleet of 14 traditional multi-purpose cargo
liners which operated in two North Atlantic conferences and provided a milk-round-type
service to North Africa and the Eastern Mediterranean from the U.K.
Humber Shipping's Board have recognized for several years that its commitment to SCL will
involve it in a high level of new investment in the mid 1980's. Very prudently, Humber
Shipping has been degearing itself ahead of the phase of expansion and the consequently
increased debt finance which this will imply. Humber has prepared for this phase in a
number of ways. Unlike many British shipping companies it has used the second-hand sale
and purchase market actively as a way of generating liquidity and capital profits. During the
past five years, for example, profits from ship sales have twice exceeded £4 million and in
1983 the total proceeds of the company's sales of fixed assets amount to £12 million.
Humber has also made some well-timed sales, including its holding in Caledonian Airways.
The result is that, at the end of 1983, group cash balances less bank overdrafts had risen to
£8 million.
The table overleaf shows that recent years have seen an interesting progression in the
company balance sheet.
142
on Humber Shipping – capital employment (£ million)
1977 1980 1983

Issued share capital 4.0 4.0 4.4
Reserves 14.0 16.4 37.0
18.0 20.4 41.4

tly Shareholder's funds
Survey positions 0.8 0.8
21.8 14.6 4.4

Long-term loans
7.4 16.2 20.0
Lease obligations
58.0 52.0 62.0

1k
TOTAL
Over this period the shareholder's funds have risen by 130% while long-term loans have
declined by almost 80%. The company's debt equity ratio has moved from 2.2:1.0 in 1977 to
only 0.6:1.0 in 1983.
(This case study contained a further six pages of details of ships, market share and
investment options providing all the information required to complete the task. This is not
included as all these examples in appendix 1 are intended simply to illustrate the scope of
case studies.)
143
Example of a "Research Case"
The Port of Ganam

(Part II)
This is an extension of the first example which provides a comprehensive analysis and
diagnosis of a problem of port expansion with a full assessment of the potential impact on
both shippers and owners of vessels.
The Port of Ganam, the only port serving the economy of the Republic of Kingston, could
claim to be one of the most typical examples of a medium-sized general cargo port in a
developing country, faced with moderate traffic increase and ever-increasing demands from
the shipping lines to provide improved facilities to give a faster and less costly service.
Task
The central Government of Kingston, under pressure from local shipping interests, decides to
consider future port needs and to weigh carefully the merits and disadvantages of various
alternatives. A special Port Planning and Development Commission is formed, its terms of
reference being to decide on the development plan that will offer the economy of Kingston
the highest net benefit in the next 25 years.
The Commission has a considerable amount of information and input data at its disposal.
On the basis of the enclosed information, provide a report to the Commission which
presents a detailed national economic evaluation using social cost—benefit analysis of
alternative strategies for port development.
For the purpose of solving the task, the trainees would be given a series of tables, containing
detailed statistical data and other information. The research involved in providing these data,
and in the analysis, would go much beyond the concept of "case study".
(This case study was then followed by twenty pages of tables and accompanying notes giving
numerous forecasts of traffic and cargo flow; construction times, costs and alternatives; operating
and investment costs, etc. which again are not included as it is not the intention for trainees to
complete the task).
144
Appendix 2
Cargo Consolidation - an example of a simulation exercise

Trainee Briefing Notes
The concept of cargo consolidation has been chosen for the purpose of demonstrating the
construction and conduct of a simulation exercise.
A brief review of the concept of cargo consolidation and its economic implications for
shipping is given below as an introduction to the exercise.
Cargo consolidation is not new. In fact, in various forms, cargo consolidation is carried out
daily throughout the shipping industry. The traditional liner companies are continuously
consolidating cargoes by uniting the individual consignments of thousands of shippers into
vessel loads. One example is the use of containers. Commodities of different kinds are
often consolidated in individual containers. Containers from a large number of shippers are
consolidated into full cargoes for shipment by container vessels and redistribution at the
other end of the trade.
Freight forwarders, freight booking centres and others are undertaking cargo-consolidation
schemes of various kinds as a matter of daily routine.
However, for the purpose of the exercise, 'cargo consolidation' refers to the activities of two
or more shippers who will build cargoes by joining together several consignments moving in
the same direction. The objective is that in this way shippers may benefit economically from
the opportunities of (a) using larger and more economical vessels than those which would
be used if the consignments were to move in small lots by liner vessels and/or (b) being
able to negotiate better terms from lines by controlling more cargo and/or larger cargo lots.
As a rule, the freight rates applying in the liner market are higher than those prevailing in
the market for non-scheduled services. This is mainly a reflection of the high costs of
operating a traditional, usually containerized, liner service. On a number of counts (such
as administration, the number of ports of call, purchasing and operating costs of vessels)
the liner companies incur higher costs than the operator of non-scheduled services.
Vessels for non-scheduled services, particularly small bulk vessels, are comparatively
cheap in purchase and operating costs. The administrative procedures are simple and the
number of ports of call is limited.
145
It must be kept in mind that non-scheduled rates fluctuate more than liner rates. At times of
international crisis, for instance, the 'open' market may be driven even above the liner
market. However, in normal circumstances, while the market may fluctuate considerably,
cost of transport by non-scheduled vessels will not increase beyond the cost of transport by
liners.
In order to make use of non-scheduled services (often bulk vessels), however, the shipper
or charterer must be able to fill the vessel completely and in such a way that the number of
ports of call at each end of a voyage remains limited.
If this can be achieved, by one shipper alone or in co-operation with other shippers, there
are usually important savings to be made.
The practical implementation of cargo consolidation requires that the individual shipper
and/or the shippers' organization plays a more active role in day-to-day shipping matters
than that which is necessary if all transport is carried out by established lines. This would
require both know-how and skills on the part of the shipper. Apart from the basic know-how
of cargo compatibility (which cargoes mix and which don't) and trade patterns, four areas
would be indicated:
Economic and commercial relationships Charter

forms and their commercial implications
Information gathering
Calculation techniques.
(1) Economic and commercial relationships
Almost always, there will be more than one combination of cargo, ships and ports which
will be operationally feasible. A choice will have to be made between various transport
alternatives.
Usually the establishment of decision criteria for consolidation purposes would not require a
major economic analysis on the part of individual shippers. The problem will most often boil
down to a question of minimizing transport costs within a framework of constraints posed by
commercial considerations: delivery times, consignment sizes, packaging, etc.
While shippers should evaluate the criteria on which choices are made in accordance with
acceptable standards of economics, the day-to-day tasks of consolidation would mainly
involve establishing cargo and vessel options, calculating the commercial and financial
implications and making a final choice.
146
(2) Charter forms and their commercial implications
Outside the field of liner shipping, a variety of procedures exist in the shipping industry for
acquisition of transport capacity.
The most obvious, and least flexible, form is the acquisition of vessels. So-called industrial
carriers (carriers owned by production or trading companies, e.g. oil companies) are a
common feature in international trades. It would not be generally advisable that shippers
should jointly acquire tonnage in order to carry consolidated cargoes. If at all, this should be
regarded as a long-term objective that must be seen in conjunction with marketing
organization.
There are, on the other hand, several ways of hiring tonnage, for longer or shorter
duration. For one or more voyages the following are the most common:
(i) Voyage or trip charter
A vessel is hired to carry out a particular trip from Port A to Port B. The charterer will
have to find a vessel with a suitable position for delivery at or near Port A (which in
the case of consolidation may mean one of several loading ports). He will also have
to try to find a vessel for whose owner it will be suitable to take redelivery at or near
Port B (which may also be one of several ports, according to the redistribution
scheme adopted.
In many cases it will be difficult to find vessels/owners which will fit into the delivery/
redelivery pattern wanted by the shipper. In such cases the shipper may have to hire
the vessel for a round voyage. He will then have to find return cargo for his chartered
vessel. In order to do this, he may either co-operate with shippers at the other end of
his trade or operate the return cargo through the international net of ship-brokers.
(ii) Time charter
If the shipper sees that his need of consolidated transport, and the possibilities of
consolidating his cargoes with other shippers, will continue, he may make use of a
charter form by which he will have the ship at his disposal for a given period of time.
The question of delivery and redelivery of vessels will be present also under this
charter form, but will be of less importance if the time-charter party is of long duration.
There are no given rules as to the length of a time charter. In principle a time-charter
party may be entered into for a few days only or for as much as twenty years or the
lifetime of the vessel.
147
The bare-boat charter is a particular form of time charter. While, under the usual time-
charter party, the shipowner will provide officer and crew of the vessel, a bare-boat
charter will cover the vessel only (although owners will often insist on their own captain
or officers being hired by the charterers).
(iii) Affreightment contract
In this case the shipowner will take on the responsibility for the whole movement of the
shipper's cargoes under certain conditions as to frequency and volume. The shipper
pays for the full service of the shipping company and has no responsibility for directing
or programming the ships.
Each of the above alternatives involves freight rate systems which differ with regard to
costs borne by the shipper/charterer and by the shipowner. This is illustrated in the
following diagram.
148
Cost elements in different charter rates (less commission)
Rates
Bunkers
Despatch/demurrage
Loading/discharging
Trimming and stowage
Port dues & fees
Canal dues & fees
Other voyage costs
Wages A
Social expenses, etc.
Provisions
Spare parts
Lubricants
Insurance
Repair & maintenance
Survey
Administration
Capital costs and profit to owner
It will be seen that the principal difference between voyage rates and T/C rates is that the
T/C rates will not cover voyage costs. In other words, on time charter the charterer will
have to pay the voyage costs in addition to the time-charter rate he is paying to the
shipowner.
149
One difference between time-charter rates and voyage rates is of particular importance:
time-charter rates are paid on the basis of deadweight capacity of the vessel per time unit (
mostly one month of 30 days). Voyage rates are paid on the basis of cargo actually carried
during the agreed voyage. In the case of affreightment contracts, the rate is given per ton of
cargo carried, as stipulated in the charter party. It should be noted, however, that normally
an affreightment contract is not tied to a named ship. It may be tied to a group of ships or the
shipowner may be free to use whatever vessels he could find, given certain conditions
regulating the quality of carriage.
(3) Information gathering
Adequate information must be obtained on the elements that together make cargo
consolidation possible.
The first question would concern a roster of shippers interested in participating in cargo-
consolidation schemes. This would not necessarily mean that they would bind themselves
to consolidate all of the cargoes they generate. It would mean that from time to time they
would be in a position to benefit from participation in such schemes.
Further information would concern the kind of cargoes that the interested shippers
represent. This type of information would comprise the quantities involved, the main
direction in which cargo is shipped, packaging practices and sales terms (timing
requirements.)
At the same time, information must be obtained as to what kind of vessels are obtainable
to carry cargo as well as operational data on ports and port prices.
Cargo information and vessel/port information are interdependent in the sense that the
possibilities of combining consignments into full cargoes will influence the choice of ship.
The availability of vessels of particular sizes etc. will influence the possibilities of cargo
consolidation. The outcome will be much influenced by port costs.
This interdependence means that access to the appropriate data must be simultaneous.
While the collection of cargo information would principally rest with the shipper and his
organizations, there already exists an information network in respect of the availability of
vessels: the international shipbrokers. Agents in ports and port authorities will usually
furnish port costs and other information.
150
(4) Calculation techniques
In actual practice, the costs in addition to the T/C rate, as well as the T/C rate, are
accounted for in a 'voyage calculation form' (see page 153). The inputs for the use of the
form will generally be:
cost/price parameters:
freight rates (T/C basis)
— bunker prices
— port canal dues
costs of cargo handling and storage.
cargo parameters: weight

stowage factor
volume.
vessel parameters:
deadweight
cubic capacity
— number of holds
speed, consumption of fuel.
distances
port parameters:
loading and unloading rates
waiting times.
151
Sample stowage plan:
152
VOYAGE CALCULATION FORM
VESSEL: T. Deadweight: Cu. ft.:

Speed and consumption:
Charter terms:
CARGO(ES): Stowage factor: From/to:
Days at sea in port total

Ballasting:
..
Loading/shifting:
Steaming:
Extra:
Discharging/shifting:
Stores/water: Bunkers: Cargo intake:
Voyage expenses:
T/C cost per voyage:

Bunkers — Heavy fuel oil:
Bunkers — Diesel oil:
Loading/trimming:
Discharging:
Port charges:
Port charges:
Canal dues:
Taxes:
TOTAL VOYAGE EXPENSES $
Av. cost per ton of cargo: Rate per ton per lot:
153
Example:
The following is a simplified example of consolidation and the use of the Voyage
Calculation Form:
Subject of exercise: To ship 4,000 tons of rubber from Port Kelang to
Rotterdam
Objective: To explore ways and means of shipping the
consignment at the cheapest possible rate
Available alternatives: (a) By liner at the rate of $US 66.50 per ton
(b) By chartering a vessel on a time charter/trip basis
From various sources it is learnt that three ships are available in the market: T.
Deadweight Capacity
M/S Sinking Star 4,500 201,000 cu. ft

M/S Lost Horizon 8,000 330,000 cu. ft
M/S Asian Splendour 14,200 667,000 cu. ft
The 'Sinking Star' is not suitable as she doesn't have sufficient cargo capacity to
accommodate the whole consignment (4,000 tons with a stowage factor of 65 cu.ft/ton
requires a capacity of 260,000 cu.ft.).
The 'Lost Horizon' is also unsuitable because of difficulties in finding a suitable cargo
combination for its capacity.
The third vessel, 'Asian Splendour' is found to be the most economic since it is possible to
combine the rubber cargo with cargoes from other exporters. One such combination is as
follows:
1,800 tons general cargo Hong Kong/Rotterdam
3,000 tons lumber Singapore/Hamburg
4,000 tons rubber Port Kelang/Rotterdam
The appropriately completed Voyage Calculation Form is reproduced on the next page.
154
VOYAGE CALCUALTION FORM
VESSEL: Asian Splendour T. Deadweight: 14,200 Cu. ft.: 667,000

Speed and consumption: 14.5 knots, FO 24 t. per day + DO 1 t. per day (at
sea and in port)
Charter terms: Del. UK, redel. UK/Cont. , $US 6,300 per day
CARGO(ES): Stowage factor: From/to:
1,800 t. General, 189,000 cu. ft. 105 HK/RD

3,000 t. Lumber, 180,000 cu. ft. 60 SP/HB
4,000 t. Rubber, 260,000 cu. ft. 65 PK/RD
8,800 t 629,000 cu. ft.
Days at sea in port total

Ballasting: 0.5
1.5
2.0
Loading/shifting: at HK
at SP
11
at PK
Steaming: HK to SP (1,450 m.) 4

SP to PK (225 m.) 1
11
PK to RD (11,000 m.) 32
RD to HB (300 m.) 1
Extra: 2 3.0
Discharging/shifting: at RD 5.0
at HB 2.0
40 14.0 54
Stores/water: 300 t. Bunkers: 1,014 t. Cargo intake: 8,800
Voyage expenses:
T/C cost per voyage: 6,300 x 54 $340,200
Bunkers - Heavy fuel oil: 70 x 24 x 40 $ 67,200
Bunkers - Diesel oil: 115 x 54 x 1 $ 6,210
Loading/trimming: 7,200 + 12,000 + 16,000 $ 35,200
Discharging: 9,000 + 24,000 + 16,500 $ 49,500
Port charges: 3,000 + 4,000 + 2,500 $ 9,500
Port charges: 7,000 + 9,000 $ 16,000
Canal dues: $
Taxes: $
Others: $
TOTAL VOYAGE EXPENSES $523,810
Av. cost per ton of cargo: $59.52 Rate per ton per lot:
General: $87.44
Lot rates are weighted around the average Lumber: $49.96
in accordance with their cubic requirements. Rubber: $54.13
155
Appendix 2.1
Simulation exercise — system map
Rotterdam
Qingdao
Distance Table
z
5 cc a
cc
NAUTICAL
MILES a Y Y Q
< cc
w o
z ¢ m
z cc 0
w z
c~ c=n m 0 - Cl) z z aa .
cn0
QINGDAO 399 805 1404 2527 2682 2466 2799 7407 10768 11017 10025* 8600
SHANGHAI 783 1128 2251 2426 2210 2523 7151 10512 10761 10018* 8593
KOBE 1563 2780 2879 2691 3020 7604 10965 11214 9414* 7989
MANILA 1465 1546 1341 1562 6271 9632 9881 10802* 9377
BANGKOK 1058 831 1291 5772 9133 9382 12031* 10606
PORT KELANG 215 741 4730 8091 8340 11306* 10734
SINGAPORE 525 4941 8302 8551 11517t 10517
JAKARTA 5207 8568 8817 11783t 10592
SUEZ 3361 3610 6576 6350
ROTTERDAM 307 4880 4790
HAMBURG 5145 5055
NEW ORLEANS 1425
PANAMA
* via Panama t
Note: these distances are for use in the simulation exercise. They should not be used for any other purpose.
via Suez
Appendix 3
Glossary
The following is a list of terms sometimes used by those involved in training, together with
explanations of their meaning.
action maze A highly structured written variation of the case study in which the problem
unfolds, one incident at a time, as a consequence of a series of
decisions made (or actions taken) by the learner. Related terms:
case study; game; simulation.
behaviour modelling See interactive modelling.
brainstorming A technique that encourages the generation of ideas without

evaluation. Can also be used in conjunction with problem-
solving and various forms of creativity. Emphasis is on ideas,
not solutions, provided in a freewheeling and non-judgemental
atmosphere. Related terms: creative thinking, think tank,
synectics.
case study An oral or written account of an event, incident or situation used

to develop critical thinking skills and gain new insights into
concepts and issues. Related terms: action maze; in-basket;
incident process; role-play.
coaching A one-to-one method characterized by intensive learning through

demonstration and practice involving immediate feedback and
correction. Related term: interactive modelling.
computer-assisted A highly structured, self-paced strategy. A series of learning

instruction (CAI) segments is presented by a computer, with the learner asked to respond.
The computer electronically processes the responses and
provides immediate feedback to the learner. Related term:
programmed instruction.
conference A group of people discussing a common problem or need. Not

all conferences focus on learning objectives. Generally, a
variety of strategies are used during a conference. Related
terms: symposium; workshop.
confrontation, search A three-part experience in which the learner is faced with a

and cope (CSC) problem or a need (confrontation) and is then responsible for
seeking out a solution (search) and applying the solution to the
problem (cope). Related term: laboratory work.
158
contract A written document developed by the learner and reviewed by

the instructor. Contains the objectives, methods of reaching them
and evaluation. Although time-consuming to implement, this
method can result in improved learning for each student who
develops a learning contract. Contracts can be renegotiated
during the course of learning. Related terms: confrontation,
search and cope; home study; peer-mediated learning.
demonstration A presentation that shows how to perform an act or a

procedure. Can be done live or through a prepared
videocassette. Should be brief, allowing for interaction with the
learner, and can then proceed to the next point. Related terms:
observation, behaviour modelling; mock-up.
diagnosis, A method whereby the learner's needs and weaknesses are

prescription and uncovered by some means (diagnosis); a course of action or
treatment plan of study is developed to meet the need (prescription) and
the learner follows the prescribed treatment in order to correct
the diagnosed weakness (treatment). Related terms:
confrontation, search and cope; peer-mediated learning.
A relatively unstructured exchange of ideas among members of a

group on a topic of mutual interest. Related terms: dyad; dialogue.
Repetitive, structured practice — which can be written oral, or

motor — to reinforce previous learning. Related term: exercise.
Another name for a pair, such as when two participants work

together or talk together. The dyad can remain in the room or
move to another convenient place. Usually, some form of
feedback is required when using a dyad. Related terms:
discussion; peer-mediated learning.
exercise A structured learning experience, usually involving the use of

some instrumentation or guide sheets. May be used to
introduce a new topic or for skill practice, review or evaluation.
Related terms: drill; game; workbook.
feedback mechanism A response system (mechanical or non-mechanical) that provides

feedback on learning to both facilitator and learner. Related
terms: computer-assisted instruction; programmed instruction.
fish-bowl A discussion group that is divided in two — the inner circle,

which discusses, and an outer group, which observes. A
member of the outer group may "tap in" or exchange places
with a member of the inner group. Related terms: discussion;
laboratory.
159
game An activity characterized by structured competition

to provide
the opportunity to try out previous learning. Related terms:
exercise; simulation.
group work A method whereby a class is divided into small units, generally
of no more than six trainees. The groups meet simultaneously, to
react to a topic or charge given to them. Emphasis is on ideas, if
the time is limited to ten minutes or less. Provision must be made
for feedback. Related terms: discussion group; work group;
workshop.
hand-out Printed materials distributed as part of a learning experience.
They should be made available at the appropriate time before,
during or after the session. An ample supply is provided so that
each participant has an individual copy. Related term:
bibliography.
home study A learning activity that is largely self-directed, with facilitator–
learner interaction accomplished by mail or visits. Related
terms: correspondence course, distance learning.
in-basket A simulated, reinforcing exercise in which the trainee responds to
a collection of memos, directives and problems that force him or
her to prioritize, make decisions, and handle the difficulties that
might be faced on the job. Related terms: action maze; case
study.
incident process A variation of the case study in which the trainee is only given
some basic data and must then probe the instructor further to
obtain the additional data required to complete the assignment.
The instructor must have carefully prepared data sheets that can
immediately be made available to the learner when the
appropriate question is asked. Related terms: action maze; case
study; exercise; game; simulation.
independent study Approach in which the learner undertakes assigned readings or
research on his or her own without special guidance or
instructions.
interactive modelling A means of learning new behaviour by observing model, or ideal,
behaviour, trying the new behaviour and receiving feedback. The
cycle is repeated until the new behaviour is learned. Sometimes
called behaviour modelling. Related terms: demonstration; role-
play.
interview A strategy for using a resource person, who is asked
questions; the learners listen to the response. The questions can
be spontaneous or given to the resource person earlier to allow
for preparation.
job instruction A form of on-the-job training, characterized by supervisory

training responsibility for the training of new employees. Related terms:
coaching; on-the-job training.
laboratory An environment equipped for experimentation and testing by the learner. Can
be used for a variety of objectives, including cognitive,
affective, and psychomotor.
lecture A one-way presentation in which a speaker addresses trainees.

Can be supplemented with other strategies. Is much maligned,
since some lecturers do not know how to focus a strictly oral
presentation so that it is a stimulating learning experience.
Related term: interview.
listening groups A method in which participants are divided into several groups, each of
which is assigned the task of listening to and observing an
assigned part of a speech, a demonstration panel and so on.
mock-up A full-sized replica built accurately to scale, but not the real
object. Related term: model.
model A physical item generally presented in something other than its

usual form in order to facilitate learning. Can also be used to
present ideas and show the flow of a series of actions. Is not the
real thing but represents the real thing or idea. Related term:
mock-up.
modelling A method whereby the participants, individually or as teams,

represent decision-makers in an organization. They make the
same kind of decisions they might make in a real-life situation,
but the data and the environment are simulated. Modelling is
usually done by means of a game. Generally, the game uses a
model with a set of mathematical relationships built in. Games
can be paper-and-pencil exercises or computerized. They
usually closely approximate the real world, in that the data used
by the trainees are real, but operate in a compressed time-
frame.
non-verbal learning A learning experience that does not involve the use of any
spoken communication. Speech must be used to give
instructions and process the learning after completion of the
non-verbal experience, however. Related terms: exercise;
laboratory.
peer-mediated A method in which learners are grouped with their peers and
learning facilitate each others' learning under the guidance of a group
leader, who provides them with specially prepared materials.
161
performance A method in which learners practice, perform and apply, under

controlled conditions and close supervision, the skills and
knowledge that have previously been explained and
demonstrated.
practicum A study programme that allows the learner to pursue a special
project under the guidance of an instructor. Related term:
tutorial.
programmed Subject-matter presented in a series of small, carefully
instruction graduated sequential steps, so that the student achieves
mastery of the material presented and delivery is self-paced.
Related terms: computer-assisted instruction; feedback
mechanism.
project A specially designated task in which the participants work
independently on an assignment, such as a term paper or a
book review. Related term: role-play.
reading assignment Assigned readings in textbooks, manuals, periodicals, or other printed
media, followed by a written report, class discussion or other
positive activity.
role-play Interaction among two or more individuals on a given topic or
situation. Often used to provide practice for trainees on
previously presented material Has many variations, including
multiple role-play and role reversal. Related terms: case study;
interactive modelling; laboratory; simulation.
seminar A form of learning in which each learner in the group is expected
to have attained a sufficient level of knowledge to participate
actively. The instructor serves as a resource person, with the
members of the seminar being responsible for the interaction
during the seminar. Related terms: discussion; workshop.
sensitivity training A method consisting not only of "training" but also of "education".
It involves a group that is deprived of a leader, an agenda and
norms. As the group struggles to fill those gaps, members exhibit
behaviours that are then used as the basis for learning. Related
term: laboratory.
simulation A learning environment constructed to allow the learner to
experience the desired performance without incurring the risk
associated with the real-life situation. Related terms: game;
role-play.
162
structured or guided A method whereby questions prepared in advance are directed

discussion to students to guide their discussion along a preconceived path. The discussion
is restricted within predetermined boundaries to ensure that the
group stays on track.
study guide Document that provides an organized, progressive learning

experience leading toward predetermined objectives. Useful for
individual learning, although also suitable for use with groups.
Related terms: hand-out; workbook.
symposium A series of related speeches by several persons qualified to

speak with authority on different phases of the same topic or on
closely related topics. Related terms: dialogue; interview.
team building A concept that uses various instructional strategies to promote effective
group interaction. Related terms: exercise; laboratory; role-play.
textbook A manual of instruction; a book containing a presentation of the

principles of a subject used as a basis for instruction. Related
term: reading assignment.
tutorial Tailor-made sequences developed to help an individual engage

in self-directed inquiry, with periodic consultation on his or her
progress and problems. Related terms: contract;
correspondence course. .
unstructured A learning experience in which a spontaneous discussion is

discussion controlled by the participants, who also provide the subject-
matter expertise. In addition, participants provide the direction
and effort toward reaching the desired goal.
1 workbook A book of questions or written exercises that provides space for

the learner to write answers. Related terms: drill; exercise.
work group A group whose members work toward stated objectives and
produce a tangible product. Related terms: discussion;
laboratory.
workshop A group learning experience designed to produce a product by

fostering a high level of involvement among participants. Related
terms: conference; seminar.

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MODEL

TRAINING COURSE FOR

International Maritime Organization

Model Course developed under the IMO — Norwegian programme

This training course for Instructors is based on material

Printed by Ashford Press

First Edition 1991

Part B: Course Outline 9

Part C: Detailed Syllabus 13

Part D: Instructor Manual 21

Part E: Assessment of Participants 61

Appendix 1: International Chamber of Shipping -

Appendix 2: Cargo Consolidation - Simulation Exercise -

Appendix 3: Specimen examination questions -

Information Requested of Instructors who implement

Attachment: Guidance on the Implementation of IMO Model Courses

Following the earlier adoption of the International Convention on

In addition, it was appreciated that a comprehensive set of short model

■ Purpose of the model courses

The purpose of the IMO model courses is to assist maritime training

It is not the intention of the model course programme to present

Because educational systems and the cultural backgrounds of trainees

■ Use of the model course

In order that a model course should run smoothly and be effective,

q rooms and other spaces;

q textbooks, technical papers; and

q other reference material.

Thorough preparation is the key to successful implementation of the

■ Purpose of the Training Course for Instructors

Instructors chosen for the conduct of model courses should be fully

Each model course package contains some advice to the instructors in

The course material draws heavily on a number of sources, most notably

This course is primarily intended for instructors who will be responsible

The course is of limited duration and therefore cannot be considered

The topics covered should serve as a valuable introduction for those

Further, the course covers the assessment of participants for various

Participants successfully completing the training course for instructors

Thus, the thrust of the course is directed at promoting the knowledge,

In general terms, those wishing to enter this course should be qualified

On completion of the course — if assessment which indicates the

■ Student number limitation

The intake of participants should be approximately 16 to 20 to allow

The conduct of the course will require a minimum of two experienced

The instructors should be capable of operating the kind of audio-visual

It would be an obvious benefit if at least one of the staff had previously

Participants may seek answers to local problems and opinions on a

■ Teaching facilities and equipment

For the purpose of conducting an interactive simulation exercise a

■ Teaching aids (A)

A l : Course Manual (to be issued to trainees at the end of the

A supply of IMO model courses is required. An absolute minimum would

IMO Model Course 5.03 "Planned Fleet Maintenance and Hull

B1 J. W. Brown, Audiovisual Instruction: Technology, Media and

It is possible to regard the course as a list of 'modules', corresponding

The course timetable suggests a programme for the conduct of the

2. Purpose of Learning Identifying Teaching Group work

Field work/visit Simulation – Review of Exercise 15 Course planning

Exercise 11 Exercise 13 Exercise 14 Exercise 17

Simulation – Exercise 13 5. Evaluation Course Exercise 17

Exercise 12 Exercise 15 Exercise 16 Summing up

All objectives are understood to be prefixed by the words `The expected

Each time the course is conducted, the teaching methods and/or

1 IMO and its contribution to

.2 explain the purpose of IMO

IMC 6.09 TOT & Compendium

IMC 6.09 TOT & Compendium