BAGUIO COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

# 37 Harrison Road/51 Plaza Natalia Naguilian Road

Baguio City
Tel. Nos: 442-3743 / 424-0859

SUBJECT TITLE : PHYSICAL SCIENCE

NOMINAL DURATION : 80 HOURS
COURSE DESCRIPTION
Evolution of our understanding of matter, motion, electricity, magnetism, light, and the
universe from ancient times to the present; applications of physics and chemistry concepts in
contexts such as atmospheric phenomena, cosmology, astronomy, vision, medical
instrumentation, space technology, drugs, sources of energy, pollution and recycling, fitness
and health, and cosmetics.
MODULE TITLE : Introduction: Formation of Elements
MODULE NO :1
NOMINAL DURATION : 4 Hours
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
At the completion of this module, students should be able to:
1. explain the formation of the light elements in the Big Bang theory
2. describe the formation of heavier elements during star formation and evolution.
3. Illustrate the distribution of elements in the on Earth.

MODULE CONTENT:
During the formation of the universe some 14 billion years ago in the so-called 'Big Bang', only the
lightest elements were formed – hydrogen and helium along with trace amounts of lithium and
beryllium. Elements are formed deep within the cores of certain types of star.The other 86 elements
found in nature were created in nuclear reactions in these stars and in huge stellar explosions known as
supernovae.
Elements are identified by the nuclei of the atoms of which they are made. For example, an atom
having six protons in its nucleus is carbon, and one having 26 protons is iron. There are over 80 naturally
occurring elements, with uranium (92 protons) being the heaviest (heavier nuclei have been produced in
reactors on Earth). Nuclei also contain certain neutrons, usually in numbers greater than the number of
protons.
Heavy elements can be formed from light ones by nuclear fusion reactions; these are nuclear
reactions in which atomic nuclei merge together. The simplest reactions involve hydrogen, whose
nucleus consists only of a single proton, but other fusion reactions, involving mergers of heavier nuclei,
are also possible. When the universe formed in an initial stateofveryhigh temperature and density called
the big bang, the first elements to exist were the simplest ones: hydrogen, helium (two protons), and
little else. But we and the earth are made of much heavier elements, so a major question for scientists is
how these heavier elements were created.
During the formation of the universe in the so-called big bang, only the lightest elements were
formed: hydrogen, helium, lithium, and beryllium. Hydrogen and helium dominated; the lithium and
beryllium were only made in trace quantities. The other 88 elements found in nature were created in
nuclear reactions in the stars and in huge stellar explosions known as supernovas. Stars like the Sun and
planets like Earth containing elements other than hydrogen and helium could only form after the first
generation of massive stars exploded as supernovas, and scattered the atoms of heavy elements
throughout the galaxy to be recycled.

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Elements and our Sun
For most of their lives, stars fuse elemental hydrogen into helium in their cores. Two atoms of
hydrogen are combined in a series of steps to create helium-4. These reactions account for 85% of the
Sun’s energy. The remaining 15% comes from reactions that produce the elements beryllium and
lithium.
The energy from these nuclear reactions is emitted in various forms of radiation such as ultraviolet
light, X-rays, visible light, infrared rays, microwaves and radio waves. In addition, energized particles
such as neutrinos and protons are released, and it is these that make up the solar wind.
Earth is in the path of this energy stream, which warms the planet, drives weather and provides
energy for life. The Earth’s atmosphere is able to screen out most of the harmful radiation, and the
Earth’s magnetic field can deflect the harmful effects of the solar wind.
Dying stars
When a star’s core runs out of hydrogen, the star begins to die out. The dying star expands into a red
giant, and this now begins to manufacture carbon atoms by fusing helium atoms.
More massive stars begin a further series of nuclear burning or reaction stages. The elements formed in
these stages range from oxygen through to iron.
During a supernova, the star releases very large amounts of energy as well as neutrons, which allows
elements heavier than iron, such as uranium and gold, to be produced. In the supernova explosion, all of
these elements are expelled out into space.
Our world is literally made up of elements formed deep within the cores of stars now long dead. As
Britain’s Astronomer Royal Sir Martin Rees said, “We are literally the ashes of long dead stars.” When
you buy a party balloon that floats in air, it is filled with helium gas, most of which was created when the
universe was only 3 minutes old.
Examples of element making (nucleogenesis) in helium burning reactions:
 3 helium atoms fusing to give a carbon atom: 3 @ 4He → 12C
 carbon atom + helium atom fusing to give an oxygen atom: 12C + 4He → 16O
 oxygen atom + helium atom fusing to give a neon atom: 16O + 4He → 20Ne
 neon atom + helium atom fusing to give a magnesium atom: 20Ne + 4He → 24Mg
Man-made elements
Only 90 of the 116 known elements occur naturally, so where have the other 26 come from?
The answer is to be found in the development of nuclear power plants and machines known
as particle accelerators:
 Scientists discovered that, by allowing fast neutrons to collide with the common isotope of
uranium known as U-238 in a nuclear reactor, the ‘new’ element plutonium was made.
 By smashing atoms together in machines known as particle accelerators, it was discovered that
new elements could be made. For example, bombarding atoms of the element curium with
atoms of neon made element 106 – seaborgium.

Geochemical Distribution Of The Elements

Terrestrial distribution
The study of earthquake waves passing through the body of the Earth has shown that the interior is
not uniform; it consists of distinct shells separated by concentric discontinuities at which the velocities
of the passing waves change. The two major discontinuities that are universally recognized are

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the Mohorovičid Discontinuity, which divides the Earth’s crust from its underlying mantle, and
the Wiechert–Gutenberg Discontinuity, which separates the mantle from the core. The latter
discontinuity exists at a depth of 2,900 kilometers (1,800 miles); it is marked by a sudden increase
in density, from about 5.7 at the base of the mantle to 9.7 at the top of the core. The only reasonable
interpretation of this discontinuity is that the mantle consists of silicates and oxides of the common
elements (largely magnesium and iron), and the core consists of metallic iron alloyed with minor
amounts of other elements (analogous to the nickel-iron in meteorites). The Mohorovičid Discontinuity
varies in depth from place to place; it averages about 33 kilometers (20 miles) below the continents and
about 8 kilometers (5 miles) below the bottom of the deep oceans. It too is marked by a density increase
from crust to mantle, a comparatively small one, from about 3 to 3.3.
To the three spherical divisions crust, mantle, and core, two more should be added: the hydrosphere,
which is the discontinuous shell of fresh and salt water, on and within the crust; and the atmosphere,
the ocean of air that surrounds the Earth, gradually thinning into the vacuum of outer space.
The Earth’s core
The evidence for the composition of the core is all indirect because no means have yet been devised
for directly sampling the deep interior of the Earth. The moment of inertia of the Earth indicates that
there is a concentration of mass around the center, and seismic data have shown that below the
Wiechert–Gutenberg Discontinuity the density of the material is high, ranging upwards from 9.7. The
only heavy element with high cosmic abundance is iron, and because an iron, nickel alloy is an important
meteorite component, it is reasonable to conclude that the Earth’s core consists largely of metallic iron
with a minor admixture of other elements. This conclusion is supported by geophysical evidence that
indicates that the mean atomic number of the material of the core is about 22. The atomic number of
iron is 26, so this implies that the core also contains elements of lower atomic number. Sulfur, with
atomic number 16, and carbon, 6, are relatively abundant in meteoritic matter, and the presence of
minor amounts of these elements in the core would effectively reduce the mean atomic number. Some
authorities have advocated silicon (atomic number 14) as the major alloying component in the core, but
this seems less likely; if silicon were the sole alloying element, then the core would have to contain more
than 30 percent silicon in order to reduce its mean atomic number to 22. In addition, free silicon
requires extremely reducing conditions (lack of oxygen), and the presence of ferrous iron in the mantle
is inconsistent with this requirement.
It is not possible to give definite figures for the abundances of the elements in the Earth’s core. It is
certainly made up largely of metallic iron, however, probably with some nickel, a little cobalt, and
appreciable amounts of such lighter elements as carbon and sulfur.
The Earth’s mantle
The mantle comprises that part of the Earth between the Mohorovičid and the Wiechert–Gutenberg
discontinuities. It makes up 83 percent of the volume of the Earth and 67 percent of its mass and is thus
of decisive importance in determining the bulk composition of the planet. In estimating elemental
abundances in the mantle, however, the same difficulty as with the core arises: direct sampling is
not feasible. Much more geophysical data are available for the mantle, however, and some volcanic
eruptions have brought rock fragments to the surface that have certainly been derived from this zone.
The most remarkable of these materials are the diamond-bearing inclusions found in the famous pipes,
or volcanic necks, that are mined in South Africa and Siberia. The presence of diamond, the high-
pressure form of carbon, implies a depth of origin of at least 100 kilometers (62 miles), but these
inclusions are rare. The common type of mantle-derived inclusion is peridotite, a silicate rock consisting
largely of olivine, (Mg,Fe)2SiO4, with minor amounts of orthopyroxene, (Mg,Fe)SiO3, and diopside,
CaMg(Si2O6).
Geophysical information indicates that below a depth of about 1,000 kilometres (620 miles), the
mantle behaves as an essentially homogeneous material, but above this level its physical properties are
more varied, and there is evidence for second-order discontinuities. This region above 1,000 kilometres
is frequently referred to as the upper mantle, and in recent years has been the object of a concentrated
research effort by geologists and geophysicists all over the world. The significance of the upper mantle is

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that processes originating there have dramatic effects on the surface, in the form of volcanic eruptions
and some earthquakes, and less dramatic but equally important effects within the crust, such as the
introduction and concentration of some elements, possibly leading to the formation of ore deposits.
Increased knowledge of the upper mantle thus has both scientific and economic appeal.
Geophysical data on the properties of the upper mantle suggest that it must consist essentially of
magnesium-iron silicates, probably largely olivine in the region immediately below the crust. Olivine is
not stable under very high pressures, however; it is converted to a different phase of about 10 percent
higher density and with a structure like the mineral oxide spinel (MgA12O4). This conversion would occur
in the mantle at depths of around 400 kilometers, and a second-order discontinuity at that depth can
plausibly be ascribed to this conversion. Pyroxenes also undergo transformations to phases of greater
density at the high pressures within the mantle. Thus the mantle, although composed of material of
familiar chemical composition, consists, in its lower part at least, of different minerals than those in the
upper part.

REFERENCES:
1. Griffith, W. Thomas and Juliet Wain Brosing. The Physics of Everyday Phenomena: A Conceptual
Introduction to Physics, 6th ed. NY: McGraw Hill, 2009.
2. Hewitt, Paul G. Conceptual Physics 11th edition. San Francisco: Pearson, 2015. March.
3. Robert . Physics for Poets, 5th ed. NY: McGraw-Hill 2003.

Prepared by:
Jhun T. Piza

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EVALUATION/ASSESSMENT/PERFORMANCE TASK: (Physical Science)
DATE SUBMITTED:
NAME OF STUDENT:
STRAND:
MODULE NUMBER: 1
Instructions: Choose the correct answer from the choices given in each item and write in the space
before the number.
_____1. It is a process that created a new atomic nucleus from pre-existing nucleus.
a. Nucleogenesis b. Nucleosynthesis c. Nucleoblasts
_____2. A new element that could be that could be made by smashing atoms together.
a. Seaborgium b. Helium c. Uranium
_____3. It refers to the process of producing the light element shortly after the Big Bang.
a. Nucleogenesis b. Nucleoblasts c. Primordial nucleosynthesis
_____4. These are the only elements formed during the formation of the universe, except…
a. Iron b. Hydrogen c. Helium
_____5. This happened in stars which created 86 elements.
a. Radioactive b. Supernovae c. Nuclear reaction
_____6. How many natural elements in the universe.
a. 80 b. 90 c. 96
_____7. It is the heaviest naturally occurring element.
a. Iron b. Titanium c. Uranium
_____8. How many protons that the heaviest naturally occurring element has.
a. 26 b. 80 c. 92
_____9. It is the lightest naturally occurring elemen.
a. Helium b. Hydrogen c. Uranium
_____10. How many known elements in the universe.
a. 26 b. 90 c. 116
_____11. It is a new element made when fast neutrons collide with the common isotope of Uranium.
a. Seaborgium b. Plutonium c. Helium
_____12. Heavy elements were formed earlier than lighter elements.
a. True b. False
_____13. Elements are identified by the nuclei of the atoms of which they are made.
a. True b. False
_____14. Light elements formed from heavy elements by nuclear fusion reaction.
a. True b. False
_____15. Hydrogen and Helium dominated the universe.
a. True b. False
_____16. 15% of sun`s energy comes from reactions that produce the element Helium.
a. True b. False
_____17. A dying star expand into a red giant, and begins to manufacture Carbon atom.
a. True False
_____18. If 3 helium atom fuse, it give a neon atom.
a. True b. False
_____19. Magnesium will be form when Neon atom and Helium atom fuse together.
a. True b. False
_____20. When star core run out of helium, it begins to die out.
a. True b. False

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