Engineering Materials

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS ………………………………………………………….. 2
CHAPTER 2 TEST OF MATERIALS ………………………………………………………………………………………. 6
CHAPTER 3 FERROUS METALS ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 11
CHAPTER 4 NON FERROUS METALS …………………………………………………………………………………. 15
CHAPTER 5 TIMBER ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 20
CHAPTER 6 CONCRETE …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 29
CHAPTER 7 PLASTICS ……………………………………………………………………………………………………... 39
CHAPTER 8 BITUMINOUS MATERIAL, RUBBER LEATHER AND ROPE ………………………………. 46
CHAPTER 9 BRICKS ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 50
CHAPTER 10 WIRE ROPE ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 55
CHAPTER 11 FIBER GLASS ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 62
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CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
1. STRENGTH - The strength of a material is the measure of its ability to resist the application of the load
required during the service of the structure of the machine without fracture, collapse or undue distortion.
In some structures and machines, strength of materials is the prime requirement. All machines and
structures must have sufficient strength to prevent the actual fracture or collapse of parts with consequent
failure of the structure.
The application of load or moment to a part of the structure of a machine causes internal balancing
forces and moment. The intensity of such internal force is called a stress. Stress is the mechanical force or
energy that causes or produces deformation or fracture in the material. The unit of stress in the metric system
is Pascal or 1 Newton per square meter. There are three kinds of stresses used in structural and machine
design. They are tensile, compressive and shearing stress.
Tensile stress results when an applied force tends to increase the length and decrease the cross
sectional area of a certain material.
Compressive stress tends a material to shorten its length and increase its cross section.
Shear stress results from the opposing applied forces tending to cause on a part of the material to slip
or slide with respect to the other part.
Flexure or bending stress is a combination of tension and compression with some shear. Bearing
stress is a complex combination of compression, shear and with some tension. (Example - the stress in the rail
under a railway, car wheel)
Any stress is accompanied by deformation, stretching, shearing, compressing and some tension. The
resulting change of length per unit of length in a linear dimension of the body is called strain and is measured
in inches per inch centimeters per centimeters or by percentage in change of dimension.
2. STIFFNESS - Stiffness of the material and strength of materials are two distinct properties of materials. If
stress is applied in a part of the machine or a structure the material will undergo deformation. A material
which undergoes a slight deformation has a high degree of stiffness.
3. ELASTICITY – is the property of the material under high stresses to resist permanent change of form,
recovering their original form after the removal of load applied to them. The material that possess this
properties are said to be elastic.
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4. PLASTICITY – is the property of the material under high stresses to suffer a permanent change of form
after the removal of load, reaching equilibrium after a certain amount of distortion. Such material does not
change form continuously as long as load is applied.
5. TOUGHNESS – is the property of the material to withstand great deformation together with high stresses
without fracture.
6. BRITTLENESS – is the property of the material to fracture with little or no elongation. Concrete is a brittle
material.
7. DUCTILITY – is the property of the material which enables it to be drawn out to considerable extent before
rupture and at the same time to sustain appreciable load. Mild steel is a ductile material.
8. CREEP – under elevated temperatures, many material show signs of flow, acting like a viscous fluid. Unlike
plastic action, flow continuous as long as load is applied. For example, lead shows signs of flow at ordinary
room temperature. Flow of material is usually called creep, on account of its slow action.
9. HARDNESS – is a term used to designate several different property of the material – resistance to
abrasion, to cutting, to indention, or to wear. All these involve complex stress and deformation.
10. MALLEABILITY – is the property of the material to be rolled into thin sheets. Gold is one example of a
malleable material.
DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

A. Properties related to durability and continued usefulness in service
1. Resistance to fracture; cable for suspension bridge
2. Resistance to crushing, shear or buckling; bridge pier
3. Resistance to repeated load; deep well pump rod
4. Resistance to elastic deformation; long thin column
5. Absorption of energy; spring, rubber tire
6. Constancy of grain size; furnace grates
7. Low coefficient of expansion with temperature; length measuring instrument paving block
8. Resistance to creep under long continued load; bolt in stream lines, lead sheeting for electric cables
9. Resistance to indention; ball bearing races, railroad races
10. Resistance to wear or abrasion; bearings, linoleum floor coverings
11. Resistance to corrosion; roof gutters
B. Properties related to suitability for certain function
1. Light weight; airplane parts, life preservers
2. Transmission of light; lenses, window glasses
3. Transmission of heat; boiler tubes, electric irons
4. lack of transmission of heat; refrigerators, concrete blocks
5. Absorption of sound; auditorium walls
6. Resistance to high frequency radiation; lead walls, thick block of concrete
7. Magnetic properties; surveyor’s compass
C. Properties affecting the fabrication of materials

1. Easy casting of molten metal; cooking stove parts
2. Ability to be molded; powdered metal, plastics
3. Ability to be deformed without fracture; concrete reinforcing bars
4. Ability to be welded; pipes, structural parts of bridges
Two types of Test of Materials

A. Chemical Test
Chemical analysis of material whose quality is under investigation is usually made on small
representative samples of the materials and have for the chief object the determination of the quantity of
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various ingredients present in the material. They are frequently used to detect the presence of injurious
ingredients through a mass of material (segregation).
B. Mechanical Test
The mechanical tests commonly performed to determine the quality of the materials of construction
include:
1. Test of strength (tension, compression, shear bending and torsion)
2. Test of ductility (elongation, bending)
3. Test of brittleness (impact tests)
4. Test of hardness
5. Test of resistance to abrasion
6. Test of internal structure (microscopic examination)
Mechanical test is made usually on a small sample of the material but sometimes on the material in its
finished form.
COHESION, STRESS AND STRAIN
COHESION – is that property of solid bodies by virtue of which they resist being broken into fragments
or ruptured. In engineering sense, the resistance of the bodies to fracture is measured by the magnitude of
the external force required to cause rupture.
Cohesion Phenomenon
In a solid body, the atoms are held in a fixed location by a number of balance forces, some attractive
and some repulsive. As atom consists of a nucleus in which is concentrated nearly all the mass of the atom,
and this nucleus is surrounded by a number of electrons resolving in orbits around the nucleus. The net effect
of the attraction and repulsions between the nuclei and the electrons of a number of atoms is to prevent the
actual contact of the nuclei but yet to hold them in equilibrium while separated from each other.
STRAIN– whenever a force is applied to any member of a machine or structure – beam in a house, a gear in an
automobile, a railroad rail, a member of a bridge truss, the shape and dimensions of the member are altered
so that it is lengthened, shortened or twisted or displaced from its original position. The change in any linear
dimension of a structural or machine part is called deformation.
The deformation per unit length is called strain.
Kinds of Stress Analysis
1. Direct stress, uniformly distributed

When a machine part or a structural member is acted upon by tension or compressive force say P1
(see figure) which act along the axis of each member, there are set up within the internal forces or
stresses which resist the tendency of the external force to tear apart. To compute the stress, imagine the
part or the member at one side at any plane section to be cut away; then there will be internal stress S –
the summation of which over the area of the section will balance the force P. the stress perpendicular to
the plane of the section is P, in which P is the resultant force in pounds acting on one side of that section
and A is the area of the section. This formula is rigidly correct only if the stress is uniformly distributed
throughout the section.
2. Stress Non U uniformly Distributed

In any actual structural or machine parts, the use of direct stress formula S = P/A neglects many
localized stress especially near the points of attachment to other parts.
Causes of non-uniformly distributed stress
a. Shape
b. Surface finish
c. Small holes
These stress raisers (the causes) as they are called, may cause some minute permanent distortion
and thus produces high stresses at the irregularity of discontinuity/
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Hooke’s Law
Within the limit of perfect elasticity, stress is proportional to strain; this law is named after the
English scientist who first stated it. Within this limit, this ratio is constant. The ratio of stress to strain is
called modulus of elasticity
3. Non-axial uniform stress

Under flexure, torsion or a combination of these and axial loadings, stress distribution in a
structural machine part is more complex than under axial load alone. On any cross section, the stress may
vary from surface to surface, from axis to surface and the properties of the materials as determined
under surface conditions are sometimes different from those determined under axial loads.
4. Flexure
In a machine or structural part under cross bending, the external bending moment at any cross
section causes an extreme fiber stress which may be computed by the equation:
M=moment
S=stress
S=maximum tension when c is measured from the centroidal axis to the tension surface of the beam,
and maximum compressive stress when c is measured from the centroidal axis to the compression
surface.
5. Torsion
In a round shaft under torsion, the external twisting moment at cross section produces maximum
shearing stress both circumferential and longitudinal. These two shearing stresses are equal in magnitude.
The formula for finding the shearing stress:
J=polar moment of inertia, c=distance from the neutral axis (center line around specimen) and
T=twisting moment
6. Stresses due to temperature

The increase or decrease of temperature produces expansion or contraction in all solids.
Formula = cL T
c=coefficient of linear expansion, L=length
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CHAPTER 2
TEST OF MATERIALS
ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION OF FAILURE
The responsibility of an engineer is to select the right materials and the right dimensions so as to avoid
failure in the structure or machine he designs at the same time minimizing its cost. By knowing all the different
possible nature and causes of failure in materials, the engineer will be able to design its project effectively.
Failure categories
The failure of a material may fall into one of the two categories:
1. Physical causes
2. Chemical action
Types of failure due to pure physical causes

There are four types of physical failure in machine and structural parts namely:
1. Elastic Failure – this is distinguished by physical deformations which may lead to eventual collapse.
2. Creep – means a slow flow of a material like a viscous liquid, in most cases in high temperature but
not always.
3. Fracture – rupture of the material either caused by a steady load or by repeated loading.
4. Deterioration – the gradual wear of the material due to abrasion load.
ELASTIC FAILURE
Machines or structures may become totally useless even if there is no fracture in the material but
because of the total deformation of its parts. Permanent distortion in a material caused by excessive loads
may damage the precise fittings. Such distortion could be irreversible such that even if all loads are removed
the material would not go back to its original shape and size.
The basic concepts of the relation between stress and strain can be well perceived by understanding
the stress-strain diagram.
S S
T T
R R
E E
S S
S S
STRAIN STRAIN
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
Below is the definition of some important terms related to the diagram:

1. Proportional limit – the upper end point of the straight part of the diagram. From the origin to this
point, the diagram demonstrates Hooke’s law that states that the stress is directly proportional to
strain.
2. Elastic limit – is the stress beyond which the material will not return to its original shape when the
load is removed.
3. Yield point – at this stress, there will be appreciable increase in strain without an increase in strain.
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4. Yield strength – I s the stress level which initiates the yield for plastic deformation. Beyond this stress,
strain proceeds rapidly with an added stress.
5. Ultimate strength – is the highest ordinate in the stress-strain diagram.
6. Rupture strength – is the stress at failure.
7. Mechanical hysteresis – is the strain energy lost during the loading and unloading of the material that
causes a greater strain during unloading than during loading with the same magnitude of the load.
Such energy is transformed to heat.
Structural damage occurs in a material when the stress reaches the yield point. Some materials do not
have yield point and so the yield strength will have to be established. Its determination involves the fixing of a
value permanent set such as 0.2% or any maximum tolerable value of strain. The intersection of the line
parallel to the straight segment of the stress-strain diagram with an x-intercept equal to the fixed permanent
set, and the stress-strain diagram is the position of the yield strength of the material.
Examination of specimens using micrographs before and after a material is stressed to its yield
strength shows that fine lines are developed across the faces of the polycrystalline grains. Such lines are called
slip bands.
Slip is very non uniform within the crystalline for the following reasons:
1. When tensile or compressive stress is applied, they must be resolved as shear stresses onto the slip
planes.
2. Some grains are oriented more favorably for deformations than others.
3. Plastic deformation results from dislocation movements, and occurs with lower applied stress on
crystal planes which are farthest apart and in direction in which the displacement step is the shortest.
Slip does not occur to any appreciable extent in any of the ordinary materials of construction until a
fairly well-defined limiting stress has been applied and if slip occurs it does not continue indefinitely, under
load, but ceases after a short time. As soon as slip ceases the elastic strength of the material increases. Thus is
caused by the clustering of small cohering bodies called polycrystallites. These polycrystallites prohibits and
sometimes totally prevents the reoccurrence of slip. This behavior of metals is called the slip-interference
theory.
FAILURE BY CREEP
Solid materials exposed to a high temperature without chemical decomposition melt. In most cases, at
temperatures well below those required for complete fusion, evidence is given of the beginning of the
liquefying process, and the material begins to act somewhat like a very viscous liquid. This action is illustrated
by softening of an asphalt pavement on a hot summer day, and by the sagging of the steel beams caused by
the heat of the fire.
When a material is under stress and the temperature rises, it will experience a slow flow called creep.
The intensity of creep depends on two factors:

1. Magnitude of stress
2. Temperature
No one can find the right temperature that will prevent creep at a given stress and the stress at a
constant temperature that can cease a creep is also a big question.
Creep is different form slip. Both can be present in a material at a time. Structural damage by
distortion is a common feature for both slip and creep. The main difference between the two is that in slip,
even if the stress causing slip remains present the motion of distortion diminishes while in creep, the
magnitude continuously increases until there is a complete fracture. In other words, long time steady loading
under creep brings in the danger of structural damage.
The state of creep passes in three stages before fracture:

1. First stage – the stage from the time the temperature rises or the stress is applied at high temperature
and during the period when the rate of flow continues to decrease.
2. Second stage – the period when the creep is constant with respect to time.
3. Third stage – the last period when the rate of flow significantly increases as time passes.
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Metals and some plastics are the kinds of material that usually experience creep during high
temperature. Other materials like concrete and wood also develops creep but it can be neglected because
other failure will occur before developing any appreciable creep. Some soft metals like zinc, tin, lead and even
some non metallic materials such as asphalt, tar, glass and some plastics show signs of creep.
Fracture of metals under creep occurs as a spreading crack. Such a crack spreads more slowly than a
fatigue crack under repeated stress. In electric cable sheathing, cracks have been detected by leakage of
insulating oil before they had spread far enough to cause a disastrous breakdown of the cable insulation by
letting in the moisture.
The ideal way to determine fracture stresses and allowable working stresses for metal tests of
specimens, some of them under stresses which are so low. It is impractical to test the machine parts for the
whole period of its service life but interpolation using graphs may not give the right result. Nevertheless,
interpolation is still being applied in some cases.
FAILURE BY FRACTURE
Fracture in a material is visually defined by the actual tearing apart of its part or the entire member of
a structure or machine. Almost all parts of the structure or machine have very tiny cracks usually near or on
the surface. These tiny cracks are harmless unless they grow because of a continuous application of stress or
by repeated load. Sometimes these cracks become visible before any appreciable structural damage occurs
and thus a complete fracture is avoided.
Fracture occurs under one of the following conditions of load:

1. Static load – means there is no removal of load until failure.
2. Repeated load – the material experiences fatigue caused by repetitive application and removal of
load.
Under static load, a material may fracture with or without warning depending on the material and not
according to how the load is applied.
Thus the types of fracture under static load are:

1. Brittle fracture – when a material breaks with very little or no plastic deformation. Failure happens
very abruptly.
2. Ductile fracture – in ductile materials like steel, there shows an evidence of slip under heavy load. As
the material under tension is about to experience rupture, there is a distinct “necking” indicating a
state of flow in the material (see figure).
Almost universally the engineer prefers ductile fracture to brittle fracture in the material he uses for
the following reasons:
1. When there is ductile fracture, inspection can reveal failure in progress before final fracture occurs.
Under many conditions like failure in a machine part, corrections can be made by replacement. In
structures, a disaster can be avoided by evacuating it.
2. Energy is consumed by ductile fracture. Thus the energy that accompanies the impact type of failure
may be dissipated.
Why do materials get tired? We are aware that a piece of wire can be broken by repeatedly bending it
back and forth. Fatigue arises because each half-cycle produces minute strains which are not fully recoverable.
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When these strains are added together, they produce local plastic strains which are sufficient to
reduce ductility in the cold worked areas so that submicroscopic cracks are formed. A crack serves as a notch
which concentrates stresses until finally complete fracture occurs.
The stress which a material can tolerate under cyclic loading is much less than it is under static
loading. The yield strength can be used only as a guide because the tolerable stress decreases as the required
number of cycles increases.
FAILURE OF MATERIAL BY WEARING

The wearing of the material due to abrasive forces like friction, or scratching contact between parts
cannot be treated quantitatively just like fractures caused by stress and strain alone. But this does not mean
that such cause of failure must be ignored by the designing engineer of a mechanical machine or structures
with moving loads. When the cause of failure of the material is by mechanic wear under abrasion, the
progress of wear will be evident unless such part is not externally visible by means of ordinary inspection. In
most cases, for this reason, a repair or replacement of the part is readily done and thus a structural disaster is
avoided.
Take for example, the case of an old railroad rail whose cross-section is
as shown. It is very evident that mechanical wear happens due to the shearing
off of pieces from the surfaces of the train wheels and the rail.
The wearing of the material can be smooth or pitted depending on the
toughness or ductility of the material. Temperature also plays role in the
degree of wearing. Wear can be minimized if a lubricant is applied on rubbing
surfaces. In considering the effect of hardness on wear it must be kept in mind
that hardness covers a number of properties. In general, the greater the
hardness of a material the less will be the wear.
FAILURE BY CHEMICAL ACTION: CORROSION

The deterioration of a material by chemical action called corrosion has five types:
1. Atmospheric – in this type of corrosion there is always present a great excess of oxygen and the rate
of corrosion is largely determined by the quantity of moisture in the air and the time of contact of
moisture with metals like iron. When the air is dry corrosion is negligible.
2. Water immersion – for materials immersed in water the amount of oxygen dissolved in the water is a
factor of prime importance. Probably even iron would not corrode in absolutely pure water with no
dissolved oxygen in it. If the has a slightly acid reaction the tendency to corrosion is, in general,
increased while water with an alkaline reaction usually has little corrosion action on iron except for
highly concentrated solutions.
3. Soil – in soil corrosion the degree of deterioration depends on the ingredients present in the soil.
4. Chemical – the type of chemical that is the particular ingredients coming in contact with the material
and its sensitivity with such chemical are of importance.
5. Electrolysis – this is due to stray currents from power circuits and may be very disastrous, although in
most cases when anticipated, can be prevented by suitable electrical precautions.
Corrosion may be prevented by using chemical preservatives. The type of preservative depends on the
material.
Corrosion may be avoided by using chemical preservatives. The type of preservative depends on the
material. Structural steel and iron can be protected against corrosion by using paints. Since paints are
mechanically weak, it cracks and wears out, it must be applied periodically on the material. Before a coat of
paint is applied on the surface, the material must be free from rusted spots. Otherwise, corrosion develops
under the coat. Asphalt or tar makes a good preservative on most materials from most types of corrosion. In
reinforced concrete members of structures, the reinforcing steel is protected from corrosion by having at least
40 mm of concrete covering. Coatings of molten zincs are used in galvanized iron, a material that is commonly
used in roofing, other structural parts and machine parts.
It has been observed that corrosion is likely to happen in materials under stress than unstressed
materials. Some tests also shows that materials under corrosion have lower fatigue strength. When a material
fails under repeated stress at the same time under corrosion, such failure is termed as corrosion fatigue.
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HOW TO AVOID STRUCTURAL DAMAGE:
Structural damage is a state when a machine or structure ceases to function properly on account of
excessive deformation, yielding, cracking or fracture. Of course the engineer designs his products so that they
will not fail. However, failures do occur. Here are some probable causes of failure:
1. Service conditions become more severe than anticipated. A building is designed to withstand
earthquake forces up to certain intensity only. When it strikes at an intensity that is higher than the
experienced intensity in t the area, some structures may collapse just like what happened in California
in 1990.
2. Poor maintenance. Periodic examination of the parts are neglected thus parts that are supposed to be
repaired or replaced fail leading to structural damage. Failure to lubricate the machine when
necessary.
3. Insufficient knowledge of service stresses. The designer used a higher value of allowable stress that
what should be used for the material, or the engineer planned using the wrong load values.
4. Imperfect quality control. Correct design but wrong implementation. The builder uses substandard
materials or followed the wrong procedure.
Of the causes of structural damage, four theories hold:

1. Maximum stress theory – the cause of failure is tensile, compressive, bearing or shearing.
2. Maximum strain theory – states that structural damage is caused by excessive deformation.
3. Total strain-energy theory – means that the energy of all the combined stresses in the damaged region
is the cause of the structural damage.
4. Distortion-energy theory – holds in effect that the energy of the shearing strain-stress pattern in the
damaged region is the cause of the structural damage.
Working stress is defined as the actual stress the material has under load not causing any structural
damage. In designing, the working stress must not exceed the allowable stress of the material. Such allowable
stress is normally a value not exceeding the proportional limit. The proportional limit of a material can be
taken as a fraction of the yield strength or ultimate strength of the material. In designing a reinforced concrete
member of a structure the working stress of concrete is taken as 45% of its ultimate strength while that of
steel is 40% of its yield strength. In considering the safety under a load of a structure or a machine, several
points of view are possible. The designer wishes to know the size of the members so as to carry a given load.
The purchaser wishes to know how great the load can be carried by the structure or machine. The inspector
wishes to know how large are the stresses set up by the loads actually imposed on the structure or machine.
There are five reasons why the safe working stress of any material is taken as a small fraction of the
ultimate or yield strength:
1. A structure or machine would not give satisfactory service if it were on the point of failure.
2. Complete information so as to the properties of the material, machine or structure is never available.
The thoroughness of testing and of inspection of material varies widely for different classes of work.
The process of the fabrication of the material may have weakened it. The material may suffer
deterioration as time passes.
3. The magnitude of the loads actually applied of the machine or structure is never known exactly. For
example, the variable weight of occupancy of a building is really known and may exceed the assumed
one.
4. The manner of analyzing stress distribution is approximate only. Frequently a distributed load is
assumed a uniform although the actual distribution is variable. The reason for such assumption is the
simplification of the analysis and data gathering.
5. Most structures and machines are inclined to an accidental application of overload.
The consequence of the failure of the material must be very taken into account in the selection of the
working stress, that is whether human life will be involved or not, or the cost of structural damage.
The ratio of the limiting stress over the working stress is called factor of safety. The selection of this
value is done by an authorized group of expert engineers. If a structure is designed with a factor of
safety equal to four, most likely, the structure will fail when actual load becomes four times the
allowable load.
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CHAPTER 3
FERROUS METALS
Ferrous metals are metallic materials containing at 50% iron are classified as ferrous metals or alloys. They
range from cast irons and carbon steels, with over 90% iron, to specially iron alloys containing a variety of
other elements that add up to nearly half the total composition. Pure iron has a specific gravity of 7.86 and
melting point of 2800 .
Properties of pure iron

1. Very ductile
2. Has good resistance to atmospheric oxidation
3. High magnetic permeability
4. Relatively low electrical resistivity
Except for this commercial pure iron, all other ferrous materials are considered to be primarily iron-
carbon alloy systems.
Three allotropic forms of iron

1. Alpha – from subzero temperature to 1670 , it has a body centered cubic structure and it is
called alpha iron.
2. Gamma – between 1670 to 2552 , the crystal structure is face centered cubic and is called
gamma iron.
3. Delta – at 2552 and up to its melting point, the structure becomes boy centered cubic again, and
is called delta iron.
The transformation from one allotropic form to another is reversible. Thus, when iron is heated to
above 1870 , the alpha body centered cubic crystal changes into face centered cubic crystals of gamma iron.
When cooled below this temeature, the metal reverts back to a body centered cubic structure.
Basic Phases of which Ferrous Alloys are composed:

1. Graphite – is often referred to as free carbon or uncombined carbon. It is seldom found in steels
because their carbon content does not exceed 2%. However, it is almost always present in cast irons.
2. Ferrite – is a dilute solution of carbon in alpha iron. Because the maximum amount of carbon that can
be present is not more that 0.025%, ferrite is close to pure iron. It is magnetic and relatively soft and
ductile.
3. Iron carbide or cementite – is an intermetallic compound of about 7% carbon and 93% iron. It is
extremely hard, brittle and has a tensile strength of over 300, 000 psi.
4. Austenite – is the name given to solid solutions of carbon in gamma iron. Carbon can be present in
amounts of 2%. In simple binary steels such as carbon steels austenite can only be present at
temperature between about 1330 to 2715 . It is usually soft and ductile unless cold worked. It less
ductile than ferrite, tough and has strength between 100, 000 psi to 150, 000 psi. It is essentially no
magnetic.
5. Martensite – is a super saturated solid solution of carbon in iron. It is produced by the hardening
process that involves quenching from above the critical temperature, where austenite exists. The
super saturation distorts the normal body centered cubic structure, which accounts for martensite’s
extreme brittleness, high tensile strength and hardness.
Micro constituents of Ferrous Alloys

1. Pearlite – the most important single constituent of steel. It is a mixture of 88% ferrite and 12% iron
carbide.
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2. Tempered martensite – is a product of tempering in the range of about 660 to 1112 . It consists of
small spheroidal carbide in ferrite. Tempered martensite generally provides the maximum impact
toughness in steels.
3. Brainite – is a dispersion of iron carbide in ferrite. It occurs when certain steels are given a step
quench. It has a high strength with reasonable ductility, which can be varied somewhat by choice of
transformation temperature.
4. Ledeburite – is a mixture of austenite and cementite that occurs primarily in cast irons. It has a carbon
content of 2% or more. It is hard and brittle.
Alloying Elements in Steels and their Effects on the Structure

1. Aluminum – deoxidizes, restricts grain growth, and aids surface hardness in nitriding.
2. Boron – increases hardenability, the increase being greater at lower carbon levels.
3. Carbon – increases strength and hardness and decreases ductility.
4. Chromium – increases hardenability, strength at room and elevated temperature, resistance to
corrosion, oxidation and abrasion.
5. Cobalt – holds cutting edge at elevated temperature, increases hardness.
6. Columbium – inhibits intergranular corrosion in high chromium and chromium-nickel stainless and
heat resisting steels.
7. Cooper – increases corrosion resistance and strength.
8. Lead – increases machinability.
9. Manganese – increase hardenability, hardness, and strength and abrasion resistance.
10. Molybdenum – increases hardenability, hardness, resistance to shock and corrosion, enhances creep
strength and counteracts tendency toward temper brittleness.
11. Nickel – increases toughness and shock resistance, strengthens as rolled and annealed steels,
improves resistance to heat and corrosion.
12. Nitrogen – increases strength and hardness, reduces ferrritic grain size, hardens surface.
13. Phosphorus – increases strength, hardness, machinability, atmospheric corrosion resistance, wear
resistance and electric resistivity.
14. Selenium – increase machinability.
15. Silicon – deoxidizes, increases strength and oxidation, resistance, decreases core loss in magnetizing
silicon steel, electric sheets with alternating current.
16. Sulfur – increases machinability.
17. Tantalum – stabilizes carbon to inhibit intergranular corrosion in high chromium and chromium-nickel
stainless and heat resisting steels.
18. Titanium – deoxidizes, has greatest known tendency to form carbide.
19. Tungsten – hardens and strengthens at room and high temperatures, increases hardenability.
20. Vanadium – increases strength, ductility, resiliency and endurance limit, promotes fine grain, forms
carbide, nitride and oxide.
21. Zirconium – deoxidizes, scavenges, and combines with oxygen, sulfur and nitrogen.
Classification of Steels According to the Degree of Oxidation

1. Killed steels – they are strongly deoxidized, are characterized by high composition and property
uniformity. They are used by forging, carburizing and heat treating applications.
2. Semikilled steels – have variable degree of uniformity intermediate between those of killed and
rimmed steels. They are used for plates, structural sections and galvanized sheets and strips.
3. Rimmed steels – are only slightly deoxidized during solidification. Carbon concentration is highest at
the center of ingot. These steels are ideal for rolling. Sheets and strips made from rimmed steels have
excellent surface quality and cold forming characteristics.
4. Capped steels – have thin low carbon rims which give them surface qualities similar to those of
rimmed steels. Their cross-sectional uniformity approaches that of semikilled steels.
Classification of Steels Based on Melting Practice

1. Air-melted steels – are produced by conventional melting methods, such as open hearth, basic oxygen
and electric furnace.
2. Vacuum-melted steels – are produced by induction vacuum melting and consumable electrode
vacuum melting.
12
3. Vacuum degassed steels – are air-meted steels that are vacuum processed before solidification. This
produces steels with lower gas content, fewer non metallic incussion and less center porosity and
segregation. They are more costly and have better mechanical properties, such as ductility and impact
and fatigue strengths.
Classification of Steels According to Alloy Contents

1. Plain carbon steels – are those that contain up to about 1% carbon, to more than 1.65% manganese,
0.6%silicon, 0.8 copper and only residual amounts of other elements. They are identified by means of
a four digit numerical system established by the American iron and Steel Institute (AISI). The first digit
is the number 1 for all carbon steels. A zero after the one indicates non resulfurized grades, and the
number 2 for the second digit indicates resulfurized and rephosphorized grades. The last two digits
give the nominal (middle of the range) carbon content in hundredths of percent. For example for
grade 1040, the 40 represents a carbon range of 0.37 to 0.44%. If no prefix letter is included in the
designation, the steels were made by the basic open hearth, basic oxygen or electric furnace process.
The prefix B stands for the acid Bessemer process. The letter L between the second and the third digits
indentifies leaded steels, and the suffix H indicates that the steel as produced to hardenability limits.
Three groups of plain carbon steels
a. low carbon – up to 0.3% carbon (AISI grades – 1005 to 1030)
b. medium carbon – 0.31 to 0.55% carbon (AISI grades – 1030 to 1055)
c. high carbon – 0.56 to 1% (AISI grades 1060 to 1096)
2. Low alloy carbon steels – steels that do not have more than 5% total combined alloying elements.
3. Cast carbon steels – are in most closely comparable to wrought steels. They respond similarly to heat
treatment and have fairly similar properties.
4. High strength structural steels – these encompasses three groups of steels noted primarily for their
structural strength characteristics.
a. high strength low alloy steels (HSLA) – these steels contain from 0.05 to 3.3% carbon, 0.2 to
1.65% manganese, and small additions of other elements which dissolved in a ferritic matrix
structure, to provide high strength and corrosion resistance.
b. quenched and tempered low alloy steels – generally low in carbon with an upper limit of
0.2%, they have minimum yield strengths from 80, 000 to 20, 000 psi.
c. ultra high-strength steels – these are the highest strength steels available. Steels with
strength of around 200, 000 psi are included in this category.
5. Stainless steels – constitute a large and widely used family of iron-chromium alloys known for their
corrosion resistance – noted for their non rusting quality. This ability to resist corrosion is attributed to
a surface chromium-oxide films that forms in the presence of oxygen, self healing and non porous.
Characteristics of stainless steels
a. non rusting
b. ductility
c. shows excellent performance at elevated temperature and is widely used for parts in which
the load carrying ability is required above 1200 .
d. high coefficient of expansion
e. low thermal conductivity
f. relatively easy to machine
6. Corrosion and resistance cast steels – are arbitrarily defined as steels containing a minimum of 8%
nickel or chromium. They are almost exclusively used in applications involving either a corrosive
environment or a continuous or intermittent service at above 1200 .
Heat resistant grades of heat resistant cast steels

a. iron-chromium grades – these contains 8 to 30% chromium and under 7% nickel.
b. iron-chromium nickel grades – these contains 10 to 31% chromium and 8 to 22% nickel, with
chromium content always higher than nickel.
c. nickel-chromium-iron grades – these contains 10 to 20% chromium and 30 to 70% nickel.
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Corrosion-resistance grades of heat resistant cast steels
a. iron-chromium grades – comparable to wrought stainless steels. Some of t the grades are
martensitic and hardenable by heat treatment. The martensitic grades have their best
corrosion resistance when fully hardened.
b. iron-chromium-nickel grades – these are austenitic grades.
7. Iron base super alloys – broadly applies to iron base, nickel base and cobalt base alloys that combine
exceptional high temperature mechanical properties with excellent oxidation resistance.
8. Tool and die steels – defined as special steels used to form or out another material. They are medium
or high carbon steels with high hardness, abrasion resistance and resistance to softening at elevated
temperatures.
Major class of tool steels

a. water hardening steels – oldest of the tool steels. They are carbon steels with carbon ranging
from about 0.9 to 1.1%. They are the hardest of the tool steels.
b. shock resisting steels – these are extremely tough steels which are relatively low in carbon
(0.42 to 0.65%) alloy content. They were developed for tools in which toughness and strength
is the main importance.
c. cold worked steels – these are basically carbon steels to which small quantity of alloying
elements have been added.
d. hot worked steels – these are used in operations involving the forming, shearing or punching
of metals at high temperatures. They have the best heat resistance of the tool steels.
e. high speed steels – are highly alloyed, some have as much as 25% total alloy content as well
as high carbon percentage. The major alloying element is tungsten which can run as high as
20%.
9. Austenitic manganese steel – these are tough, non magnetic steel alloy that has exceptionally high
resistance to abrasion and wear. The nominal composition is 12 to 13% manganese and 1.2% carbon.
10. Wrought iron – is one of the oldest of the ferrous metals. It is composed of a glass like iron silicate
(slag) fibers or platelets in an iron (ferrite) matrix. Carbon content seldom exceeds 0.035% and
manganese is held to a minimum of 0.06%. It is an easy material to forge and bend. It is readily
welded.
11. Cast iron – is the generic name for a group of metals that are basically ternary alloys of carbon and
with iron. The border line between steel and cast iron is 2% carbon. Carbon is present in cast irons in
two forms: as graphite and as iron carbide.
Types of cast iron
a. gray irons – are the most common, least costly and most widely used of the cast irons. They
also hold the honor of the cheapest of all engineering materials.
b. ductile irons – have the basic composition of gray irons but differ in the shape of the graphite
particles. In contrast to the flat flakes present in gray iron, the graphite in ductile irons is
nodular or spherical.
c. malleable irons – are a family of cast ferrous alloys consisting mainly of iron carbon and
silicon. They are produced chiefly as sand or shell mold castings.
d. white irons – there is visually no graphite, rather the carbon is present in a matrix of fine
pearlite as large particles of iron carbide, thus providing a material that is high in compressive
strength, very hard and abrasion resistant but low in tensile strength and impact resistance.
14
CHAPTER 4
NON-FERROUS METALS
Metallic materials that do not have iron as their major ingredients are considered to be in the non-
ferrous family.
Here are the non-ferrous metals

1. ALUMINUM
-is the most abundant metallic element in the earth’s crust. It is present as Aluminum Oxide (alumina)
in the ore (bauxite) usually in the amounts of from 40 to 50%. Aluminum is extracted from the ore by means of
an electrolytic process in which the alumina is first dissolved in molten electrolyte and when the electric
current is passed through, causing the metallic aluminum be deposited in the cathode.
Characteristics and Properties

a. it has a face centered cubic crystal structure
b. excellent atmospheric corrosion resistance
c. high electrical and thermal conductivity
d. because of lightness and ductility, Aluminum is easy to form and finish
e. as temperature decreases below room temperature and down to 320 , Aluminum alloy increases
in strength and toughness
f. it has a high degree of workability
g. it losses strength rapidly as temperature increases
2. MAGNESIUM
-a silvery white metal with a specific gravity of 1.74 is the lightest of the commercial metals.

a. it is not used in pure state for structural applications but is alloyed with Aluminum, zinc rare earths,
thorium, zirconium and manganese
b. Magnesium alloy is relatively low in strength, their low density gives strength to weight ratio
competitive with high strength aluminum alloy
c. it is easiest of all structural metals to machine
d. high electrical and thermal conductivity
e. non-ferromagnetic
f. corrosion resistance is fairly good in a wide range of environments but quickly corrodes in marine
atmosphere
g. in powder or finely divided form, magnesium reacts violently with oxygen and ignites at 900
h. Is has closed packed hexagonal crystal structure
i. it has relatively poor room temperature ductility
j. it has excellent dimensional stability
3. TITANIUM
-is the fourth most abundant metallic element in the earth’s crust. Unfortunately, winning the metal
from its ore is complicated and costly. Because of its affinity to oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen, titanium must
be produced vacuum in an inert-gas atmosphere.

a. it is one of the few allotropic metals (that is it can exist in two different crystallographic forms)
b. alloys are about 40% lighter than steel and 60% heavier than aluminum
c. the presence of thin, tough oxide surface film provide excellent resistance to atmospheric and sea
environments
d. it has a higher melting point than iron
15
e. low thermal conductivity
f. low coefficient of expansion
g. high electrical resistivity
4. BERYLLIUM
a. one-third lighter than Aluminum, its stiffness to weight ratio is roughly six times greater than that of
ultra high strength structural steels and its melting point approaches that of steels
b. excellent thermal conductivity
c. non magnetic and good conductor of electricity
d. its hexagonal crystal structures combined with high sensitivity of impurities results in almost total
lack of room temperature ductility
e. toxic when inhaled or ingested
f. very brittle
g. ductility improves between 390 and 750 but becomes brittle again above 930
Uses of Beryllium
a. Beryllium foil, down to 0.0005 inch thick is used in vacuum tubes
b. Its mill products are used in special applications such as systems reentry vehicles, aircraft brakes
and satellite parts
c. It is most useful as an alloying element and as a composite constituent because of its embrittlement
problem
d. In composites, it is used in the form of wire or particle matrices of titanium or aluminum
5. COPPER
-was probably the first metal discovered. It has been used over the centuries as both an art and
engineering materials. Its outstanding engineering property is its electrical conductivity, which is second only
to silver. Copper and its alloys are noted for excellent corrosion resistance, ease of form and finishing and
attractive color.
Characteristics and Properties of Copper

1. It has a face centered cubic crystal, which account from its combination of moderate strength and good
ductility
2. Its mill products range widely in strength, from a low 34,000 to 200,000 psi for hard temper beryllium-
copper
3. With melting ranges from 1650 to 2250 , copper alloys are not noted for their high temperature
mechanical properties
4. at low temperature, all copper alloys improved mechanical properties
5. Copper and many of its alloys changes color rapidly in air. Usually the alloys surface darkens; in the case
of copper, the color changes to blue green known as patina
Classification of Copper Alloys

a. brasses - which contains zinc as the principal alloying element
b. bronzes - which were originally confined to copper-tin alloys but today include a variety of other alloys
in which tin is the only minor element or it is not present
c. cupronickels - in which nickel is the principal alloying element
d. nickel silvers - which are copper-nickel-zinc alloys. They actually contain silver
e. high copper alloys - which contain less than 99.3% but more than 96% copper
Types of commercial Copper

a. Tough pitch copper - this is the standard copper of industry for electrical and many other uses. It
contains about 0.04% oxygen. It is used as roofing and flashing, automobile radiators, cooking utensils and
printing rolls.
b. Phosphorous-deoxidized copper - this is second to tough pitch copper in volume of use largely due to
its use in pipes and tubes for domestic water service and refrigeration equipment. It has excellent hot and
16
cold workability and is not susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement. It is in plumbing hardware, piping and
tubing for water, gas, oil and steam, heat exchangers, brewery and dairy tubs.
c. Oxygen free high conductivity copper - this is the highest in purity (99.98% copper) and provides
optimum electrical conductivity. It is the most expensive of all types and is limited largely to use in
electrical and electronics industry.
d. Silver-bearing Copper - the presence of very small amounts of silver in copper raises the softening
temperature, thus improving elevated temperature and creep strength. Lake copper is the general term
for silver bearing copper having varying but controlled amounts of silver up to about 30 oz/ton.
e. Arsenic tough-pitch copper - this is the modified copper that contains arsenic, which the softening
temperature and improves corrosion resistance in some environments.
f. Sulfur-bearing and Tellurium-bearing coppers - these are coppers to which sulfur and tellurium has
been added to increase machination without appreciably lowering conductivity.
Brasses
-These are basically copper zinc alloys whose zinc content ranges up to 49%. If the copper crystal
structure is face-centered cubic, there will be up to 36% of zinc present. This solid solution, known as alpha
phase, has a high corrosion resistance but its electrical conductivity is considered lower than that of copper.
Types of Brasses
a. straight brass – is the most widely used of all copper base alloys. Zinc content ranges from as low as
5% to about 40%. Some of the common names of these alloys are commercial bronze (commercial
bronze - 10% zinc, yellow brass - 35% zinc and muntz metal - 40% zinc)
b. leaded brasses - these alloys have essentially the same range of zinc content as the straight brasses.
Lead is present from less than 1 to 3.25%. Common leaded brasses are leaded commercial bronze
(0.5% lead), medium leaded brass (1% lead), and hardware bronze (1.75% lead), free cutting bras
(3.25% lead) and hardware bronze (1.75% lead).
c. tin brasses - is produced by adding tin to copper-zinc alloys. Pleasing colors are obtained when tin is
added to the low brasses.
Bronzes
-the term bronze is generally applied to any copper that has a principal alloying element a metal other
than zinc or nickel.
Types of Bronzes
a. Aluminum Bronze - this group is made of alpha-aluminum bronzes (less than 8% aluminum), and
alpha beta alloys (8 to 12% aluminum plus other elements such as iron, silicon and manganese).
b. Phosphor Bronze - these alloys have a tin content of 1.25to 10%. They have excellent mechanical
and cold working properties and low coefficient of friction.
c. Silicon Bronze - similar to aluminum bronze, Silicon content is usually between 1 to 4%
6. ZINC
-is a relatively inexpensive metal in large volume use. Among the non-ferrous metals, its total
consumption is topped only by that of Aluminum and Copper. Its largest single use is as a zinc coating on iron
and steel. Its major structural use is in the cast form. The low cost and melting point (73 ) of zinc alloys make
them specially suitable for die cast parts widely used in automotive, appliance and other products.
It is long been used as an anode for cathodic projection of steel piers, ships and pipelines and many
other structures. Since it is more active in galvanic couple than iron and steel, its functions as the sacrificial
anode and provides electrochemical protection against rust.
Low melting metals

-are arbitrary defined as those having melting points or melting ranges below 700 .
Metals under this group
a. Tin
b. lead
c. bismuth
d. antimony
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e. cadmium
f. indium
7. NICKEL AND COBALT – is one of the most of our engineering materials and ranks around tenth in the world
consumption of metals. It not only serves as an important alloying element in ferrous metals but it is the base
metal for a number of nickel alloys that possess combinations of materials unavailable in other materials.

a. it has a face-centered cubic crystal structure.
b. its color is silvery white with yellowish cast.
c. it is magnetic up to 680 and metals at 2650 .
d. its alloys are stronger, tougher and harder than most other non-ferrous metals.
e. they are comparable in cost to stainless steels.
f. alloys have important electrical and magnetic properties.
g. available in all produced as sand, centrifugal and precision castings.
Classification of Nickels and its alloys

a. Extra high nickel
b. Nickel copper alloy
c. Nickel chromium alloys
d. Nickel chromium cobalt alloys
e. Cobalt
f. Special magnetic alloys
Refractory Metals
This group is defined as being composed of metals and other alloys and their alloys that have melting
temperature above 3,000 and that can be used in load bearing applications. The metals commonly assigned
to this group are:
a. tungsten
b. tantalum
c. chromium
d. vanadium
e. hafnium
f. rhenium
g. columbium
Precious Metals
Eight metals make up the precious metals (or noble metal family). They are:
a. Gold - a yellow soft and most ductile of all metals. It has exceptionally high oxidation and chemical
resistance. It is not attacked by common acids, but is soluble in aqua regia and cyanide solution. It is attacked
by chlorine at temperature above 175 .
b. Platinum - it is a white ductile metal that takes a high permanent polish. It has remarkable resistance to
corrosion and chemical attack, a high melting point, retention of strength and resistance to oxidation in air,
even at very high temperature. It is virtually non-oxidizable and is soluble only in liquids generating free
chlorine, such as aqua regia.
c. Palladium - is a silvery white metal, very ductile and slightly harder than platinum. It is not as corrosion
resistant as platinum and it is soluble in aqua regia and can be attacked by boiling nitric and sulfuric acids. Its
electrical resistivity is the highest in the platinum group.
d. Iridium - this is the silvery white metal, very ductile and slightly harder than platinum. It is very hard, brittle,
tin colored metal, and is soluble in aqua regia only when alloyed with sufficient platinum. It has temperature
strength comparable to tungsten up to 3,000 .
18
e. Rhodium - this is the hardest of all metals and the highest in electrical and thermal conductivity in the
platinum group. It is used for sparkplug electrodes in aircraft and other engines.
f. Ruthenium - this is a hard and brittle metal with a silver gray luster. Its tetraoxide is very volatile and
poisonous. Unalloyed, it is unworkable. It is added to platinum to increase resistivity and hardness.
g. Osmium - this is the heaviest known metal having a density three times that of steel. Its melting point
(4,900 ) is the third highest of the metal following that of tungsten and tantalum.
h. Silver - is the most ductile and malleable of all metals. It is one of the most corrosion resistant metals and
under ordinary conditions is not affected by alkalis and most other chemicals unless hydrogen sulfide is
present.
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CHAPTER 5
TIMBER
Timber is one of the oldest known structural materials. In addition to its usefulness as a material for
structural and applied design, because of its relative cheapness timber has also fulfilled a role in the capacity
of temporary structure, allowing materials such as concrete to be erected in structural forms which would
otherwise have been vulnerable in the stage before it gained strength.
Source of Timber:
In knowing its behavior and limitations, it is important that a knowledge of the nature and growth of
its source – mature trees.
A tree has three subsystems:

1. Root system – the root has two functions: absorbing moisture containing minerals from the soil and
anchoring the whole system to the ground. With the roots, the growing tree can withstand wind forces.
2. Trunk – the trunk provides rigidity, mechanical strength and height to maintain the crown level above
the ground at which it functions efficiently. It also contains and protects growth cells and provides two-
way transport system for moisture travelling up from the roots and sap travelling down from the crown.
3. Crown – the function of the crown is to provide a catchment area covered with leaves that produce
the food of the tree for its growth.
CROSS SECTION OF TRUNK
Of the three subsystems, of course the trunk is the most important since it is from this part that
marketable timber is obtained. The cross-section of the trunk (see figure next page) provides perhaps the
easiest picture of those relevant components of the tree with which users need to be concerned:
1. Outer bark – the outermost periphery which is rough in texture and dense enough on consistence to
provide protective layer covering the vital food layers immediately inside it.
2. Inner bark – soft, moist and spongy and transports the converted sap from the leaves to the growing
parts of the tree.
3. Cambium – is a thin layer of cells next to the inner bark. It is here that growth takes place by the
splitting of single cell into two cells.
4. Annual ring – is made of tubular cells inside the cambium called xylem which provides the means of
conducting and storing food and also provides mechanical support. The annual rings consist of two layers:
summerwood (darker) and springwood (lighter).
5. Medullary rays – run perpendicular to the main cells from the outer layers inward. These carry food
material by transporting the excess towards the center of the tree.
6. Heartwood – the wood from the inner rings which is composed of dead tissue, its cells being
completely filled.
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7. Sapwood – the living layer which serves as ducts for the passage of sap.
Classification of Trees
Trees are classified into:
1. Softwoods or angiosperms
2. Hardwood or gymnosperms
It should be noted that the terms hardwood and softwood in relation to species of trees do not
necessary indicate relative hardness or density.
Characteristics of Timber
Timber has three main characteristics:
1. Strength
2. Durability
3. Finished appearance
The three factors affecting the strength of timber are:

1. Density – is certainly an indication of strength. The more dense the timber the stronger it is. Although
all timbers are made up of the same chemical constituents, but dense timber has thicker walls which
contribute to the strength of the timber.
In softwoods in particular this occurs with high proportion of summerwood in the growth rings. This has
major strength significance and for various species there are optimum growth rates relative to strength
and it has been shown that timber which has not matched or has exceeded these optima is likely to be
weaker.
2. Moisture content – the strength of timber decreases with the rise of moisture content. There is
optimum moisture content for species, and even with species, for particular use and an excessively dried-
out timber may have lower strength. A side aspect of moisture content is the support which high moisture
content might give to the germination and flourishing of fungal growth 0of to the attraction of insects. In
each of these cases there will be an indirect reduction in strength.
3. Grain structure – its significance in strength context and any disruption due to growth defects will
induce a reduction in strength from that of clear specimens of the same timber. Slope of grain in any given
timber member will affect the strength properties about the most significant axis.
TIMBER SEASONING
There are two methods of seasoning timber:
1. Air seasoning – the timber is stacked in open sided sheds in such a way as to promote drying without
artificial assistance. The advantage of this method is that it is a cheap method with very little loss in quality
of timber if done properly. The disadvantage is that both timber and space are immobilized for long
periods, while very little control is possible.
2. Kiln drying – this method of seasoning employs a heated, ventilated and humidified oven kiln drying
must be used to reduce the moisture content below 17%. It is necessary to humidify the circulating in
order to control the rate of evaporation, and this humidity is reduced as the drying proceeds.
The essentials of a kiln are:

1. Heat, under proper control and sufficient to raise the temperature to the maximum required;
2. Humidification, also under proper control and sufficient to meet all requirements;
3. Air circulation, uniform and sufficient velocity
4. Air interchange, control at will.
Timber infestation
Timber should be protected from infestation by proper specification and use, or by preservatives. Timber
infestations are done by:
1. Insects – beetles of one kind or another infest timber because of the organic nature of the material is
favorable to hatching and growing. The effect is to reduce the cross-sectional area of the timber thus
reducing its strength.
2. Marine borers – there are a number of marine organisms which can seriously degrade timber used in
salt water. The two most common organisms are ship worm which tunnels extensively within affected
21
timber and may completely destroy the strength of the timber with little external evidence of attack, and
the gribble which creates small tunnels in the near surface layers of exposed timber.
3. Fungal growth – this may be destructive or nondestructive. Fungi are plants with no flowers or foliage
and require no chlorophyll or sunlight since they are able to consume organic matter such as cellulose in
timber.
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
Defects can occur in timber at various stages, principally during the growing period and during the
conversion and seasoning process. These defects as shown in the table below can reduce the strength of
timber or ruining its appearance.
SOURCES AND FORMS OF TIMBER DETERIORATION

Source Form of Deterioration
Bacteria Discoloration of surface
Chemicals Discoloration of surface with disintegration of cellular structure
Fire Charring of surface of thick sections
Fungi Discoloration of surface with disintegration of cellular structure
Insect Flight-holes at surface with tunneling causing disintegration of
structure
Mechanical Fracture on fibers and surface deterioration
Sunlight Discoloration and embrittlement of surface
Water Discoloration and erosion of surface, expansion and contraction
leading to cracking and splitting of cellular structure
NATURAL DEFECTS
The natural defects which occur during the growing period are as follows:
1. Cracks or fissures – these occur in various parts of the tree and are generally given specific names to
identify them more readily. Checks, shakes and splits are terms which refer to particular fiber disruptions
which affect the strength of the timber by reducing the cross-sectional area of complete fibrous section.
Heart shakes which occur at the center of the trunk may even indicate the presence of decay or the
beginning of decay. Resin pockets are fissures contain resin which constitute a strength defect and also
interfere with decorative treatment in the finished use.
2. Rind gall, burr and curl – these are defects arising from the overgrowth of one part of a tree with
another. Ring gall occurs where surface wounds or indentations are enclosed in subsequent growth. A
burr is a swelling resulting from severely twisted grain caused by undeveloped buds emerging adjacent to
a wound and then being enclosed by subsequent growth. A curl occurs at the crotch where a large branch
intersects with the truck.
3. Knots – these are perhaps the most obvious natural defects, and again they reduce the strength by
interrupting the continuity of the fiber. A knot is a part of a branch which becomes enclosed within the
growing trunk.
4. Fungal decay – this may occur in growing mature timber or even in recently converted timber. Dote is
an early stage in such decay.
5. Insect Damage – this can occur with the exit holes of beetles but these normally do not occur in such
profusion as to reduce the strength of timber in the immediate area.
6. Annual ring width – this can be critical in respect of strength in excess width of such rings can reduce
the density of the timber.
7. Grain defects – these can occur in the forms of twisted grain, cross-grain or spiral grain, all of which
can induce subsequent problems of distortion in use.
CHEMICAL DEFECTS
Chemical defects may occur in particular instances when timber is used in unsuitable positions or in
association with other chemicals. Some timbers corrode metals because they contain tannic acid and other
chemicals. In any timber, gums and resins can inhibit the working properties and interfere with the ability to
take adhesives.
22
CONVERSION DEFECTS
These are due basically to unsound practice in the use of milling techniques to undue economy in
attempting to use every possible piece of timber converted from the trunk (See figure next page). A wane
occurs where misplaced economy in conversion produces lengths of timber which contain, on one or more
faces, part of the bark or the rounded periphery of the trunk. Again this reduces the cross-sectional area with
consequent reduction in strength in the parts affected. Slope of grain may be excessive enough to amount to
a defect, and when pronounced may be due to spiral growth or to the problem that occurs when conversion
cannot always be parallel to the axis of the trunk.
SEASONING DEFECTS
These are directly related to the movement which occurs in timber due to changes in moisture
content. Excessive or uneven drying, exposure to wind and rain, and poor stacking and spacing during
seasoning can all produce defects or distortion in timber. Some of these defects are irreversible and obviously
require rejection of the timber, but others while equally serious, may appear to be less so, if defective timber
is used, the defects manifest themselves either by reversal or exaggeration of distortion, resulting in loosening
of fixings. Checks and splits similar to shakes may be induced in endwood or faces exposed in the drying stack
to excessive sun or wind action. Washboarding, honeycombing and case hardening are all defects which can
occur in the drying stack. Cupping occurs when a sawn board curves in section away from the heart of the
trees. Twisting occurs in the piece or in board owing to differential drying out of distorted grain. Springing and
bowing are due to errors in accurate placing of the spacing sticks between timbers in the drying stack,
resulting in uneven loading while the seasoning timber is still green.
23
24
STRESS GRADING
In order to design a timber structure properly the following properties of the timber should be known:
1. Allowable bending stress (used also for tension)
2. Allowable shear stress parallel to grain
3. Allowable compressive stress perpendicular to the grain
4. Allowable compressive stress parallel to the grain
5. Modulus of elasticity
Tests on large numbers of comparatively small clear specimens that specimens clear of defects, under
short term loading conditions have shown that there is significant variation of strength of apparently similar
specimens. Factors affecting the strength of clear timber such as moisture content, size and shape of
specimen and sustained loading have also been investigated and estimates of their effect on strength made.
These factors together with a general factor of safety are all incorporated in reduction factors which when
multiplied by minimum strength give working stresses for clear timber. However, in practice, timber as
commercially converted is seldom free from defects and further reductions in working stresses are required.
This is accomplished by classifying timber into various strength grades depending on the extent and likely
effect of different strength reducing defects.
Visual stress grading may be carried out using stress grading rules such as those used in the National
Structural Code of the Philippines which specify the maximum size of defects acceptable in each of the
different stress grades. This limit of defects for different stress grades are shown in the table below:
KIND OF DEFECT STRESS GRADE STRESS GRADE STRESS GRADE

80% 67% 56%
A. Natural Defects
1. Worm holes
Ave. Dia.
a. individual Not permitted 2 6
b. Qty. limit Not permitted Not clustered Not clustered
2. slope of grain (variation from 18mm 25mm 32mm
longitudinal axis per 300mm within
middle half of length)
3. Checks and Shakes
a. Size of each shake and check or
if in combination, the sum of
the sizes of all checks and
shakes within middle half of
depth of the piece shall not
exceed: ¼ of thickness ¼ of thickness 3/8 of thickness
WORKING STRESSES FOR 80% STRESS GRADE

Bending and Modulus of Compression Compression Shear parallel
Species tension elasticity in parallel to perpendicular to grain
parallel to bending grain to grain (Mpa)
grain (Gpa) (Mpa) (Mpa)
(Mpa)
Acacia 11.70 3.86 7.31 3.86 1.31
Agoho 25.90 12.40 14.60 6.90 1.83
Almaciga 11.70 7.72 6.55 1.72 0.91
Almon 13.80 8.62 8.14 2.31 0.91
Anang 19.30 9.65 11.00 3.28 1.38
Apitong 16.30 11.00 9.65 2.59 1.10
Bagtikan 17.20 9.10 10.30 2.31 1.27
Benguet pine 15.40 9.00 8.62 2.31 1.27
Binggas 21.70 10.30 15.40 5.86 1.83
25
Bitaog 16.30 9.10 9.65 2.93 1.24
Bok-bok 19.30 9.65 11.00 3.44 1.24
Dangula 31.00 13.80 21.70 11.70 2.07
Guijo 20.70 12.40 12.40 4034 1.46
Kamatong 21.70 11.00 12.40 4.62 1.54
Katilma 23.10 12.40 13.10 4.14 1.63
Lanipau 13.80 8.62 8.62 2.07 0.91
Mahogany 16.30 6.90 11.00 4.34 1.63
Malakatmon 9.30 10.20 11.70 5.86 1.54
Malungai 15.40 9.10 9.65 3.68 1.38
Manggachapui 23.10 12.40 14.60 4.34 1.54
Manggasinoro 12.40 7.31 7.72 1.63 0.91
Mayapis 13.10 8.62 7.31 1.63 0.73
Molave 23.10 8.62 16.30 7.31 1.83
Narig 23.10 12.40 15.40 5.86 1.54
Narra 18.30 8.62 8.14 2.76 1.03
Pahutan 16.30 9.65 9.65 2.76 1.31
Palcapia 13.80 8.62 8.62 2.93 1.03
Red lauan 13.10 8.14 6.90 1.72 0.91
Tangile 15.40 9.10 8.62 2.07 1.03
White lauan 13.10 8.14 8.62 2.07 1.03
Yacal 27.60 15.40 18.30 9.10 1.72

Bending and Modulus of Compression Compression Shear parallel
Species tension elasticity in parallel to perpendicular to grain
parallel to bending grain to grain (Mpa)
(Mpa)
Acacia 8.14 3.28 5.27 3.10 1.10
Agoho 18.30 10.30 10.30 5.52 1.54
Almaciga 8.14 6.55 4.62 1.38 0.77
Almon 9.64 7.31 5.86 1.83 0.77
Anang 13.80 8.14 7.72 2.59 0.27
Apitong 11.70 9.10 6.90 2.07 0.92
Bagtikan 12.40 7.72 7.31 1.83 0.97
Benguet pine 11.00 7.72 6.21 1.83 0.96
Binggas 15.40 8.62 11.00 4.62 1.54
Bitaog 11.70 7.72 6.90 2.31 1.03
Bok-bok 13.80 8.14 7.72 2.76 1.03
Dangula 21.70 11.70 15.40 9.10 1.72
Guijo 14.60 10.30 8.62 3.45 1.24
Kamatong 15.40 9.10 8.62 3.65 1.31
Katilma 16.30 10.36 9.10 3.28 1.38
Lanipau 9.65 7.31 6.21 1.63 0.77
Mahogany 11.70 5.86 7.72 3.45 1.38
Malakatmon 13.80 8.62 8.40 4.62 1.31
Malungai 11.00 7.72 6.90 3.10 1.17
Manggachapui 16.30 10.30 10.30 3.45 1.31
Manggasinoro 8.62 6.21 5.52 1.31 0.77
Mayapis 9.10 7.31 5.27 1.31 0.62
Molave 16.30 7.31 11.70 5.86 1.54
Narig 16.30 10.30 11.70 4.62 0.13
Narra 13.10 7.31 5.86 2.17 0.86
26
Pahutan 11.70 8.14 6.90 2.17 1.10
Palcapia 9.65 7.31 6.21 2.31 0.86
Red lauan 9.10 6.90 4.90 1.38 0.77
Tangile 11.00 7.72 6.21 1.63 0.86
White lauan 9.10 6.90 6.21 1.63 0.86
Yacal 19.30 13.10 13.10 7.31 1.46

Bending and Modulus of Compression Compression Shear parallel to
Species tension elasticity in parallel to perpendicula grain
parallel to bending grain r to grain (Mpa)
(Mpa)
Acacia 9.65 3.65 6.21 3.10 1.31

Agoho 21.70 11.70 12.40 5.52 1.38
Almaciga 9.65 7.31 5.52 1.38 0.91
Almon 11.70 8.14 6.90 1.83 0.91
Anang 16.30 9.10 9.10 2.59 1.38
Apitong 13.80 10.30 8.14 2.07 1.10
Bagtikan 14.60 8.62 8.62 1.83 1.27
Benguet pine 13.10 8.62 7.31 1.83 1.27
Binggas 18.30 9.65 13.10 4.62 1.83
Bitaog 13.80 8.62 8.14 2.31 1.24
Bok-bok 16.30 9.10 9.10 1.76 1.24
Dangula 25.90 13.10 18.30 9.10 2.07
Guijo 17.20 11.70 10.30 3.45 1.46
Kamatong 18.30 10.30 10.30 3.65 1.54
Katilma 19.30 11.70 11.00 3.28 1.63
Lanipau 11.70 8.14 7.31 1.63 0.91
Mahogany 13.80 6.55 9.10 3.45 1.63
Malakatmon 16.30 9.65 9.65 4.62 1.54
Malungai 13.10 8.62 8.14 3.10 1.38
Manggachapui 19.30 11.70 12.40 3.45 1.54
Manggasinoro 10.30 6.90 6.55 1.31 0.91
Mayapis 11.00 8.14 6.21 1.31 0.73
Molave 19.30 8.14 13.80 5.86 1.83
Narig 19.30 11.70 13.10 4.62 1.54
Narra 15.40 8.14 6.90 2.17 1.91
Pahutan 13.80 9.10 8.14 2.17 0.73
Palcapia 11.70 8.14 7.31 2.31 1.83
Red lauan 11.00 7.72 5.86 1.38 1.54
Tangile 13.10 8.62 7.31 1.63 1.03
White lauan 11.00 7.72 7.31 1.63 1.03
Yacal 23.10 14.60 15.40 7.31 1.72
27
Preservation of timber
Types of preservative:
1. tar-oil preservatives – these are very widely used particularly in the form of coal-tar creosote for
pressure impregnation and for brush application. This type is excellent for use on timbers which are
located on the exterior of buildings or otherwise to be exposed to the elements. Drawbacks with this type
include encouragement of flammability in painting treated timber all of which restrict internal use.
2. Water-soluble preservatives – these are the generally odorless and nonstaining with no restriction on
decorative treatment, making timber so treated suitable for interior finishing work. Because of
waterborne nature of this type of preservative it may be necessary to dry the timber to acceptable
moisture content. Normally, such preservatives do not increase the flammability of timber, and in some
cases actually reduces it.
3. organic-solvent preservatives – these are generally poor in respect of nonflammability because of
volatile nature of the solvent. Such preservatives are generally noncorrosive, but may adversely affect
food. After painting, the treated timber is no more flammable than untreated timber similarly painted.
Methods of Preservation
The following descriptions of methods of treatment are arranged in ascending order of efficiency and
effectiveness.
1. Brush or spray application – this is the least effective method but is better than none and provided
the preservative is flooded over the surfaces to encourage absorption, reasonable penetration is possible
in permeable timbers.
2. Deluging, dipping or steeping – these applications are often specified for a variety of preservatives
although the organic solvent type is most frequently used in one or other of the methods. Depending on
the preservative used, some preheating may assist penetration.
3. Open tank application – this can be extremely efficient in ensuring penetration in permeable timbers.
The method is simple and economic but provides little control. Accordingly, it is used to ensure maximum
penetration of preservative into softwoods which have been used for exterior work. The application takes
place in a large metal tank in which the preservative can be heated by open fire or stream.
4. Pressure application – by far the most efficient and controllable method of preservation, pressure
application is widely and economically practiced. In the full cell process, the timber is placed in a large
enclosed pressure vessel and is subjected to a vacuum for about an hour. While the vacuum is maintained,
the preservative, usually preheated is introduced into the vessel until it is filled. Pressure is then gradually
increased until the required amount of preservative has been introduced into the timber, after which
pressure is reduced and the vessel is emptied of preservative. A further vacuum is applied for a brief
period only long enough to clean the surface of the timber.
28
CHAPTER 6
CONCRETE
Concrete is a stone like material obtained by permitting a carefully proportioned mixture to harden in
form of the shape mainly of three materials namely:
1. Cement
2. Aggregate
3. Water
An additional material called admixture is sometimes added to modify certain properties. Cement and
water interact chemically to bind the aggregate and coarse aggregate, play no part in chemical reactions but
their usefulness arises because they are economical filler materials with good resistance to volume changes
which take place within the concrete after mixing and it improved the durability of concrete.
The different types of cement used for making concrete are:

1. Portland cement
2. Pozzolanic cement
3. Slag cement
4. High-alumina cement
COMPOSITION OF PORTLAND CEMENT
Portland cement is a finely powdered, grayish material developed in 1824 and derives its name from
Portland limestone in Dorset, England. The basic raw materials used in the manufacture of Portland cement
are:
1. Calcium carbonate – found in calcareous rocks such as limestone or chalk.
2. Silica – found in the argillaceous rocks such as clay or shale.
3. Alumina - also found in argillaceous rocks
4. Iron oxide – also found in argillaceous rocks
MANUFACTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT
Cement is prepared by first intimately grinding and mixing the raw constituents in certain proportions,
during this mixture at a very high temperature to produce clinker, and then grinding it into powder form. Since
the clinker is formed by diffusion between the solid particles, intimate mixing of the ingredients is essentials if
uniform cement is too produced. This mixing may be in a dry or wet state depending on the hardness of the
available rock.
The wet process is used, in general for the softer materials such as chalk of clay. Water is added to the
proportioned mixture of crushed chalk and clay to produce slurry which is eventually led off to a kiln. This is a
steel cylinder, with a refractory lining, which is slightly incline to the horizontal and rotates continuously about
its own axis. It is usually fired by pulverized coal, although gas or boil may be as large as 3.5 m in diameter and
150m and handle up to 700 tons of cement a day. The slurry is fed in at the upper and of the kiln and the
clinker is discharged at the lower end where fuel is injected. With its temperature increasing progressively, the
slurry undergoes a number of changes as it travels down the kiln. At 100 the water is driven off, at about
850 carbon dioxide is given off and about 1400 incipient fusion takes place in the in the firing zone where
calcium silicates and calcium aluminates are formed in the resulting clinker. The clinker is allowed to cool and
the ground, with 1 to 15% gypsum, to the required fineness. Different types of Portland cement are obtained
by varying the proportion of the raw materials, the temperature of burning and the fineness of grinding, and
in some cases by intergrinding ding clinker with other recognize materials such as granulated blast furnace
slag. Gypsum is added to control the setting of cement, which would otherwise set much too quickly foe
general use.
The dry or semi-dry process is used for the harder rocks such as limestone and shale. The constituent
materials are crushed anti powder form and, with a minimum amount of water, passed into am incline
29
rotating nodulizing pan where nodules are formed. These are known as raw meal. This is fed into a kiln and
thereafter the manufacturing process is similar to the wet process although a much shorter length of kiln is
used. It should be noted that the dry and semi-dry processes are more energy efficient than the wet process.
BASIC CHARACTERISTIC OF PORTLAND CEMENTS
The basic characteristic of Portland cement and their effect on the physical properties of concrete and
cement mortar are as follows:
1. Chemical composition – as a result of chemical changes which take place within the kiln several
compounds are formed in the resulting cement although only four are generally considered important. The
two silicates C3S and C2S, which are the most stable of this compounds together form 70-80 percent of the
constituents in the cement and contribute most of the physical properties of concrete. When cement comes in
contact with water, C3S begin to hydrate rapidly, generating a considerable of amount of heat and making a
significant contribution to the development of the early strength, particularly during the first 14 days. In
contrast C2S, which hydrate slowly and is mainly responsible for the development in strength after about 7
days, maybe active foe a considerable period of time. The increase rate of strength development of rapid-
hardening Portland cement arises from its generally high C3S content and also from its increased fineness
which, by increasing the specific surface of the cement, increases the rate at which hydration can occur.
2. Fineness - the reaction between the water and cement starts on the surface of the cement particles
and in consequence the greater the surface area if a given volume of cement the greater the hydration. It
follows that for a given composition; fine cement will develop strength and generate heat more quickly than
coarse cement. It will also cost more manufacture as the clinker must be more finely ground. Fine cement, in
general improve the cohesiveness of fresh concrete and can be effective in reducing the risk of bleeding, but
they increase the tendency of shrinkage cracking.
3. Hydration – The chemical combination of cement and water, known as hydration produces a very
hard and strong binding medium for the aggregate particles in concrete and is accompanied by the liberation
of heat, normally expressed as joules per gram. The rate hydration depends on the relative properties of
silicate and aluminate compounds, the cement fineness and the ambient conditions. Factors affecting the rate
of hydration have a similar effect on the liberation of heat. The possible advantages associated with increased
rate of hydration may in these circumstances be out weight by the lose in durability of the concrete resulting
from the microcracking.
4. Setting and hardening – Setting and hardening of cement paste are the main physical characteristic
associated with hydration of the cement. Hydration results in the formation of a gel around each of the
cement particles and in the time these layers of gel grow to the extent that they come in contact with each
other. At this stage the cement paste begins to lose its fluidity. The beginning of noticeable stiffening in the
cement is known as the initial set. Further stiffening occurs as the volume of gel increases and the stage at
which this is complete and the final hardening process, Responsible for its strength, commences is known as
the final set. The time from the addition of water to the initial and final set are known as the setting times and
the specifics requirements in this respect for the different cements are given in the appropriates standards.
Ordinary Portland cements have as setting time of about 160 minutes and a final setting time of about 215
minutes.
5. Strength – The strength of hardened cement is generally its most important property. It should be
understood that cement paste alone is not used its test because of unacceptably large variations of strength
thus obtained. Standard aggregate are used for making prescribed mortar or concrete test mixes to eliminate
aggregate effect from the measured strength of the cement.
6. Soundness – An excessive change in volume, particularly expansion of a cement paste after setting
indicates that the cement is unsound and not suitable for the manufacture of concrete. In general, the effects
of using unsound cement may not be apparent for some considerable period of time, but usually manifest
themselves in cracking and disintegration of the surface of the concrete.
30
BASICS CHARACTERISTIC OF AGREGATE
Aggregate is much cheaper than cement and maximum economy is obtained by using as much
aggregate as possible in concrete. Its use also considerably improves both the volume stability and the
durability of the resulting concrete. The following characteristic affects the properties of concrete:
1. Strength – The Strength limits the attainable strength of concrete only when its compressive
strength is less than or of the same order as the design strength of concrete. A majority of rocks aggregates
used are considerably stronger than concrete. The strength of the aggregate commonly used is in the range of
70 to 350 MPa. In general, igneous rocks are very much stronger than sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
Because of the irregular size and shape of aggregate particles a direct measurement of their strength
properties is not possible. These are normally assessed from comprehensive strength test on cylindrical
specimen taken from the parent rock and from crushing value tests on the bulk average.
2. Deformation – The modulus of elasticity of concrete increases with the increasing aggregate
modulus. The Deformation characteristic of the aggregate also play important role in the creep and shrinkage
properties of concrete as the restrain afforded by the aggregate to the creep and shrinkage of the cement
paste depends on their relative moduli of elasticity.
3. Toughness and hardness – A commonly used definition for aggregate toughness is its resistance to
failure by impact and this is normally determined from the aggregate impact test. The aggregate impact value
has a close linear correlation with the aggregate crushing value and can therefore be employed as the test for
assessing aggregate strength. The aggregate impact value test has advantages over the aggregate crushing
value test for of simplicity and cheapness in operation. It does not require the more elaborate facilities of a
testing laboratory, the equipment is portable and the small sample required makes it a particularly useful test
for quality control purposes. Hardness is the resistance of an aggregate to wear and is normally determined by
an abrasion test. Toughness and hardness properties of an aggregate are particularly important for concrete
used in road pavements.
4. Volume changes – due to moisture movement in aggregate derived from sandstones, greywacke
and some basalt may results in considerable shrinkage of the concrete. If the concrete is restrained this
produces internal tensile stresses, possible cracking and subsequent deterioration of the concrete. If the
coefficient of thermal expansion of an aggregate differs considerably from that of the cement paste this too
may adversely affect the concrete performance.
5. Porosity – Aggregate porosity is an important property since it affect the behavior of the both
freshly mixed and hardened concrete through its effects on the strength, water absorption and permeability
of the aggregate. An aggregate with high porosity will tend to produce a less durable concrete, than an
aggregate with low porosity. Direct measurement of porosity is difficult and in practice a related property,
namely water absorption, is measured. The water absorption is defined as the weight of water absorbed by a
dry aggregate in reaching a saturated surface-dry state and is expressed as a percentage of the weight of dry
aggregate.
6. Relative density – The relative density of materials is the ratio of its unit’s weight to that of water.
Since aggregate incorporate pores the value of relative density varies depending on the extent to which the
pores contain water when the value is determined. For the purposes of mix design the relative density on
saturated and surface dry basis is used. The relative density of most natural aggregate fail within the range of
2.5 – 3.0. Aggregate is the major constituent of concrete and as such its relative density is an important factor
affecting the density of the resulting concrete.
7. Shape and surface texture – Aggregate shape and surface texture can affect the properties of
concrete both in its plastic and hardened states. The external characteristic may be assessed by observation of
the aggregate particles and classification of their particles shape and texture. The classification is somewhat
subjective, however, and the particles shape may also be assessed by direct measurement of the aggregate
particles to determine the flakiness, elongation and angularity. The angularity is expressed in terms of
angularity number. This is the difference between the solid volume of rounded aggregate particles after
compaction in a standard cylinder, expressed as a percentages of the volume of the cylinder, and the solid
volume of the particular aggregate being investigated when compacted in a similar manner.
8. Grading – The grading of an aggregate defines the proportion of particles of different size in the
aggregate. The size of aggregate particles normally used in concrete varies from 37.5 to 0.15 mm. The three
main categories of aggregate are (1) fine aggregate cement or sand. (2) Coarse aggregate and (3) all-in
aggregate. Majority of fine aggregate particles are smaller than 5.0 mm. All in aggregate comprises both fine
31
and coarse. The grading of an aggregate can have considerable effect of the workability and stability of a
concrete mix and is the most important factor in concrete mix design.
TYPES OF AGGREGATE
The different types of aggregate are:

1. Heavyweight aggregate- provide an effective and economical use of concrete for radiation
shielding, by giving the necessary protection against X-rays, gamma ray and neutrons, and for weight coating
submerged pipelines. The effectiveness of heavyweight concrete depends on the aggregate type, the
dimensions and the degree of compaction. It is frequently difficult with heavyweight aggregate to obtain a mix
which is both workable and not prone to segregation.
2. Normal aggregate- These aggregate are suitable for most purposes a produce concrete with density
in the range 2300 to 2500 Kg per cu. m. Rock aggregates are obtained by crushing quarried rock to the
required particle size or by extracting the sand and gravel deposits formed by alluvial or glacial action. Some
sands and gravels are also obtained by dredging from sea and river beds.
3. Lightweight aggregate- Lightweight aggregate find application in a wide variety of concrete
products ranging from insulating screeds to reinforced or prestressed concrete although their greatest use has
been in the manufacture of precast concrete blocks. Concrete made with lightweight aggregate have good fire
resistance properties.
WATER
Water is used in concrete, in addition to reacting with cement and thus causing it to set and harden,
also facilitates mixing, placing and compacting of the fresh concrete. It is also used for washing the aggregates
and for curing purposes. In general, water fit for drinking, such as tap water, is acceptable for mixing concrete.
The impurities that are likely to have an adverse effect when present in appreciable quantities include silt,
clay, acids, alkalis and other salts, organic water and sewage. The used of sea water does not appear to have
any adverse effect on the strength and durability of Portland cement concrete but it is known to cause surface
dampness, and staining and should be avoided where concrete with good appearance is required. Seawater
also increases the risk of corrosion of steel and its use in reinforced concrete is not recommended. The quality
of water may also be assessed by comparing the setting time and soundness of cement pastes made with
water of known quality and the water whose quality is suspect.
ADMIXTURES
Admixtures are substances introduced into a batch of concrete, during or immediately before its
mixing, in order to alter or improve the properties of the fresh or hardened concrete or both. Although certain
finely divided solids, such as pozzolanas and slag’s, fall within the above broad definition of admixtures, they
are distinctly different from what is commonly regarded as the main stream of admixtures and therefore
should be treated separately. It should be noted that the materials used by the cement manufacturers to
modify the properties of cement are normally described as additives.
In general, the changes brought about in the concrete by the use of admixtures are affected through
the influence of the admixtures on hydration, liberation of heat, formation of pores and the development of
the gel structure. Concrete admixtures should only be considered for use when required modifications cannot
be made by varying the composition and proportion of the basic constituent materials, or when the
admixtures can produce the required effects more economically.
Types of Admixtures
Several hundred proprietary admixtures are available and since a great many usually contain several
chemicals intended simultaneously to change several properties of concrete, they are not easy to classify.
Moreover, as many of the individual constituents and their proportions are not widely known the selection of
an admixture must frequently be based on the information provided by the suppliers. The different types of
admixtures are:
1. Air-entraining agents – These are probably the most important group of admixtures. They improve
the durability of concrete, in particular its resistance to the effects of frost and deicing salts. The entrainment
of air in the form of uniformly dispersed, very small and stable bubbles of predominantly between 0.25 and
32
1mm diameter can be achieved by using foaming agents based on natural resins, animal or vegetable fats and
synthetic detergents which promote the formation of air bubbles during mixing or by using gas-producing
chemicals such as zinc or aluminum powder which react with cement to produce gas bubbles. The beneficial
effect of entrained air are produced in two ways: 1st by disrupting the continuity of capillary pores and thus
reducing the permeability of concrete, and 2nd , by reducing the internal stresses caused by the expansion of
water on freezing. Air-entraining agents also improved the workability and cohesiveness of fresh concrete and
tend to reduce bleeding and segregation; this is particularly useful when aggregates with poor grading are
used. However, entrained air results in some reduction in concrete strength. Since improvements in
workability can permit a reduction in the water content the loss in strength can be minimized. The amount of
entrained air in concrete is dependent on the type of admixture and dosage used, as well as on the cement
type, aggregate type and grading, mix proportions, ambient temperature, type of mixer and mixing time. Thus,
it should only be used when adequate supervision is assured. The density of air-entrained concrete is reduced
in direct proportion to the amount of air-entrained.
2. Accelerating agents – They can be divided into two groups, namely, setting accelerators and
setting hardening accelerators. The first of these are alkaline solutions which can considerably reduce the
setting and are particularly suitable for repair work involving water leakage. Because of their adverse effect on
subsequent strength development these admixtures should not be used where the final concrete strength is
an important consideration. Setting and hardening accelerators increase the rate of both setting and early
strength development. The most common admixture for this purpose is calcium chloride. Since its use may
result in several adverse effects such as increased drying shrinkage, reduced resistance to sulfate attack and
increased risk of corrosion of steel reinforcement, it should only be used with extreme caution and in
accordance with any relevant specifications.
3. Retarders – most admixtures in these groups are based on lignosulphonic or hydroxylated-

carboxylic acids and their salts with cellulose or starch. They are used mainly in hot countries where high
temperatures can reduced the normal setting hardening times. Other notable applications include situations
where large concrete pours, sliding formwork, or ready-mixed concrete is used. The extended setting time
prevents the formation of cold joints, allows time for steel-fixing and sometimes prevent overnight stopping of
formwork and compensates for the time lost in transit of ready-mixed concrete. Slightly reduced water
content may be used when using these retarding agents, with a corresponding increase in final concrete
strength. The lignin-based retarders results in some air-entrainment and tend to increase cohesiveness and
reduced bleeding although drying shrinkage may be increased. The hydroxylated-carboxylic retarders,
however, tend to increase bleeding. The effectiveness of retarding water-reducing admixtures is also
influenced by aggregate type in grading.
4. Water reducer or plasticizers – These admixtures are also based on lignosulphonic and
hydroxylated-carboxyliic acids. Their effect is thought to be due to an increased dispersion of cement particles
causing a reduction in the viscosity of the concrete. This effect can be used in three ways. First, to increase
concrete workability for a given water cement ratio and nominal strength, this allows easier placing and
compaction of concrete. Second. To increase strength without the addition of further cement owing to the
reduced water requirement of a mix at a given workability, this allows the production of high strength
concrete .Third. To reduce cement content of a will result in lower maximum temperatures and hence reduce
the risk of shrinkages cracking.
5. Superplasticizers – These are the relatively new category of water reducing admixtures, and are
most effective in dispersing cement particles and thus in increasing the concrete fluidity. The superplasticizers,
which are mainly based on sulphonated melamine formaldehyde condensates or sulphonated naphthalene
formaldehyde condensates, do not have the problem of retardation and excessive air and entrainment
associated with high rates of addition of normal plasticizers. The superplasticizers are commonly used to
produce flowing concrete, defined as having a slump in excess of 200mm or flow value within 540-630mm
without having to change the original mix composition and without causing strength reduction. The self-
leveling property of flowing concrete means that it can be placed with little no compaction and is therefore
particularly suitable for heavily reinforce and inaccessible section, or were√√√√ rapid placement of concrete is
required. To avoid bleeding, segregation and other adverse effects which tend to occur in high workability
mixes it is important that the flowing concrete mix design, production handling are all properly controlled. It
should also be noted that the flowing characteristic of a mix are retained only for a short period of time, about
33
30 minutes after the addition of the superplasticizers, and for this reason superplasticizers should be added to
the mix immediately prior to the placing.
6. Bonding admixtures – These are organic polymer emulsions use to enhance the bonding properties
of concrete, particularly for patching and remedial work. The bonding admixtures are known also to increase
the abrasion resistance of concrete and its tensile strength, but some reduction in compressive strength also
occurs.
7. Water-repelling agents – These are the least effective if all admixtures and are based on metallic
soaps or vegetables or mineral oil. Their use gives a slightly temporary reducing in concrete permeability.
8. Pigments – coloring pigments, in powder form, are normally used in concrete for architectural
purposes and the best effect is produce when there interground with the cement clinker rather than added
during mixing. Pigments do not normally affect concrete properties, although those based on carbon may
cause some loss of strength at early ages and can also reduce the effectiveness of air-entrained admixtures.
9. Pore fillers – These are the chemically inactive finely ground materials such as bentonite, kaolin or
rock flow. These admixtures are thought to improve workability, stability and impermeability of concrete, and
are use with poorly graded aggregate, but their use may result in some reduction in concrete strength.
10. Pozzolanas – The most commonly used pozzolanas are pumicite and pulverized-fuel ash. Because
of their reaction with lime, which is liberated during the hydration of Portland cement, these materials can
improve the durability when added to concrete. Since they often retard the rate of setting and hardening and
thus the rate of heat evolution, they can be useful in mass concrete work.
PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE
After mixing, operations such as transporting, placing, compacting and finishing of fresh concrete can
considerably affect the properties of hardened concrete .It is important that the constituent materials remain
uniformly distributed within the concrete mass during the various stages of its handling and that full
compaction is achieved. When either of these conditions is not satisfied the properties of the resulting
hardened concrete, for example strength and durability, are adversely affected.
The characteristics of fresh concrete which affect full compaction are its consistency, mobility and
compatibility in concrete practice this is collectively known as workability. Consistency is the measure of
wetness or fluidity. Mobility defines the east with which a mix can completely flow in to a completely fill the
form or mold. Compatibility is the east with which a given mix can be fully compacted, all the trapped air being
removed. The ability of concrete to remain its uniformity is governed by its stability, which depend on its
consistently and its cohesiveness. Since the methods employed for conveying, placing and consolidating a
concrete mix as well as the nature of the section to be cast, may vary from job to job it follows that the
corresponding workability and stability requirement will also vary. The assessment of the suitability of a fresh
concrete for a particular job will always to some extent remain a matter of personal judgment.
In spite of its important, the behavior of plastic concrete often tends to be overlooked. It is
recommended that the student should learn to appreciate the significant of the various characteristics of
concrete in its plastic state and know how these may alter during the operation involve in casting a concrete
structure.
WORKABILITY OF FRESH CONCRETE
Workability of concrete has never been precisely defined. For practical purposes it generally implies
the ease with which a concrete mix can be handled from the mixer to its finally compacted to shape. The
required workability of a mix depends not only on the characteristics and relative proportions of the
constituent materials but also on:
Three tests are widely used for measuring workability
1. Slump test – A 300mm high concrete cone prepared under standard condition is allowed to subside
and the slump or reduction in height of the cone is taken to be measured of workability. The apparatus is
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inexpensive, portable and robust and is the simplest of all methods employed for measuring workability. It is
not surprising that, spite of its several limitations, the slump test has retained its popularity. The test primarily
measures the consistency of plastic concrete and although it is difficult to see any significant relationship
between slump and changes in workability. For example, an increase in the water content or deficiency in the
proportion of fine aggregate results in an increase in slump. Although this test is suitable for quality–control
purposes it should be remembered that it is generally considered to be unsuitable for mix design since
concretes requiring varying amount of work compaction can have similar numerical values of slump. The
sensibility and reliability if the test for detecting variation in the mixes of different workability is largely
dependent on its sensitivity to consistency. The test is not suitable for very dry or wet mixes. For very dry
mixes, with zero or near-zero slump, moderate variations in workability do not result in measureable changes
in slump. For wet mixes, complete collapses of the concrete produces unreliable values of slump. The three
types of slump and collapse slump, as shown below:
A true slump is observed with cohesive and rich mixes for which the slump is generally sensitive to
variation on workability. A collapse jump is usually associated with very wet mixes and is generally indicate of
poor quality concrete and most frequently results from segregation of its constituents materials. Shear slump
occurs more often in leaner mixes than rich ones and indicates a lack of cohesion which is generally associated
with harsh mixes (low mortar content). Whenever a shear slump is obtained the test should be repeated and,
if persistent, this fact should be recorded together with test results, because widely different values of slumps
can be obtained depending on whether the slump is true or shear form. It should be noted that the value of
slump changes with time after mixing owing to normal hydration processes and evaporation of some of the
free water, and its desirable therefore that tests are performed within a period of time.
2. Compacting factor test – This test measures the degree of compaction for a standard amount of
work and thus offers a direct and reasonably reliable assessment of the workability of concrete as previously
defined. The device is a relatively simple mechanical contrivance. The test requires measurement of the
weights of the partially and fully compacted concrete and the ration of the partially compacted weight to the
fully compacted weight, which is always less than 1, is known as compacting factor. For the normal range of
concretes the compacting factor lies between 0.80 and 0.92. The test is particularly useful for drier mixes for
which the slump test is not satisfactory. The sensitivity of the compacting factor is reduced outside the normal
range of work abilities. However, the test is unsuitable for concrete having measured compacting factor below
0.70 and higher than 0.98. It t should also appreciated that, strictly speaking, some of the basics assumption of
the test are not correct. The work done to overcome surface friction of the measuring cylinder probably varies
with the characteristics of the mix. One further point to note is that the procedure for placing concrete in the
measuring cylinder bears no resembles to methods commonly employed on the site. As in the slump test, the
measurement of compacting factors must be made within a certain specified period .
3. Vebe test – This test was developed in Sweden. Although generally regarded as a test primarily
used in research its potential is now more widely acknowledged in industry and the test is gradually being
accepted. In this test the time taken to transform, by mean of variation, a standard cone of concrete to a
compacted flat cylindrical mass is recorded in seconds to the nearest 0.5 seconds. Unlike the two previous
tests, the treatment of concrete in this test is comparable to the method of compacting concrete in practice.
Moreover, the test is sensitive to change in consistency, mobility and compatibility, and therefore a
35
reasonable correlation between the test results and site assessment of workability can be expected. The test is
suitable for a wide range of mixes and, unlike the slump and compacting factor tests, it is sensitive to
variations in workability of very dry and also air-entrained concretes. It is also more sensitive to variation in
aggregate characteristics such as shape and surface texture. The reproducibility result is good.
4. Flow test – The test is used to measure the ability of concrete to flow. The apparatus consists
essentially of a 700 mm square wooden table which hinged along one side to permit a vertical movement of a
40 mm, a slump cone and a wooden tamper. The cone is placed at the center of the table and filled with
concrete in two equal layers, each layer being compacted by 10 light strokes of tamper. The excess concrete is
struck off the cone and the table top cleaned immediately: 30 seconds later the cone is removed gently. The
free side of the table is then raised 40 mm and allowed to fall freely 15 times about 45 to 75 seconds. The
resulting spread of concrete is measured along its diameters parallel to the sides of the table and the mean
diameter, expressed to the nearest 5mm, is taken as the measurement of flow. The flow test is valid only if the
concrete is cohesive and uniform at the conclusion of the test.
FACTORS AFFECTING WORKABILITY
Various factors known to influence the workability of a freshly mixed concrete are given below:
1. Cement and water – Workability is relatively insensitive to changes in only the cement content and,
for practical purposes, may be considered dependent on only the water content for variations in cement
content of up to 10 to 30 percent depending on the cement content, the effect of cement content being
greater for the richer mixes. For a given mix, the workability of the concrete decreases as the fineness of the
cement increases as a result of the
Increased specific surface, this effect being more marked in rich mixtures. It should be noted that finer
cements improve the cohesiveness of a mix. Variation in quality of water suitable for making concrete has no
significant effect on workability.
2. Admixtures – The principal admixtures effecting improvement in the workability of concrete are
water- reducing and air-entraining agents. The extent of the increase in workability is dependent on the type
and amount of admixture used and the general characteristic of the fresh concrete. Water reducing
admixtures are used to increase the workability while the mix proportions are kept constant or to reduce the
water content while maintaining constant workability. The former may result in the slight reduction in
concrete strength.
3. Aggregate – For given cement, water and aggregate contents, the workability of concrete is mainly
influenced by the total surface area of the aggregate. The surface area is governed by the maximum size,
grading and shape of the aggregate. Workability decreases as the specific surface increases, since this requires
a greater proportion of cement paste to wet the aggregate particles, thus leaving a smaller amount of paste
for lubrication. It follows that all other conditions being equal, the workability will be increased when the
maximum size of aggregate increases, the aggregate particles become rounded or the overall grading becomes
coarser.
4. Ambient conditions – Environment factors that may cause a reduction in workability are
temperature, humidity and wind velocity. For a given concrete, changes in workability are governed by the
hydration of the cement and the rate of evaporation of water. Therefore, both the time interval from the
commencement of mixing to compaction and the conditions of exposure influence the reduction in
workability. An increase in the temperature speeds up the rate at which water is used foe hydration as well as
its loss through evaporation. Likewise wind velocity and humidity influence the workability as they affect the
rate of evaporation.
5. Time – the time that elapses between mixing of concrete and its final compaction depends on the
general conditions of work such as the distance between the mixer and the point of placing, site procedures
and general management. The associated reduction in workability is a direct result of loss of free water with
time through evaporation, aggregate absorption and initial hydration of the cement. The rate of loss of
workability is affected by certain characteristics of the constituent materials.
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STABILITY OF FRESH CONCRETE
Apart from being sufficient workable, fresh concrete should have a composition such that its
constituent materials remain uniformly distributed in the concrete during both the period between mixing and
compaction and the period following compaction before the concrete stiffens. Because of differences in the
particle size and specific gravities of the constituent materials there exists a natural tendency for them to
separate. This tendency is grater in high workability mixes. The two most common features of an unstable
concrete are:
1. Segregation - When there is significant tendency for the large and fine particles in a mix to become
separated segregation is said to have occurred. In general, the less cohesive the mix the grater the tendency
for segregation to occurs. Segregation is governed by the total specific surface of the solid particles including
cement and the quantity of the mortar in the mix. Harsh, extremely wet and dry mixes as well as those
deficient is sand, particularly the finer particles, are prone to segregation.
2. Bleeding – during compaction and until the cement paste has hardened there is a natural tendency
for the solid particles, depending on the size and specific gravity, to exhibit a downward movement. There the
consistency of a mix is such that it is unable to hold all its water some of it is gradually displaced and raised of
them surface, and some may also leak through the joints of the formwork. Separation of water from a mix in
this manner is known as bleeding. While some of the water reaches the top surface some may become
trapped under the larger particles and under the reinforcing bars. The resulting variations in the effective
water content within a concrete mass produce corresponding changes in its properties.
PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE
The properties of fresh concrete are important only in the first few hours of its history whereas the
properties of hardened concrete assume an importance which is retained for the remainder of the life of the
concrete. The important properties of hardened concrete are:
1. Strength
2. Deformation
3. Durability
4. Permeability
5. Shrinkage
In general, strength is a considered to be the most important property and the quality of concrete is
often judged by its strength. There are, however, many occasions when other properties are more important,
for example, low permeability and low shrinkage are required for water-retaining structures. Although in most
cases an improvement in strength result in an improvement of the other properties of concrete there are
exceptions. For example, increasing the cement content of a mix improves strength but result in higher
shrinkages which is extreme cases can adversely affect durability and permeability. Since properties of
concrete change with age and environment it is not possible attribute absolute values to any of them.
STRENGHT OF CONCRETE
The strength of concrete is defined as the maximum load (stress) it can carry. As the strength of
concrete increases its other properties usually improve and since the tests for strength, particularly in
compression, are relatively simple to perform concrete compressive strength are commonly used in the
construction industry.
The compressive strength of concrete is taken as the maximum compressive load it can carry per unit
area. Concrete strengths up to 30mpa can be achieved by selective use of the type of cement, mix
proportions, method of compaction and curing conditions. Concrete structure, except for road pavements, are
normally designed on the basis that concrete is capable of resisting only compression, the tension being
carried by steel reinforcement.
The tensile strength of concrete is of importance in the design of concrete roads and runaways. For
example, its flexural strength or modulus of ruptured (tensile strength in bending) is utilized for distributing
37
the concentrated load over a wider area of road pavement. Concrete members are also required to withstand
tensile stresses resulting from any restraint to contraction due to drying or temperature variation.
FACTORS INFLUENCING STRENGTH
Several factors which affect the strength of concrete are as follows:

1. Constituent materials – The influence of cement in concert strength, for given proportions, is
determined by its fineness and chemical composition through the processes of hydration. The gain in concrete
strength is most marked at early ages and after 28 days the relative gain in strength is much reduced. At some
later age the strength of concrete made with fine cement may not be very different from that made with
normal cement. A concrete mix containing the minimum amount of water required for complete hydration of
its cement, if it could be fully compacted would develop the maximum attainable strength at any given age. A
water- cement ratio of approximately 0.25 is required for complete hydration of cement but with this water
content a normal concrete mix would be extremely dry and virtually impossible to compact. When concrete is
stressed, failure may originate with the aggregate. In general, the aggregate are stronger than the concrete
itself and in such cases the aggregate. The bond is an important factor determining concrete strength. Bond
strength influenced by the shape of the aggregate, its surface texture and cleanliness. The aggregate shape
and surface texture affect the tensile strength more than compressive strength. The aggregate size also affects
the strength. For a given mix proportions, the concrete strength decreased as the maximum size of aggregate
is increased.
2. Methods of preparation – When concrete materials are not adequate mixed into a consistent and
homogeneous mass, some poor quality concrete is inevitably the result. Even when a concrete is adequately
mixed care must be taken during placing and compaction to minimize the probability of the occurrence of
bleeding, segregator and honeycombing all of which can result in patches of poor quality concrete. A properly
designed concrete mix is one that does not demand the impossible from site operatives before it can be fully
compacted in its location.
3. Curing – Curing of concrete is prerequisite for the hydration of the cement content. For a given
concrete, the amount and the rate of hydration and furthermore the physical make-up of the hydration
products are dependent on the time-moisture-temperature history. Generally speaking, the longer the period
during which concrete is kept in water, the greater is its final strength. It is normally accepted what a concrete
made with ordinary Portland cement and kept in normal curing conditions will develops 75% if its final
strength in the first 28 days.
4. Test conditions - The condition under which tests to determine concrete strength are carried out,
can have a considerable influence on the strength obtained out, can have a considerable influence on the
strength obtained and it is important these affects are understood if test results are to be correctly
implemented. The three basics shapes used for the determination of compressive strength are cube, cylinder
and square prism. The apparent strength of concrete is affected by the rate at which it is loaded. In general,
for station loading, the faster the loading rate, the higher the indicated strength. However, the relative effects
of the rate of loading vary with the nominal strength, age and extend of moist curing.
DEFORMATION OF CONCRETE
Concrete deforms under load, the deformation increasing with the applied load and being commonly
known as elastic deformation. Concrete continues to deform with time, under constant load; this is known as
time dependent deformation of creep. Another important consideration in design is the deformation resulting
from changes in temperature. The coefficient of thermal expansion is about 0.0000018 per .
Unlike that for metals, the load-deformation relationship for concrete subjected to continuously
increasing load is nonlinear in character. The nonlinearity is most, marked loads. When the applied load is
released the concrete does not fully recover its original shape. Under repeated loading and unloading the
deformation at a given load level increases, although at a decreasing rate, with each successive cycle. All these
characteristics of concrete indicate that it should be considered as a quasi-elastic material and when
computing the elastic constants, namely, the modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio, the method employed
38
should be clearly stated. For normal weight concrete the modulus of elasticity of concrete may be assumed as;
0
3800 in MPa for normal weight.
Concrete is a multiphase material and resistance to deformation under load is dependent on the
stiffness of its various phases, such as aggregate, cement paste, and voids, and the interaction between
individuals phases. In general the factors which influence the strength of concrete also affect deformation
although the extent of their influence may vary.
DURABILLITY OF CONCRETE
Besides its ability to sustain loads, concrete is also required to be durable. The durability of concrete
can be defined as its resistance to deterioration resulting from two causes
1. External and
2. Internal
External causes are commonly by:

1. Weathering – due to freezing and thawing, temperature variation and moisture variation.
2. Chemical Action – due to organic salts and acids
3. Wear - due to water, wind or traffic.
Internal causes are due to:

1. Salts
2. Alkali-aggregate reaction
3. Volume changes
4. Permeability and absorption
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CHAPTER 7
PLASTICS
A plastic material is defined as many one of the large and varied group of materials consisting wholly
or in part of combination of carbon with oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and other organic and inorganic elements
which, while solid in the finished state, at some stages in the manufacture is made liquid and thus capable of
being formed into various shapes, most usually trough the application, either singly or together of heat and
pressure.
Two basic types of plastic

1. Thermoplastics
2. Thermosets
Thermoplastics – it is called so because of little or no cross bending between molecules softens when heated
and harden when cooled.
Thermosets – have strong intermolecular bonding. Hence, once the plastic is set into permanent shape under
heat and pressure, reheating will not soften it.
Characteristics of plastics
1. They are essentially noncrystalline in structure.

2. They are not conductor of electricity and relatively low in heat conductance.
3. They are with some important exceptions, resistance to chemical and corrosive
environment.
4. They have relatively low softening temperatures.
5. They are readily formed in complex shapes.
6. They exhibit viscoelastic behavior i.e. after an applied load is removed; plastics tend
Continue to exhibit strain or deformation with time.
Plastic is composed of millions of giants chainlike molecules (polymers) constructed of smaller molecules
called monomers. The atoms in both are held together by primary covalent bonding- that is by sharing
electrons with each other.
Plastic are not basically crystalline materials, they often contain regions in which the mixture of polymer
molecules has an ordered or regular pattern. Plastic crystallinity generally consists of thousands of relatively
crystalline islands called crystallinites, surrounded by amorphous regions in which the polymers are randomly
intermingled.
Additives use in plastic
1. Fillers – the most common of the additives. They are usually used to either provide bulk or modify
certain properties.
2. Plasticizer – these are added for either of two purposes: to improve flowability during processing by
reducing the glass transition temperature or to improve properties such as flexibility. Plasticizers are
usually liquids that have high boiling points such as phthallates.
3. Stabilizers – these are added to plastic to help prevent breakdown or deterioration during molding.
Stabilizer can be metal compounds, base on tin, lead, cadmium, barium and others.
4. Catalyst – these by controlling the rate of and extend of the polymerization process in the resin, allow
the curing cycle to be tailored to the processing requirements of the application. They also affect the shelf
life of plastic.
5. Colorants – these are widely used for decorative purposes. Colorants come in great variety of pigments
such as cadmium, leas and selenium
40
6. Fire retardant - these are added to plastic products that must meet fire retardant equipments, for
polymer resins are generally flammable, except for such notable exceptions polyvinyl chloride. In general
the function of the fire retardant is limited to the spread of fire. They do not normally increase heat or
prevent the plastic from charring and melting. Some fire retardant additives include compounds
containing chlorine or bromine, phosphate ester compounds antimony trihydrate and zinc borate.
THERMOPLASTIC TYPES
A. POLYOLEFINS
-are the most widely used plastic today.
Group of polyolefins
1. Polyethylene - was the first of the olefins. They are one of the lowest costs and one of the most
widely used plastic. They are noted for toughness and excellent dielectric strength and chemical
resistance. Typical use of polythylenes include blow molded bottles and containers, gaskets,
paintbrush, handles and flexible film packaging.
2. Polypropylenes – develop in 1957 in Italy and Germany. They are similar in many respects to high
density polyethylene’s. Their mechanical properties particularly strength and stiffness are at a high
end of polyethylene’s range. In color they are milky white and semitransluscent.
3. Olefin Copolymers
Three principal olefin copolymers
a. Polyalomers – are highly crystalline, can be formulated to provide high stiffness and medium
impact strength. They are softer than polypropylenes but have greater abrasion resistance. They
are used for such item as typewriter case, snap clasps, threaded container closures, embossed
language shell, and food containers.
b. Ionomers – are non rigid plastics characterized by low density, transparency and toughness.
Unlike polyethylene, density and other properties are not crystalline dependent. Their flexibility
resilience and high molecular weight combine to provide high abrasion resistance. They have
outstanding low temperature flexural properties but should not be use as temperature above
160 . Resistance to attack from organic solvents and stress cracking chemicals in high. Ionomers
have high melt strength for thermoforming and extrusion coating and broad temperature range
for blow molding and injection molding.
c. Ethylene copolymers – there are four types of commercial ethylene copolymers of which
ethylene vinyl acetate and ethylene ethyl acrylate are the most common.
1. ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) copolymers approach elastomers in flexibility and softness.
They are dependent. Softening temperature and modulus of elasticity decrease as density
increases, which is contrary to the behavior of polyethylene.
2. ethylene ethyl acrylate (EEA) is similar to ethylene vinyl acetate in its density-property
relationships. It is also similar to EVA in high-temperature resistance and like EVA it is not
resistant to aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons as well as chlorinated versions thereof.
However EEA is superior to EVA in environmental stress cracking and resistance to ultraviolet
radiation. Typical uses are household products such as trash cans, dishwasher tray, flexible
hose and water pipe and film packaging.
B. POLYSTYRENES
-are second only to polyethylene in volume of use. They are large family of thermoplastic base on
styrene monomers. Styrene resins are basically rigid, with low crystallinity and considerable branching.

1. Low in cost
2. exceptional in electrical insulating properties.
3. Have a high hardness and gloss and readily molded.]
41
4. Although they have relatively high tensile strength, they are subject to creep.
5. Since their maximum useful service temperature is about 160 deg- F, their use is chiefly for room
temperature.
6. Because of their low cost and ease of processing, they are used for consumer products.
7. Polystyrene frame are the highest in volume used in all plastics.
C. VINYLS
–are the third most highly used plastic. Like polyethylene and polyethylene, they are low in cost and
have wide versatility. Vinyls as a class are largely amorphous, branched polymers and thus generally have low
crystallinity and are basically stiff and rigid. However by various modifications and the use of plasticizer,
flexible rubbers like grades are produced.
Characteristics and properties:

a. because of excellent chemical resistance, they are used mainly in chemical and weathering
environments.
b. has a good electrical resistivity.
c. high abrasion resistance.
d. self extinguishing, but are not useful at temperature above 160 deg-F for long period of time.
The most widely used vinyls by far are:

a. polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
b. acetate copolymer.
They are both produced in both rigid and flexible forms. Rigid PVC is composed of unplasticized vinyl
homopolymers, and has a combination of high tensile strength modulus hardness and toughness, however
relatively low creep strength limits its use for load bearing applications. Rigid PVC is used extensively in sheet
form, chemical tanks, ducts and hoods and as architectural shapes such as molding, gutter, down spouts and
window frame parts. Rigid PVC pipe is used in water works, and in the oil, chemical and food processing
industries.
Flexible PVC - is composed of either homopolymers or copolymers with addition of plasticizers and
adding fillers makes the range of flexible vinyl almost unlimited. Flexible vinyl film and sheeting are used in
packaging, pipe works and upholstery. Flexible extrusions in many different shapes and forms are used as
electrical wire and cable insulation, gasket and weather stripping.
Vinylidene PVC – better known as saran and polyvinyl dichloride are important vinyl plastics.
Vinyledene chloride is flexible, transparent and has greater chemical and solvent resistance than PVC, along
with the heat resistance of up to 200 deg-F. Polyvinyl dichloride is rigid, has improved solvent resistance and
retains strength and stiffness up to 212 deg- F. it is used for rigid components such as hot water pipes and
fittings.
D. ACRYLICS
are well known by their trade names Lucite and Plexiglas. They are based on polymers of methyl
methacrylate which may be modified by copolymerizing or blending with other monomers.

1. It is known for their excellent optical properties, having a light transmission of about
92%.
2. Have a deep luster and high surface gloss.
3. They are slightly affected by sunlight, rain and corrosive atmospheres.
4. Thermal expansion is relatively high.
5. Hard stiff and strong.
6. Tensile strength ranges from 5000 to 11000 psi which is relatively high for plastics.
7. Regular grades and brittle.
E. CELLULOSICS
-are modified natural polymers produced from refined cellulose of wood pulp and cotton linters.
42
Characteristic and properties
1. Very high toughness
2. Low strength
3. Transparency
4. Excellent colorabililty
5. High surface gloss
6. Easily processed with addition of proper amount plasticizer
7. They have good dielectric properties.
Four major cellulosic plastics
1. Cellulose acetate - often simply called acetate is the lowest in cost. It has good toughness in optical
frames, pen barrels, transparent machine covers and small.
2. cellulose acetate butyrate – commonly called butyrate CAB is somewhat tougher, and has lower
absorption and a higher softening point than acetate, special formulation with good weathering
characteristic plus transparency are used for outdoor application such as sign, light globes and lawn
sprinklers.
3. Cellulose propionate – is similar to butyrate in both cost and properties. Some grades have slightly
higher strength and modulus of elasticity. Propionate has better molding characteristic but lower
weather ability than butyrate. Molded parts include steering wheels, fuel filter bowls and appliance
housings. Transparent sheeting is used for blister packaging and containers.
4. Ethyl cellulose – considered the toughest of the cellulose has high impact strength over wide range
of temperature. It has good impact resistance down to 40 deg- F. it is also the lightest and the lowest
water absorption of the cellulosic. It is used for helmets, rollers, slides, gears flashlight housing and
refrigerator parts.
F. POLYAMIDES (nylon)
Nylon is probably the best known of all synthetic materials. Although it’s extensive popular
recognition stems from its use as a fiber in consumer products, especially stockings, it is also an important
engineering plastic.
Characteristics and properties

1. It has good mechanical and friction properties and high chemical resistance.
2. It was the first load bearing plastic and widely used today for machine parts.
3. It has basically a linear polymer structure with a relatively high degree of crystallinity.
4. Have high tensile and fatigue strength and good impact resistance.
5. Possesses high abrasion resistance and are resistant to most chemical solvents with the exception
of strong acids.
The most common types of nylon, designated 6/6.6 and 6/10, have the same structure differing only
in length of the polymer molecules, this structural difference accounts for the variation among them in
melting points, stiffness and water absorption.
Type 6/6 is most widely used, perhaps because it is the strongest over the widest range of moisture
and temperature. Unlike most plastic, it has a sharp melting point and exhibits no appreciable creep below
that point. Type 6 is quite similar in properties to types 6/6, but has greater water absorption and retains less
strength with increase in moisture and temperature. It has somewhat lower melting point and slightly lower
modulus.
Type 6/10 (also 6/11, 6/12) has substantially less moisture absorption than the other types and
therefore has a three to fourfold improvement in dimensional stability.
Nylons are processed mainly by molding and extruding. Sintering of nylon in powdered form is often
used for small to medium size material. Typical application are gears, cams, sleeve bearings, slide fastener,
door hinges, wire insulation, high pressure flexible tubing and a wide variety of parts in textile and food
handling machinery.
43
G. ACETALS
-are highly crystalline plastics that were specifically developed to compete with zinc and aluminum
die castings. The natural acetal resin is translucent white and can be readily colored.
Two basic types of acetals
1. Homopolymer (delrin)
2. Copolymer (celcon)
In general, the homopolymers are harder, more rigid and have a high tensile flexural and fatigue
strength, but lower elongation. The copolymers are more stable in long term high temperature service and
have better resistance to hot water. Special types of acetals are glass filled, providing higher strengths and
stiffness tetrafluoroethylene (TFE) filled, providing exceptional frictional and wear properties.
Characteristics and properties of acetals
1. among the strongest and the stiffest of the thermoplastics.

2. Tensile strength ranges from 8,000 – 13,000 psi.
3. Tensile modulus of elasticity is about 500,000 psi and fatigue strength at room temperature is about
5,000 psi
4. Excellent creep resistance.
5. Low moisture absorption.
6. Low friction and high abrasion resistance.
7. Impact resistance is good and remains constant over a wide range of temperature
8. Attacked by some acids and bases, but have excellent resistance to all common solvents.
H. POLYCARBONATE
is a linear, low crystalline, transparent and high molecular weight plastic. It is generally considered to
be the toughest of all plastics.
1. One of the hardest plastics.

2. It has also a good strength and rigidity, and because of its high modulus elasticity, is resistant
to creep.
3. Excellent electrical resistivity, are maintained over a temperature ranges of about 275-250 .
4. It has a negligible moisture absorption, but it has also poor solvent resistance and in stressed
condition will craze or crack when exposed to some chemicals.
5. It is generally unaffected by greases, oil and acids.
Polycarbonate is easily process by extrusion, by injection, blow and rotational molding and by vacuum
forming. It has very low and uniform mold shrinkages. With a white light transmission of almost 90% and high
impact resistance, it is a good glazing material. Other typical applications are safely shields and lenses. Resides
glazing polycarbonates high impact strength makes it useful for air conditioners, housing, marine propellers
and housing for small appliances and food dispensing machines.
I. ABS PLASTICS
The letter ABS identifies a family of terpolymer plastics, composed of the monomers acrylonitrile,
butadiene, and styrene. Common trade names for these materials are cycolac, kralastic and lustran.
They are opaque and distinguished by a good balance of properties, including high 9mpact strength,
rigidity and hardness over a wide temperature ranges (-40 - 230 deg- F). Compared with other structural or
engineering plastic, they are generally considered to fall at the lower end of the scale in strength.
Medium impact grades are hard, rigid and tough and are use for appearance parts that require high
strength, good fatigue resistance and surface hardness and gloss. At stresses above their tensile strength, ABS
plastics usually yield plastically rather than rupturing and impact failures and ductile. Because of their low
44
creep, they have good long term load carrying for the stresses up to 1,000psi the low creep plus low water
absorption and relatively high heat resistance provides ABS plastics with good dimensional stability.
ABS plastics are readily processed by extrusion, injection and blow molding calendaring and vacuum
forming. Special resins have been developed for cold forming or stamping for extruded sheet.
J. FLUOROPLASTICS
-are a group of high performance and high price engineering plastic. They are composed basically of
linear polymers in which some of all the hydrogen atoms are replace with fluorine and are characterized by
relatively high crystallinity and molecular weight.
1. All fluoroplastics are natural white and have waxy feel.

2. Rank among the best of the plastics in chemical resistance and elevated temperature
performance.
3. Maximum service temperature ranges to about 500 deg- F.
4. Have excellent frictional properties and cannot be wet by many liquids.
5. Dielectric strength is high.
6. Relatively insensitive to temperature and power frequency.
7. Fair tensile creep and fatigue strength.
There are three major classes of fluoroplastics in order of decreasing fluorine replacement. They are:
1. Fluorocarbons
2. Blorotrifluoroethylene
3. fluorohydrocarbons
K. CHLORINATED POLYETHER
This plastic has a good combination of mechanical and chemical properties. It has a tensile strength
of around 600psi and a good creep resistance and it maintains its mechanical properties in a wide range of
chemical and corrosive environment. However, its high price limits it to special high performance parts chiefly
in chemical - processing equipment.
L. POLYPHENYLENE OXIDE
–this is relatively new plastic hat is noted for its high strength and broad temperature resistance.
There are 2 major types

1. Phenylene oxide
2. Modified phenylene oxide
These materials have a deflection temperature ranging from 212-345 deg- F at 264psi. Their
coefficient of linear expansion is among the lowest of the engineering thermoplastics.
Room temperature strength and modulus elasticity are high and creep is low. In addition they have good
electrical resistivity. Their ability to with stand steam sterilization and their hydraulic stability make them
suitable for medical instruments, electric dishwashers and food dispensers. They are used in the electrical and
electronic fields and for business machine housing.
M. SUPERPOLYMERS
These are several plastics developed in the recent years that maintain mechanical and chemical
integrity above 400 deg - F for extended periods. They are polyimide, polysulfone and aromatic polyester.
In addition to their high temperature resistance, superpolymers have in common high strength and
modulus of elasticity and excellent resistant to solvents, oils, and corrosive environments. Molding
temperatures and pressures are extremely high compared to conventional plastics. Some of them include,
polyimide and aromatic polyester, are not molded conventionally. Because they do not melt, the molding
process is more of a sintering operation. Their high price largely limits their use to specialized application in
the aerospace and nuclear energy fields.
45
THERMOSETTING PLASTICS
As already explained, the major structural characteristic of thermosets is that the polymers chains are
bonded to each other by strong covalent bonds that prevail in thermoplastics. This primarily crosses linking
accounts from the major attributes of thermosets and their differences in behavior from the thermoplastics.
Two major components of thermosets

1. Resin system - usually consists of polymer, curing agents, hardeners, inhibitors and plasticizers.
2. fillers - consist of one of the following minerals: mineral or organic particles, inorganic or organic
shopped cloth of paper.
Types of thermosets
1. Phenolics – the oldest of the thermosettings plastics, are known chemically as phenol formaldehyde.
1. Natural color is brown darkening with age.

2. Among the least costly of the thermosets.
3. Rank high in stiffness and impact resistance.
4. Widely used because of electrical insulating qualities.
Six groups of phenolics divided on the basis of major performance characteristics.
1. General purpose phenolics - are the low cost compound with fillers such as wood flour and flock. They
provide a balance of moderately good mechanical and electrical properties.
2. Impact resistance grades - are higher in cost. They are designed for use in electrical and structural
component subject to impact loads. The fillers are usually either paper, chopped fabric or glass fibers.
3. Electrical grades – have high electrical resistivity. They retain resistivity other high temperature and
high humidity conditions.
4. Heat resistant grades – are usually mineral or glass filled compound that retain their mechanical
properties in the 375- 500 range.
5. Special purpose grades - are formulated for service application requiring exceptional resistance to
chemical or water or combinations of conditions such as impact loading and chemical environment.
6. Non bleeding grades – compounded specially for use in container closures and cosmetic cases.
Polyester and Alkyds
1. Polyester – in a general sense covers three classes of commercial polymeric materials all similar in
chemical structure. They are:
a. saturated polyester- are usually produced in the form of films of fibers and are thermoplastic products
b. unsaturated polyesters - thermosets composed of linear polyester polymers cross linked with another
monomer such as styrene, or diallyl phtallate.
c. liquid polyester resin – called simply polyester are converted to solid plastics simply by addition of an
organic peroxide plastics simply by addition of an organic peroxide catalyst that triggers curing or
polymerization.
2. Alkyds – are composed of polyester resins and usually diallyl phtallate monomers plus various inorganic
fillers depending on the desired properties. The raw material is produced in three forms: rope, granules and
putty and glass reinforced. As a class, the alkyds have excellent heat resistance up to 300 . high stiffness and
moderate tensile and impact strength. Their low moisture absorption combined with good dielectric strength
makes them particularly suitable for electronic and electrical hardware such as insulator and parts for motor
controllers and automotives ignition system. They are molded at low pressures and cure rapidly.
46
3. Allylics - these are premium high priced plastics chiefly used in electrical and electronics hardware because
of theory exceptionally high insulation and dielectric values plus their very low moisture absorption. The three
principal types are diallyl phtallate (DAIP) and allyl dialycol carbonate
As a class besides good electrical resistance properties, they have good solvent and chemical
resistance, moderate strength and fair impact strength. The allyl carbonate, which is hard, water white
material, has exceptional high transparency and high stability of optical properties under lead and heat and in
many chemical environments.
4. Epoxies – perhaps known as adhesives, are premium thermosets and re generally employed in high
performance uses where their high cost is justified. They are available in wide variety of forms, both liquid and
solid, and are cured in the finished plastic by a catalyst or with hardeners containing hydrogen’s.
a. excellent adhesive properties

b. low moisture absorption
c. excellent chemical resistance
d. ease of processing
e. maximum service temperature is about 525 deg-F
f. when used with glass fiber reinforced- they can achieve the highest strength possible with plastic
materials.
g. liquid epoxies are used for casting, for potting or encapsulation and for laminating.
5. Aminos – there are two major groups of amino plastics: melamines and urea.
The aminos are generally rated as the hardest of the plastics. They are relatively low in cost and are noted for
their good chemical resistance and unlimited colorability. These latter two characteristics explain their wide
use for dishes and tableware.
The base resin is water white and transparent, where color is not consideration, wood, flour, asbestos,
chopped fabrics and glass fibers are added to melamines for engineering and industrial uses.
Amino molded products are hard, rigid and abrasion resistant and do not come brittle down to
temperature of as low -70 . they are flames resistant but do not have exceptional heat resistance. They have
good electrical insulation values and are used in automotives ignition systems. As a class they do not have
good impact strength and are only fair in dimensional stability.
47
CHAPTER 8
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS, RUBBER LEATHER AND ROPE
BITUMEN - a generic name applied to various mixtures of hydrocarbons. They maybe gaseous liquid, semisolid
or solid in nature and they are completely soluble in carbon disulphide.
Common Bitumens
1. Tar – is the resulting condensate when destructive distillation is carried out on such materials as wood,
coal, shale peat or bone.
2. Pitch – solid or semisolid residue which is produced from the partial evaporation of fractional
distillation of tar.
3. Asphalt – are dark brown or black solids which are found in natural state and are also produced by the
refining of petroleum.
Properties of Bitumens
1. Tendency to adhere to a solid surface.
2. Water resistance
3. Viscous
Tests measuring the consistency of Bitumens

1. Penetration test – measures the depth of penetration in 10ths of a millimeter of a weigh in a needle in
a bitumen after a given time at a known temperature.
2. Softening Point test – measure the temperature at which a steel ball falls a known distance through the
bitumen which the test assembly is heated at a known rate.
Usually the test consist of 3/8 inch diameter steel ball, weighing 3.5 grams, which is allowed to
sink 1 inch trough 5/8 inch diameter, ¼ inch thick disk of bitumen held in a brass ring. The whole assembly
is heated at 3 / minute.
3. Ductility test – is conducted to determine the amount of bitumen which will stretch at temperature
below its softening point.
Three main groups of asphaltic products

1. Hot asphalt – those softened by heat.
2. Cutback asphalt – dissolve in mineral solvent
Three types:
a. straight run asphalt and solvent – with or without a small amount of fiber added.
b. heavily filled cutback – made by adding a large amount of filler and fiber to asphalt cut with solvent.
c. primer type – cutback asphalt in solution with no filler or fiber.
3. Emulsion asphalt – those dispersed or suspended in a water base.
Three dimensions:
a. soap type – wherein soap is used in emulsifier
b. clay modified – combination of soap and clay emulsifier.
c. clay base type – with a mineral material usually clay as emulsifier. The clay most commonly used is
bentonite.
Uses if Bitumens
1. Provide water proof, crating for walls
2. Used in the manufacture of sealants, acoustical steel, paints, for tile and mastic flooring.
3. Used in road construction and maintenance.
4. Used as binder for aggregates.
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RUBBER, LEATHER AND ROPE
NATURAL RUBBER
An elastic substance obtained from the coagulated fluid (latex) which exudes from the outer wood of
several species of tropical trees and shrubs
Synthetic Rubber
A material which can be stretched at least 100% and which after such stretching returns
approximately to its original length in a short time.
The usefulness of rubber as an engineering material depends on the following characteristics.

1. Its value as an electrical insulator.
2. Its impermeability to water and gases
3. Its ability to withstand great deformation, without serious structural damage.
4. Its ability to absorb energy of shock by mechanical hysteresis.
As an electrical insulator, rubber is used in very large quantities for insulating covering for electrical
wires and for insulating bushing and plates, the water proof and gas proof quality of rubber make it widely
used for hose for water for compressed air and for gas. Its ability to withstand great deformation, make it the
material universally used for pneumatic tires for vehicles. Its ability to absorb energy makes it useful in
members whose function is to take up socks in machines and structures, such as buffers.
Physical properties of rubber

1. Soft rubber is elastic. It stretches from 6 to 10 times its original length without breaking
2. Hard rubber is brittle as cast iron, although it may be made flexible by heating to moderate temperature
3. Rubber in tension or compression does not have constant modulus of elasticity which means that when
rubber is very greatly stretched, will exhibit further resistance to further strain.
4. Its flexibility is big advantage in vibration isolators or other member which will be called on to absorb
considerable amount of energy.
LEATHER
Is made from the skins or hides of animals. It is called a skin if it comes from a small or young animal
such as calves, sheep, lamb, goats and pigs. It is called a hide if it comes from a large animal. Some leathers are
made from reptiles and wild animals.
Steps in leather making

1. Curing – first they are cured; the skins are covered with salt or placed in brine bath. This treatment
keeps them from spoiling until they are ready for the next step.
2. Tanning – at the tannary the skins are soaked in baths first of water and then of lime solutions.
Machined carefully removes the hairs. Next the skins are bathed, treated in chemical bath and later in a
salt and acid bath. The next is actual tanning, but only two of them are used much. The oldest method is
done with the bark or an extract of the woods and leaves of different trees. The skins are placed in the
tanks filled with the extract made from ground up bark. They are left in these vats as longs three months.
Scientists have developed a number of synthetic tanning materials. The synthetic material give the leather
a fine smooth grain as well resistance to water, scuffing and wear. The use of synthetics also makes
tanning faster and makes it easier to produce light colored leather. The second most popular method is
used for glazed kid leather, glaze on the upper part of shoes and many other leather. Chrome tanning
produces the most lasting leather. It takes only a few hours and is done in terms of paddle wheels.
3. Finishing – in this last stage, the leather is finished to give its softness and suppleness. The treatment
called staking works the leather to loosen the fibers and make it soft. Firmness is given to shoe leather by
rolling it beneath rollers. Design or special grains are made with big hydraulic press that forms the design
from an engraved plate onto the leather. Boarding is used to bring out the grain. The leather is doubled
with the grain side inside the pressure is applied to it by a cork covered cylinder, the final surface finish
may be sprayed or applied by and. The leather may be polished or ironed. The modern finish is a fine film
or plastic finishing material.
49
Leather use:
1. Leather is used for belting and for hydraulic pickings.
2. Cowhide leather – saddles, gloves, football etc.
3. Calfskin – purses, suitcase and book bindings.
4. Goatskin or sheepskin – morocco leather
5. Pigskin – saddled, luggage, gloves, shoes, wall tiles etc.
6. Hides of elephants – rhinoceros and hippopotamus – buffing wheels.
7. Skins of snakes, lizards, alligators, ostriches, whales and sharks are also useful.
Special kind of leather

Suede – a special kind of leather usually is made from calfskin or goatskin. Its velvety surface is prepared
by rubbing the inside of the leather. Gunmetal leather is produced by giving the leather dull polish with
revolving brushes.
Chamois – is very flexible leather made from sheepskin by oil tanning.
A glazed skin is made from skins of young goats and is given high polish.
Patent leather – is made by coating the leather with layer after layer of lacquer and then baking the finish
so that it is like enamel.
ROPE
A rope is a length of fibers, twisted or braided together to improve
strength for pulling and connecting. It has tensile strength but is too flexible to
provide compressive strength (i.e., it can be used for pulling, not pushing). Rope
is thicker and stronger than similarly constructed cord, line, string, or twine.
Construction
Common materials for rope include natural fibers such as Manila hemp,
hemp, linen, cotton, coir, jute, and sisal. Synthetic fibers in use for rope-making include polypropylene, nylon,
polyesters, polyethylene, aramids and polyaramids. Some ropes are constructed of mixtures of several fibers
or use co-polymer fibers. Ropes can also be made out of metal fibers. Ropes have been constructed of other
fibrous materials such as silk, wool, and hair, but such ropes are not generally available. Rayon is a
regenerated fiber used to make decorative rope. It was created by the great Jewish inventor Solomon Sohn.
Usage
Rope is of paramount importance in fields as diverse as construction, seafaring, exploration, sports
and communications and has been since prehistoric times. In order to fasten rope, a large number of knots
have been invented for various uses. Pulleys are used to redirect the pulling force to another direction, and
may be used to create mechanical advantage, allowing multiple strands of rope to share a load and multiply
the force applied to the end. Winches and capstans are machines designed to pull ropes.
Styles of rope construction
Laid or twisted rope

Laid rope, also called twisted rope, is historically the prevalent form of rope, at least in modern
western history. Most twisted rope consists of three strands and is normally right-laid, or given a right-handed
twist. Typically, a three strand laid rope is called a plain or hawser-laid rope. A four strand rope is usually
called shroud-laid, and a rope twisted out of 3 or more ropes is called cable-laid.
Rope making using the twisted rope method on a 1928 Metters Rope Making
Machine
Twisted ropes are built up in three steps. First, fibers are gathered and
spun to form yarns. A number of these yarns are then twisted together to form
strands. The strands are then twisted together to form the rope. The twist of the
yarn is opposite to that of the strand, and that in turn is opposite to that of the
rope. This counter-twisting helps keep the rope together. On the other hand, rope
constructed in this manner untwists under tension, which is the cause of spinning, kinking, hockling and
50
stretching. Any rope of this type must be bound at its end by some means to prevent untwisting. Twisted
ropes have a preferred direction for coiling. Normal right laid rope should be coiled with the sun, or clockwise,
to prevent kinking. Coiling this way imparts a twist to the rope. One of the drawbacks of this construction is
that every fiber is exposed to abrasion numerous times along the length of the rope. This means that the rope
can degrade to numerous inch-long fiber fragments, which is not easily detected visually.
Braided rope
Braided ropes are generally made from nylon, polyester or polypropylene.
Nylon is chosen for its elastic stretch properties and good resistance to ultraviolet
light. Polyester is about 90% as strong as nylon but stretches less under load, is
more abrasion resistant, has better UV resistance, and has less change in length
when wet. Polypropylene is preferred for low cost and light weight (it floats on
water).
Single braid
consists of even number of strands, eight or twelve being typical, braided into a circular pattern with
half of the strands going clockwise and the other half going anticlockwise. The strands can interlock with
either twill or plain weave. The central void may large or small; in the former case the term hollow braid is
sometimes preferred. Double braid, also called braid on braid, consists of an inner braid filling the central void
in an outer braid, that may be of the same or different material. Often the inner braid fiber is chosen for
strength while the outer braid fiber is chosen for abrasion resistance. In solid braid the strands all travel the
same direction, clockwise or anticlockwise, and alternate between forming the outside of the rope and the
interior of the rope. This construction is popular for general purpose utility rope but rare in specialized high
performance line.
Kernmantle rope has a core (kern) of long twisted fibers in the center, with a braided outer sheath or
mantle of woven fibers. The kern provides most of the strength (about 70%), while the mantle protects the
kern and determines the handling properties of the rope (how easy it is to hold, to tie knots in, and so on). In
dynamic climbing line, the core fibers are usually twisted, and chopped into shorter lengths which makes the
rope more stretchy. Static kernmantle ropes are made with untwisted core fibers and tighter braid, which
causes them to be stiffer in addition to limiting the stretch.
Braided ropes (and objects like garden hoses, fiber optic or coaxial cables, etc.) that have no lay, or
inherent twist, will uncoil better if coiled into figure-8 coils, where the twist reverses regularly and essentially
cancels out.
Other types
Plaited rope
is made by braiding twisted strands, and is also called square braid. It is not as round as twisted rope
and coarser to the touch. It is less prone to kinking than twisted rope and, depending on the material, very
flexible and therefore easy to handle and knot. This construction exposes all fibers as well, with the same
drawbacks as described above.
Brait rope
is a combination of braided and plaited, a non-rotating alternative to laid three-strand ropes. Due to
its excellent energy-absorption characteristics, it is often used by arborists. It is also the most popular rope for
anchoring and can be used as mooring warps. This type of construction was pioneered by Yale Cordage.
Handling rope
Rope made from hemp, cotton or nylon is generally stored in a cool dry
place for proper storage. To prevent kinking it is usually coiled. To prevent fraying or
unraveling, the ends of a rope are bound with twine, tape, or heat shrink tubing.
The ends of plastic fiber ropes are often melted and fused solid.
If a load-bearing rope gets a sharp or sudden jolt or the rope shows signs of
deteriorating, it is recommended that the rope be replaced immediately and should
be discarded or only used for non-load-bearing tasks.
Line
A piece of rope that has a specific purpose is called a line, especially in nautical usage. Examples
include clothesline, chalk line, anchor line, stern line, fishing line etc
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CHAPTER 9
BRICKS
Bricks constitute an old and important class of building material. Ease and relatively low cost of
manufacture, durability of the properly made product and moderate strength, all have contributed to their
wide usages. Bricks are used not only for building construction but also to a limited extent for other kind of
construction.
The use of ordinary bricks in structure have been limited to bearing walls, curtain walls low piers and
short span archers, chiefly because of the relatively low strength of the mortar and the inability of the
masonry to resist tensile forces. Improvement in the quality of the masonry mortars and recent developments
in reinforced brick masonry permits more efficient designing and greatly extend the scope of the use of this
material.
A bricks is generally a solid prismatic unit about 21/2 by 4 by 6 inch. The unqualified term brick is used
to designate a ceramic product. Other materials such as cement and lime mortars and adobe, are formed in
brick sizes and used without subsequent burning.
PROPERTIES AND TESTS

General requirements
Good bricks for structural purposes should conform to the following requirements under visual
inspection:
a. they should be of compact no laminated structure
b. reasonably uniform in shape
c. free from cracks, chipped corner or edges
d. not soft as the result of under burning
A rough test for hardness and freedom from cracks is made by striking a brick with a hammer while
held by hand and noting the sound emitted; a high pitched metallic sound indicates hard crack free units,
whereas a characteristic dull, quickly damped sound is produced by an underburned or cracked brick.
Compressive strength
The compression test for clay building bricks is made by testing a half brick flatwise, the brick should
be strongly dry and the bearing surfaces should be coated with shellac before capping with plaster of paris to
prevent the absorption of moisture that would decrease the strength.
Flexular strength
The flexural strength of brick is taken as the modulus of rupture of the brick tested flatwise on a
simple span under central load. Although bricks have a high flexural strength also usually have a high
compressive strength the relationship is indefinite.
The ASTM specified that the test be made on the whole brick on a knife edge rocker supports over a 7
inch span; the central load is applied trough a steel bearing strip, ¼ by 1 ½ inch section. Various test show that
modulus of rupture may vary from about 200 to 3000 psi.
ABSORPTION: Water absorption of bricks is often taken as a measure of porosity which in turn is considered to
be indicative of two cases:
1. Possible leakage trough the bricks
2. Tendency towards disintegration when moist bricks are subject to alternate freezing
and thawing.
These observations appear to be sound if applied to one make of brick, but it is a fact that the soft or
medium burned brick relatively high absorption from one plant may outperformed the hard burned brick
having relatively low absorption from some other plant, owing to inherent differences in the materials and
methods of manufacture.
52
Variation in absorption characteristics are caused by three factors
1. Differences in the clay used
2. Method of forming of forming the brick
3. Burning conditions
Clay used cover a wide range of compositions, varying in absorptive properties. The moisture content
at the time of forming and the type of molding machined affect the density and hence the absorption of the
product. Repressing may be expected to lower the absorption, since a more dense compact structure is
produced. A high burning temperature tends to produce at least at the surface dense relatively impervious
shell resulting in low absorptive characteristics.
Test produce for bricks.

a. five half bricks are dried to a constant weight at 230 to 239 when cool, each bricks is weighed to
the nearest 0.5 g and immersed in soft water at 60 to 96 for 24 hour. The surfaces are then wiped with
a damp cloth and the bricks quickly weighed. The absorption is calculated on the basis of an oven dry
weight.
b. another type of method is similar to a, except that after immersing the bricks for 24 hour the water is
heated to boiling in one hour and then boiled continuously for 5 hour, after which it is allowed to cool to
60 to 86 within 16 to 18 hour. The surfaces are then wiped and the bricks weighed as in a.
Brick Masonry
Factors affecting the behavior of brick masonry as regards strength, stability and durability.
a. Workmanship
b. Types of construction
c. Regularity in form and size of brick
d. Physical properties of brick
e. Properties of mortar
f. Relatively behavior of the bricks and the mortar.
Methods of manufacture
Brick making at the beginning of the 20th century.
Bricks may be made from clay, shale, soft slate, calcium silicate, concrete, or shaped from quarried stone.
Clay is the most common material, with modern clay bricks formed in one of three processes - soft mud, dry
press, or extruded.
In 2007 a new type of brick was invented, based on fly ash, a by-product of coal power plants.
Mud bricks
Rail kilns
Bull's Trench Kilns
Dry pressed bricks
Extruded bricks
Calcium silicate bricks
Fly ash bricks
Mud bricks
The soft mud method is the most common, as it is the most economical. It starts with the raw clay,
preferably in a mix with 25-30% sand to reduce shrinkage. The clay is first ground and mixed with water to the
desired consistency. The clay is then pressed into steel moulds with a hydraulic press. The shaped clay is then
fired ("burned") at 900-1000 °C to achieve strength.
Rail kilns
Xhosa brickmaker at kiln near Ngcobo in the former Transkei in the 21st
century.
In modern brickworks, this is usually done in a continuously fired tunnel kiln, in which
the bricks move slowly through the kiln on conveyors, rails, or kiln cars to achieve
consistency for all bricks. The bricks often have added lime, ash, and organic matter to
speed the burning.
53
Bull's Trench Kilns
In Pakistan and India, brick making is typically a manual process. The most common type of brick kiln
in use there are Bull's Trench Kiln (BTK), based on a design developed by British engineer W. Bull in the late
1800s.
An oval or circular trench, 6-9 meters wide, 2-2.5 meters deep, and 100-150 meters in circumference,
is dug in a suitable location. A tall exhaust chimney is constructed in the center. Half or more of the trench is
filled with "green" (unfired) bricks which are stacked in an open lattice pattern to allow airflow. The lattice is
capped with a roofing layer of finished brick.
In operation, new green bricks, along with roofing bricks, are stacked at one end of the brick pile; cooled
finished bricks are removed from the other end for transport. In the middle the brickworkers create a firing
zone by dropping fuel (coal, wood, oil, debris, etc) through access holes in the roof above the trench.
West face of Roskilde Cathedral in Roskilde, Denmark.
The advantage of the BTK design is a much greater energy efficiency

compared with clamp or scove kilns. Sheet metal or boards are used to route the
airflow through the brick lattice so that fresh air flows first through the recently
burned bricks, heating the air, then through the active burning zone. The air continues through the green brick
zone (pre-heating and drying them), and finally out the chimney where the rising gases create suction which
pulls air through the system. The reuse of heated air yields a considerable savings in fuel cost.
As with the rail process above, the BTK process is continuous. A half dozen laborers working around the clock
can fire approximately 15,000-25,000 bricks a day. Unlike the rail process, in the BTK process the bricks do not
move. Instead, the locations at which the bricks are loaded, fired, and unloaded gradually rotate through the
trench.
Dry pressed bricks

The dry press method is similar to mud brick but starts with a much thicker clay mix, so it forms more
accurate, sharper-edged bricks. The greater force in pressing and the longer burn make this method more
expensive.
Extruded bricks
In extruded bricks the clay mix is 20-25% water, this is forced through a die to create a long cable of
material of the proper width and depth. This is then cut into bricks of the desired length by a wall of wires.
Most structural bricks are made by this method, as hard dense bricks result, and holes or other perforations
can be produced by the die. The introduction of holes reduces the needed volume of clay through the whole
process, with the consequent reduction in cost. The bricks are lighter and easier to handle, and have thermal
properties different from solid bricks. The cut bricks are hardened by drying for between 20 and 40 hours at
50-150 °C before being fired. The heat for drying is often waste heat from the kiln.
Calcium silicate bricks

The raw materials for calcium silicate bricks include lime mixed with quartz, crushed flint or crushed
siliceous rock together with mineral colorants. The materials are mixed and left until the lime is completely
hydrated, the mixture is then pressed into moulds and cured in an autoclave for two or three hours to speed
the chemical hardening. The finished bricks are very accurate and uniform, although the sharp arrises need
careful handling to avoid damage to brick (and brick-layer). The bricks can be made in a variety of colours,
white is common but a wide range of "pastel" shades can be achieved.
Fly ash bricks

In May 2007, Haoxaing Fei, a retired civil engineer, announced that he had invented a new brick
composed of fly ash and water compressed at 4,000 psi (27,939 kPa) for two weeks. Owing to the high
concentration of calcium oxide in fly ash, the brick is considered "self-cementing". The brick is toughened
using an air entrainment agent, which traps microscopic bubbles inside the brick so that it resists penetration
by water, allowing it to withstand up to 100 freeze-thaw cycles. Since the manufacturing method uses a waste
by-product rather than clay, and solidification takes place under pressure rather than heat, it has several
important environmental benefits. It saves energy, reduces mercury pollution, alleviates the need for landfill
54
disposal of fly ash, and costs 20% less than traditional clay brick manufacture. Liu intends to license his
technology to manufacturers in 2008. [6][7]
Brick sculpturing on Thornbury Castle, Thornbury, near Bristol, England.

The chimneys were erected in 1514.
Influence on fired colour

The fired colour of clay bricks is significantly influenced by the chemical and mineral content of raw
materials, the firing temperature and the atmosphere in the kiln. For example pink coloured bricks are the
result of a high iron content, white or yellow bricks have a higher lime content. Most bricks burn to various red
hues, if the temperature is increased the colour moves through dark red, purple and then to brown or grey at
around 1300 °C. Calcium silicate bricks have a wider range of shades and colours, depending on the colorants
used.
Bricks formed from concrete are usually termed blocks, and are typically pale grey in colour. They are
made from a dry, small aggregate concrete which is formed in steel moulds by vibration and compaction in
either an "egglayer" or static machine. The finished blocks are cured rather than fired using low-pressure
steam. Concrete blocks are manufactured in a much wider range of shapes and sizes than clay bricks and are
also available with a wider range of face treatments - a number of which are to simulate the appearance of
clay bricks.
An impervious and ornamental surface may be laid on brick either by salt glazing, in which salt is
added during the burning process, or by the use of a "slip," which is a glaze material into which the bricks are
dipped. Subsequent reheating in the kiln fuses the slip into a glazed surface integral with the brick base.
Natural stone bricks are of limited modern utility, due to their enormous comparative mass, the
consequent foundation needs, and the time-consuming and skilled labour needed in their construction and
laying. They are very durable and considered more handsome than clay bricks. Only a few stones are suitable
for bricks. Common materials are granite, limestone and sandstone. Other stones may be used (e.g. marble,
slate, quartzite, etc.) but these tend to be limited to a particular locality.
Optimal dimensions, characteristics and strength
Loose bricks
For efficient handling and laying bricks must be small enough and
light enough to be picked up by the bricklayer using one hand (leaving the
other hand free for the trowel). Bricks are usually laid flat and as a result
the effective limit on the width of a brick is set by the distance which can
conveniently be spanned between the thumb and fingers of one hand,
normally about four inches (about 100 mm). In most cases, the length of
a brick is about twice its width, about eight inches (about 200 mm) or
slightly more. This allows bricks to be laid bonded in a structure to
increase its stability and strength (for an example of this, see the illustration of bricks laid in English bond, at
the head of this article. The wall is built using alternating courses of stretchers, bricks laid longways and
headers, bricks laid crossways. The headers tie the wall together over its width.
The correct brick for a job can be picked from a choice of color, surface texture, density, weight, absorption
and pore structure, thermal characteristics, thermal and moisture movement, and fire resistance.
Face brick ("house brick") sizes[8], from small to large In England, the length and the width of the
common brick has remained fairly constant
Standard Imperial Metric over the centuries, but the depth has varied
United States 8 × 4 × 2¼ inches 203 × 102 × 57 mm from about two inches (about 51 mm) or
smaller in earlier times to about two and a half
United Kingdom 8½ × 4 × 2½ inches 215 × 102.5 × 65 mm
inches (about 64 mm) more recently. In the
South Africa 8¾ × 4 × 3 inches 222 × 106 × 73 mm United States, modern bricks are usually about
Australia 9 × 4⅓ × 3 inches 230 × 110 × 76 mm 8 × 4 × 2.25 inches (203 × 102 × 57 mm). In the
United Kingdom, the usual ("work") size of a
modern brick is 215 × 102.5 × 65 mm (about 8.5 × 4 × 2.5 inches), which, with a nominal 10 mm mortar joint,
forms a "coordinating" or fitted size of 225 × 112.5 × 75 mm, for a ratio of 6:3:2.
55
Some brickmakers create innovative sizes and shapes for bricks used for plastering (and therefore not visible)
where their inherent mechanical properties are more important than the visual ones.[9] These bricks are
usually slightly larger, but not as large as blocks and offer the following advantages:
 A slightly larger brick requires less mortar and handling (fewer bricks) which reduces cost
 Ribbed exterior aids plastering
 More complex interior cavities allow improved insulation, while maintaining strength.
Blocks have a much greater range of sizes. Standard coordinating sizes in length and height (in mm) include
400×200, 450×150, 450×200, 450×225, 450×300, 600×150, 600×200, and 600×225; depths (work size, mm)
include 60, 75, 90, 100, 115, 140, 150, 190, 200, 225, and 250. They are usable across this range as they are
lighter than clay bricks. The density of solid clay bricks is around 2,000 kg/m³: this is reduced by frogging,
hollow bricks, etc.; but aerated autoclaved concrete, even as a solid brick, can have densities in the range of
450–850 kg/m³.
Bricks may also be classified as solid (less than 25% perforations by volume, although the brick may be
"frogged," having indentations on one of the longer faces), perforated (containing a pattern of small holes
through the brick removing no more than 25% of the volume), cellular (containing a pattern of holes removing
more than 20% of the volume, but closed on one face), or hollow (containing a pattern of large holes removing
more than 25% of the brick's volume). Blocks may be solid, cellular or hollow
The term "frog" for the indentation on one bed of the brick is a word that often excites curiosity as to its
origin. The most likely explanation is that brickmakers also call the block that is placed in the mould to form
the indentation a frog. Modern brickmakers usually use plastic frogs but in the past they were made of wood.
When these are wet and have clay on them they resemble the amphibious kind of frog and this is where they
got their name. Over time this term also came to refer to the indentation left by them.[Matthews 2006]
The compressive strength of bricks produced in the United States ranges from about 1000 lbf/in² to 15,000
lbf/in² (7 to 105 MPa or N/mm² ), varying according to the use to which the brick are to be put. In England clay
bricks can have strengths of up to 100 MPa, although a common house brick is likely to show a range of 20–40
MPa.
Use
A brick section of the old Dixie Highway East Florida Connector on the west
side of Lake Lily in Maitland, Florida. It was built in 1915 or 1916, paved over
at some point, and restored in 1999.
Bricks are used for building and pavement. In the USA, brick pavement was
found incapable of withstanding heavy traffic, but it is coming back into use
as a method of traffic calming or as a decorative surface in pedestrian
precincts. For example, in the early 1900s, most of the streets in the city of
Grand Rapids, Michigan were paved with brick. Today, there are only about
20 blocks of brick paved streets remaining (totaling less than 0.5 percent of all the streets in the city limits).[10]
Bricks are also used in the metallurgy and glass industries for lining furnaces. They have various uses,
especially refractory bricks such as silica, magnesia, chamotte and neutral (chromomagnesite) refractory
bricks. This type of brick must have good thermal shock resistance, refractoriness under load, high melting
point, and satisfactory porosity. There is a large refractory brick industry, especially in the United Kingdom,
Japan and the United States.
In the United Kingdom, bricks have been used in construction for centuries. Until recently, many houses were
built almost entirely from red bricks. This use is particularly common in areas of northern England and some
outskirts of London, where rows of terraced houses were rapidly and cheaply built to house local
workers[citation needed]. These houses have survived to the present day. Although many houses in the UK are now
built using a mixture of concrete blocks and other materials, many houses are skinned with a layer of bricks on
the outside for aesthetic appeal.
56
CHAPTER 10
WIRE ROPE
Wire ropes have three basic elements: wires, strands and a core. The wires are bundled together
to form strands. Strands consist of two or more wires that are arranged in one of various geometric
arrangements. The strands are helically laid around the core, or center. Strands can be a blending of steel
wires with other materials like synthetic or natural fiber. The core, which is the foundation of the wire
rope, provides support to the strands for normal operating conditions. Core material includes steel or
various fibers, such as synthetic or hard vegetable fibers.
Wire rope suppliers classify their products in terms of the direction in which the strands are
wound around the core. This classification is also known as the lay, which can be right or left. Further
classifications of regular and lang lay refer to the way the wire and the strands are laid in relation to each
other. In a regular lay, the wires and the strands are laid in opposite directions. They are laid in the same
direction for lang. Wire rope suppliers classify the construction of the wire rope with two sets of
numbers. The first number represents the number of strands and the second, the number of wires per
strand. There are four standard construction classifications: 6x7, 6x19, 6x37 and 8x19.
Wire ropes and slings are used in a variety of applications. Mining operations use steel wire rope
for winding in shafts and underground hauling, as well as safety hoists. Wire rope is necessary in oil
drilling operations for crane operations, air hoists, rotary drilling lines and mast-raising lines. Ski and chair
lifts depend on specially designed wires from wire rope suppliers. The construction industry utilizes wire
rope as rigging for cranes. Commercial fishing boats use various types of wire ropes for applications, such
as trawling. Other applications for wire rope include elevator operations, aircraft cables, marine control,
garage doors, supporting, or guy, wires and winches.
When selecting wire rope, some important considerations will help in choosing a construction
that will provide long service while minimizing cost. The resistance of the rope to breaking refers to the
actual normal workload that the wire rope will carry. Select a rope that is able to carry five to ten times
greater than that amount. Flexibility refers to the resistance of the wire rope to bending. Other
determining factors include size, material, core and construction. Vibrational fatigue, abrasion resistance
and resistance to crushing are also considerations. It is important to realize that it is impossible to
maximize all of the above factors in relation to the task of the rope.
Types of Wire Ropes

 Aircraft cables are strands, cords and wire ropes
composed of special strength wire. Aircraft cables
are mainly for aircraft controls and various aircraft
industry uses.
 Cable assemblies are fittings which are attached
to the end of bundled wires.
 Cable railing is used in the barriers that run along
the edge of stairs and landings, especially in
industrial or outdoor locations.
 Push pull cable are used as remote-access latch
release cables and safety break cables.
 Stainless steel cable is resistant to corrosion.
 Steel cables are strong metal ropes used for various applications.
 Steel wire rope is composed of non-galvanized carbon steel (bright), stainless steel wire, or galvanized
carbon steel. The scope of diameters and compositions of steel wire rope include 1/16 inch to five
inches or greater. But, whichever the kind of steel, diameter, or the specific composition, all stainless
steel wire has the same physical construction of multiple strands of wire wound helically about a
central core.
 Stranded cable and wire consists of a cable that is made up of strands of wires and is identified by the
number of strands and the amount of wires per strand; a 7 x 18 cable would have seven strands with
18 wires in each strand.
57
 Wire rope assemblies are wires ropes that have their ends changed through a splice or fittings add-on.
Their uses include running controls, incorporation into machinery and equipment or as slings or hoists.
 Wire rope hoists are hoists that use wire ropes as the means for lifting and consist of a rope storage
drum, motors, gearbox and braking system. A trolley suspends the hoist from a bridge beam or
monorail, although a stationary mounting is also possible.
 Wire rope slings are short lengths of wire rope made especially to accommodate lifting attachments.
Slings use Independent Wire Rope Cores (IWRC) and may consist of Improved Plow Steel, Extra
Improved Steel, or Extra, Extra Improved Plow Steel.
Common Terms Related to Wire Ropes
Breaking Strength – A calculation of the load necessary to break a wire rope that is
in tension.
Core – Element of a wire rope around which the strands are helically laid. The core could be made of fiber
(cloth), independent wire rope or wire strand.
Drum – A round and flanged barrel, which is tapered or uniform in diameter for storage or operation, around
which rope is wound.
Extra Improved Plow Steel – Steel that is designed for applications, which require greater safety features
with no increase in diameter size and the highest resistance to abrasive wear. This steel is fifteen percent
stronger than Improved Plow Steel, and the tensile strength of this grade ranges from 280,000 to 340,000 psi.
Fitting – Any accessory that serves to attach wire ropes.
Galvanize – To coat with zinc for the protection of the wire, strand or rope from corrosion.
Grade – A classification according to breaking strength.
Guy Line – Steel wire or strand, typically galvanized, that braces or supports a structure.
Improved Plow Steel (IPS) – A high-carbon steel having a tensile strength of approximately 260,000 psi that is
roughly fifteen percent stronger than Plow Steel. Most commercial wires are made from IPS.
Independent Wire Rope Core (IWRC) – Wire rope that serves as the core for a greater rope.
Iron – A low carbon steel wire of approximately 10,000 psi, which is pliable and capable of repeated stresses
from bending around small sheaves. This grade is effective for tillers, guys and sash ropes.
Lay/Laid – The manner in which the wires are helically wound to form rope. Lay refers specifically to the
direction of the helical path of the strands in a wire rope; for example, if the helix of the strands are like the
threads of a right-hand screw, the lay is known as a right lay, or right-hand, but if the strands go to the left, it
is a left lay, or left-hand.
Rope Grades – A classification of wire rope according to its breaking strength. The rank of grades according to
increasing breaking strengths is as follows: Iron, Traction, Mild Plow Steel, Plow Steel, Improved Steel, Extra
Improved Steel.
Sheave – A pulley wheel with a channel, mounted in a frame, that guides or alters the direction of the cable
or rope.
Strand – An assembly of wires that are helically wound around an axis, fiber or wire center (core) to create a
symmetrical portion.
Strand Grades – Classification of strands according to breaking strength. The ranking of increasing breaking
strengths is as follows: Common, Siemens Martin, High Strength and Extra-High Strength; a utility's grade
strand is available for certain requirements.
Swage – The act of fastening a termination to a wire rope through physical deformation of the termination
about the rope via a hydraulic press or hammering. The strength is one hundred percent of the wire rope
rating.
Swaged Fittings – Fittings into which wire rope can be inserted and fastened through a cold flow method.
Traction Steel – A grade of rope material that has a tensile strength range of 180,000 to 190,000 psi. Traction
steel has great resistance to bending fatigue with a minimum of abrasive force on sheaves and drums, which
contributes to its long use in elevators, from which the steel gets its name.
Wire – A continual span of metal that has been cold drawn from a rod
Wire rope consists of several strands laid (or 'twisted') together like a helix. Each strand is likewise made
of metal wires laid together like a helix. Initially wrought iron wires were used, but today steel is the main
material used for wire ropes.
58
Lay of wire rope
Left-hand ordinary lay (LHOL) wire rope (close-up). Right-

hand lay strands are laid into a left-hand lay rope.
Right-hand Lang's lay (RHLL) wire rope (close-up). Right-hand

lay strands are laid into a right-hand lay rope.
The lay of a wire rope describes the manner in which either
the wires in a strand, or the strands in the rope, are laid in a
helix.
Left and right hand lay

Left hand lay or right hand lay describe the manner in which the strands are laid to form the rope. To
determine the lay of strands in the rope, a viewer looks at the rope as it points away from them. If the
strands appear to turn in a clockwise direction, or like a right-hand thread, as the strands progress away
from the viewer, the rope has a right hand lay. The picture of steel wire rope on this page shows a rope
with right hand lay. If the strands appear to turn in an anti-clockwise direction, or like a left-hand thread,
as the strands progress away from the viewer, the rope has a left hand lay.
Ordinary, Lang's and alternate lay

Ordinary and Lang's lay describe the manner in which the wires are laid to form a strand of the wire rope.
To determine which has been used first identify if left or right hand lay has been used to make the rope.
Then identify if a right or left hand lay has been used to twist the wires in each strand.
Ordinary lay The lay of wires in each strand is in the opposite direction to the lay of the strands that form
the wire.
Lang's lay The lay of wires in each strand is in the same direction as the lay of the strands that form the
wire.
Alternate lay The lay of wires in the strands alternate around the rope between being in the opposite
and same direction to the lay of the strands that form the wire rope.
Regular lay Alternate term for ordinary lay.
Albert's lay Archaic term for Lang's lay.
Reverse lay Alternate term for alternate lay.
Spring lay This is not a term used to classify a lay as defined in this section. It refers to a specific
construction type of wire rope.
Construction and specification
Wire rope construction

The specification of a wire rope type – including the number of wires per strand, the number of strands,
and the lay of the rope – is documented using a commonly accepted coding system, consisting of a
number of abbreviations.
This is easily demonstrated with a simple example. The rope shown in the figure "Wire rope
construction" is designated thus: 6x19 FC RH OL FSWR
59
6 Number of strands that make up the rope
19 Number of wires that make up each strand
FC Fibre core
RH Right hand lay
OL Ordinary lay
FSWR Flexible steel wire rope
Each of the sections of the wire rope designation described above is variable. There are therefore a large
number of combinations of wire rope that can be specified in this manner. The following abbreviations
are commonly used to specify a wire rope.
Abbr. Description
FC Fibre core
FSWR Flexible steel wire rope
FW Filler wire
IWR IWR
IWRC Independent wire rope core
J Jute (fibre)
LH Left hand lay
LL Lang's lay
NR Non-rotating
OL Ordinary lay
RH Right hand lay
S Seale
SF Seale filler wire
SW Seale Warrington
SWL Safe working load
TS Triangular strand
W Warrington
WF Warriflex
WLL Working load limit
WS Warrington Seale
Terminations
The end of a wire rope tends to fray readily, and cannot be
easily connected to plant and equipment. A number of different
mechanisms exist to secure the ends of wire ropes to make them
more useful. The most common and useful type of end fitting for a
wire rope is when the end is turned back to form a loop. The loose
end is then fixed by any number of methods back to the wire rope.
Thimbles
When the wire rope is terminated with a loop, there is a risk that the wire rope can bend too
tightly, especially when the loop is connected to a device that spreads the load over a relatively small
area. A thimble can be installed inside the loop to preserve the natural shape of the loop, and protect the
cable from pinching and abrasion on the inside of the loop. The use of thimbles in loops is industry best
practice. The thimble prevents the load from coming into direct contact with the wires.
Wire rope clamps(DOG CLAMPS)

A wire rope clamp, also called a clip, is used to fix the loose end of the loop back to the wire rope.
It usually consists of a u-shaped bolt, a forged saddle and two nuts. The two layers of wire rope are
placed in the u-bolt. The saddle is then fitted over the ropes on to the bolt (the saddle includes two holes
to fit to the u-bolt). The nuts secure the arrangement in place. Three or more clamps are usually used to
terminate a wire rope.
60
Swaged terminations
Swaging is a method of wire rope termination that refers to the installation technique. The
purpose of swaging wire rope fittings is to connect two wire rope ends together, or to otherwise
terminate one end of wire rope to something else. A mechanical or hydraulic swager is used to compress
and deform the fitting, creating a permanent connection. There are many types of swaged fittings.
Threaded Studs, Ferrules, Sockets, and Sleeves a few examples.
Sockets
A socket termination is useful when the fitting needs to be replaced frequently. For example, if
the end of a wire rope is in a high-wear region, the rope may be periodically trimmed, requiring the
termination hardware to be removed and reapplied. An example of this is on the ends of the drag ropes
on a dragline. The end loop of the wire rope enters a tapered opening in the socket, wrapped around a
separate component called the wedge. The arrangement is knocked in place, and load gradually eased
onto the rope. As the load increases on the wire rope, the wedge become more secure, gripping the rope
tighter.
The ends of individual strands of this eye splice used aboard a cargo ship are seized with natural
fiber cord after the splicing is complete. This helps protect seaman's hands when handling.
An eye splice may be used to terminate the loose end of a wire rope when forming a loop. The strands of
the end of a wire rope are unwound a certain distance, and plaited back into the wire rope, forming the
loop, or an eye, called an eye splice.
Eye splice
The ends of individual strands of this eye splice used aboard a cargo
ship are seized with natural fiber cord after the splicing is complete. This
helps protect seaman's hands when handling.
An eye splice may be used to terminate the loose end of a wire rope when
forming a loop. The strands of the end of a wire rope are unwound a certain
distance, and plaited back into the wire rope, forming the loop, or an eye,
called an eye splice.
61
FIBERGLASS
Fiberglass (also called fibreglass and glass fibre see Spelling differences) is
material made from extremely fine fibers of glass. It is used as a reinforcing agent for
many polymer products; the resulting composite material, properly known as fiber-
reinforced polymer (FRP) or glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), is called "fiberglass" in
popular usage. Glassmakers throughout history have experimented with glass fibers,
but mass manufacture of fiberglass was only made possible with the invention of finer
machine-tooling. In 1893, Edward Drummond Libbey exhibited a dress at the World's
Columbian Exposition incorporating glass fibers with the diameter and texture of silk
fibers. This was first worn by the popular stage actress of the time Georgia Cayvan.
What is commonly known as "fiberglass" today, however, was invented in 1938 by
Russell Games Slayter of Owens-Corning as a material to be used as insulation. It is
marketed under the trade name Fiberglas, which has become a genericized
trademark.
Background
Fiberglass refers to a group of products made from individual glass fibers
combined into a variety of forms. Glass fibers can be divided into two major groups
according to their geometry: continuous fibers used in yarns and textiles, and the
discontinuous (short) fibers used as batts, blankets, or boards for insulation and filtration. Fiberglass can be
formed into yarn much like wool or cotton, and woven into fabric which is sometimes used for draperies.
Fiberglass textiles are commonly used as a reinforcement material for molded and laminated plastics.
Fiberglass wool, a thick, fluffy material made from discontinuous fibers, is used for thermal insulation and
sound absorption. It is commonly found in ship and submarine bulkheads and hulls; automobile engine
compartments and body panel liners; in furnaces and air conditioning units; acoustical wall and ceiling panels;
and architectural partitions. Fiberglass can be tailored for specific applications such as Type E (electrical), used
as electrical insulation tape, textiles and reinforcement; Type C (chemical), which has superior acid resistance,
and Type T, for thermal insulation.
Though commercial use of glass fiber is relatively recent, artisans created glass strands for decorating
goblets and vases during the Renaissance. A French physicist, Rene-Antoine Ferchault de Reaumur, produced
textiles decorated with fine glass strands in 1713, and British inventors duplicated the feat in 1822. A British
silk weaver made a glass fabric in 1842, and another inventor, Edward Libbey, exhibited a dress woven of glass
at the 1893 Columbian Exposition in Chicago.
Raw Materials
The basic raw materials for fiberglass products are a variety of natural minerals and manufactured
chemicals. The major ingredients are silica sand, limestone, and soda ash. Other ingredients may include
calcined alumina, borax, feldspar, nepheline syenite, magnesite, and kaolin clay, among others. Silica sand is
used as the glass former, and soda ash and limestone help primarily to lower the melting temperature. Other
ingredients are used to improve certain properties, such as borax for chemical resistance. Waste glass, also
called cullet, is also used as a raw material. The raw materials must be carefully weighed in exact quantities
and thoroughly mixed together (called batching) before being melted into glass
Formation
Glass fiber is formed when thin strands of silica-based or other formulation glass is extruded into
many fibers with small diameters suitable for textile processing. Glass, even as a fiber, has little crystalline
structure (see amorphous solid). The properties of the structure of glass in its softened stage are very much
like its properties when spun into fiber. One definition of glass is "an inorganic substance in a condition which
is continuous with, and analogous to the liquid state of that substance, but which, as a result of a reversible
change in viscosity during cooling, has attained so high a degree of viscosity as to be for all practical purposes
rigid."[1]
62
The technique of heating and drawing glass into fine fibers has been known for millennia; however, the use of
these fibers for textile applications is more recent. The first commercial production of fiberglass was in 1936.
In 1938, Owens-Illinois Glass Company and Corning Glass Works joined to form the Owens-Corning Fiberglas
Corporation. Until this time all fiberglass had been manufactured as staple. When the two companies joined
together to produce and promote fiberglass, they introduced continuous filament glass fibers.[1] Owens-
Corning is still the major fiberglass producer in the market today. Two types of fibre glass most commonly
used are S-glass and E-glass.E-glass have good insulation properties and it will maintain its properties upto
1500 degree F(815 deg C). S-glass has a high tensile strength and is stiffer than E-glass.
Properties
Glass fibers are useful because of their high ratio of surface area to weight. However, the increased
surface area makes them much more susceptible to chemical attack.
By trapping air within them, blocks of glass fiber make good thermal insulation, with a thermal conductivity on
the order of 0.05 W/(mK).[5]
Glass strengths are usually tested and reported for "virgin" fibers: those which have just been
manufactured. The freshest, thinnest fibers are the strongest because the thinner fibers are more ductile. The
more the surface is scratched, the less the resulting tenacity. Because glass has an amorphous structure, its
properties are the same along the fiber and across the fiber. Humidity is an important factor in the tensile
strength. Moisture is easily adsorbed, and can worsen microscopic cracks and surface defects, and lessen
tenacity.
In contrast to carbon fiber, glass can undergo more elongation before it breaks. There is a correlation
between bending diameter of the filament and the filament diameter. The viscosity of the molten glass is very
important for manufacturing success. During drawing (pulling of the glass to reduce fiber circumference) the
viscosity should be relatively low. If it is too high the fiber will break during drawing, however if it is too low
the glass will form droplets rather than drawing out into fiber.
Uses
End uses for regular fiber glass are mats, building insulation, thermal insulation, reinforcement, heat
resistant fabrics, corrosion resistant fabrics, high strength fabrics, aircraft bodies, cars and boat frames. A
famous user in the UK was the Reliant Motor Company, which used fiberglass for many of its vehicles.
Fiberglass is also used in orthopedic casts as an alternative to plaster casts.
The Manufacturing Process

Melting
 Once the batch is prepared, it is fed into a furnace for melting. The furnace may be heated by
electricity, fossil fuel, or a combination of the two. Temperature must be precisely controlled to maintain a
smooth, steady flow of glass. The molten glass must be kept at a higher temperature (about 2500°F [1371°C])
than other types of glass in order to be formed into fiber. Once the glass becomes molten, it is transferred to
the forming equipment via a channel (forehearth) located at the end of the furnace.
Forming into fibers
 Several different processes are used to form fibers, depending on the type of fiber. Textile fibers may
be formed from molten glass directly from the furnace, or the molten glass may be fed first to a machine that
forms glass marbles of about 0.62 inch (1.6 cm) in diameter. These marbles allow the glass to be inspected
visually for impurities. In both the direct melt and marble melt process, the glass or glass marbles are fed
through electrically heated bushings (also called spinnerets). The bushing is made of platinum or metal alloy,
with anywhere from 200 to 3,000 very fine orifices. The molten glass passes through the orifices and comes
out as fine filaments.
Continuous-filament process
 A long, continuous fiber can be produced through the continuous-filament process. After the glass
flows through the holes in the bushing, multiple strands are caught up on a high-speed winder. The winder
revolves at about 2 miles (3 km) a minute, much faster than the rate of flow from the bushings. The tension
pulls out the filaments while still molten, forming strands a fraction of the diameter of the openings in the
bushing. A chemical binder is applied, which helps keep the fiber from breaking during later processing. The
filament is then wound onto tubes. It can now be twisted and plied into yarn.
Staple-fiber process
63
 An alternative method is the staplefiber process. As the molten glass flows through the bushings, jets
of air rapidly cool the filaments. The turbulent bursts of air also break the filaments into lengths of 8-15 inches
(20-38 cm). These filaments fall through a spray of lubricant onto a revolving drum, where they form a thin
web. The web is drawn from the drum and pulled into a continuous strand of loosely assembled fibers. This
strand can be processed into yarn by the same processes used for wool and cotton.
Chopped fiber
 Instead of being formed into yarn, the continuous or long-staple strand may be chopped into short
lengths. The strand is mounted on a set of bobbins, called a creel, and pulled through a machine which chops
it into short pieces. The chopped fiber is formed into mats to which a binder is added. After curing in an oven,
the mat is rolled up. Various weights and thicknesses give products for shingles, built-up roofing, or decorative
mats.
Glass wool
 The rotary or spinner process is used to make glass wool. In this process, molten glass from the
furnace flows into a cylindrical container having small holes. As the container spins rapidly, horizontal streams
of glass flow out of the holes. The molten glass streams are converted into fibers by a downward blast of air,
hot gas, or both. The fibers fall onto a conveyor belt, where they interlace with each other in a fleecy mass.
This can be used for insulation, or the wool can be sprayed with a binder, compressed into the desired
thickness, and cured in an oven. The heat sets the binder, and the resulting product may be a rigid or semi-
rigid board, or a flexible batt.
Protective coatings
 In addition to binders, other coatings are required for fiberglass products. Lubricants are used to
reduce fiber abrasion and are either directly sprayed on the fiber or added into the binder. An anti-static
composition is also sometimes sprayed onto the surface of fiberglass insulation mats during the cooling step.
Cooling air drawn through the mat causes the anti-static agent to penetrate the entire thickness of the mat.
The anti-static agent consists of two ingredients—a material that minimizes the generation of static electricity,
and a material that serves as a corrosion inhibitor and stabilizer.
Sizing is any coating applied to textile fibers in the forming operation, and may contain one or more
components (lubricants, binders, or coupling agents). Coupling agents are used on strands that will be used for
reinforcing plastics, to strengthen the bond to the reinforced material.
Sometimes a finishing operation is required to remove these coatings, or to add another coating. For plastic
reinforcements, sizings may be removed with heat or chemicals and a coupling agent applied. For decorative
applications, fabrics must be heat treated to remove sizings and to set the weave. Dye base coatings are then
applied before dying or printing.
Forming into shapes
 Fiberglass products come in a wide variety of shapes, made using several processes. For example,
fiberglass pipe insulation is wound onto rod-like forms called mandrels directly from the forming units, prior to
curing. The mold forms, in lengths of 3 feet (91 cm) or less, are then cured in an oven. The cured lengths are
then de-molded lengthwise, and sawn into specified dimensions. Facings are applied if required, and the
product is packaged for shipment.
Quality Control
During the production of fiberglass insulation, material is sampled at a number of locations in the
process to maintain quality. These locations include: the mixed batch being fed to the electric melter; molten
glass from the bushing which feeds the fiberizer; glass fiber coming out of the fiberizer machine; and final
cured product emerging from the end of the production line. The bulk glass and fiber samples are analyzed for
chemical composition and the presence of flaws using sophisticated chemical analyzers and microscopes.
Particle size distribution of the batch material is obtained by passing the material through a number of
different sized sieves. The final product is measured for thickness after packaging according to specifications.
A change in thickness indicates that glass quality is below the standard.
Fiberglass insulation manufacturers also use a variety of standardized test procedures to measure, adjust, and
optimize product acoustical resistance, sound absorption, and sound barrier performance. The acoustical
properties can be controlled by adjusting such production variables as fiber diameter, bulk density, thickness,
and binder content. A similar approach is used to control thermal properties.
64

Engineering Materials

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS ………………………………………………………….. 2

CHAPTER 2 TEST OF MATERIALS ………………………………………………………………………………………. 6

CHAPTER 3 FERROUS METALS ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 11

CHAPTER 4 NON FERROUS METALS …………………………………………………………………………………. 15

CHAPTER 5 TIMBER ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 20

CHAPTER 6 CONCRETE …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 29

CHAPTER 7 PLASTICS ……………………………………………………………………………………………………... 39

CHAPTER 8 BITUMINOUS MATERIAL, RUBBER LEATHER AND ROPE ………………………………. 46

CHAPTER 9 BRICKS ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 50

CHAPTER 10 WIRE ROPE ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 55

CHAPTER 11 FIBER GLASS ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 62

DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

C. Properties affecting the fabrication of materials

Two types of Test of Materials

Kinds of Stress Analysis

1. Direct stress, uniformly distributed

2. Stress Non U uniformly Distributed

3. Non-axial uniform stress

6. Stresses due to temperature

c=coefficient of linear expansion, L=length

Types of failure due to pure physical causes

Below is the definition of some important terms related to the diagram:

The intensity of creep depends on two factors:

The state of creep passes in three stages before fracture:

Fracture occurs under one of the following conditions of load:

Thus the types of fracture under static load are:

FAILURE OF MATERIAL BY WEARING

FAILURE BY CHEMICAL ACTION: CORROSION

Of the causes of structural damage, four theories hold:

Properties of pure iron

Three allotropic forms of iron

Basic Phases of which Ferrous Alloys are composed:

Micro constituents of Ferrous Alloys

Alloying Elements in Steels and their Effects on the Structure

Classification of Steels According to the Degree of Oxidation

Classification of Steels Based on Melting Practice

Classification of Steels According to Alloy Contents

Heat resistant grades of heat resistant cast steels

Major class of tool steels

Here are the non-ferrous metals

Characteristics and Properties

Characteristics and Properties

Characteristics and Properties

Characteristics and Properties of Copper

Classification of Copper Alloys

Types of commercial Copper

Low melting metals

Characteristics and Properties

Classification of Nickels and its alloys

A tree has three subsystems:

CROSS SECTION OF TRUNK

The three factors affecting the strength of timber are:

The essentials of a kiln are:

SOURCES AND FORMS OF TIMBER DETERIORATION

KIND OF DEFECT STRESS GRADE STRESS GRADE STRESS GRADE

WORKING STRESSES FOR 80% STRESS GRADE

WORKING STRESSES FOR 56% STRESS GRADE

WORKING STRESSES FOR 67% STRESS GRADE

Acacia 9.65 3.65 6.21 3.10 1.31

The different types of cement used for making concrete are:

COMPOSITION OF PORTLAND CEMENT