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Geological Society, London, Special Publications

The roles of complex mechanical stratigraphy and

syn-kinematic sedimentation in fold development:
insights from discrete-element modelling and
application to the Pico del Águila anticline (External
Sierras, Southern Pyrenees)
Oskar Vidal-Royo, Stuart Hardy and Josep Anton Muñoz

Geological Society, London, Special Publications 2011, v.349;

p45-60.
doi: 10.1144/SP349.3

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The roles of complex mechanical stratigraphy and syn-kinematic

sedimentation in fold development: insights from discrete-element
modelling and application to the Pico del Águila anticline (External
Sierras, Southern Pyrenees)
OSKAR VIDAL-ROYO1*, STUART HARDY1,2 & JOSEP ANTON MUÑOZ1
1
Geomodels Research Centre. GGAC, Departament de Geodinàmica i Geofı́sica, Facultat de
Geologia, Universitat de Barcelona. C/ Martı́ i Franquès s/n, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
2
ICREA (Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats), Catalonia, Spain
*Corresponding author (e-mail: oskarvidal@ub.edu; vidal.oskar@gmail.com)

Abstract: A 2D discrete-element modelling technique is used to explore the effects of complex

mechanical stratigraphy and syn-kinematic sedimentation in the development of the Pico del
Águila anticline (External Sierras, Southern Pyrenees). The stratigraphy (Middle Triassic–
Oligocene in age) involved in this structure is characterized by a gross interlayering of competent
and incompetent units, which leads to a striking variation in outcrop-scale deformation of the units
observed in the field. The numerical model attempts to reproduce the stratigraphic variation seen in
the field by using a mechanical stratigraphy that contains a complex interlayering of competent/
incompetent units. Two experiments are presented. Model 1 tests the response of this complex
mechanical stratigraphy to shortening under conditions that lead to the formation of a detachment
fold. This experiment shows that folding mechanisms vary abruptly depending on the mechanical
properties of the materials involved: the incompetent units are strongly internally deformed,
accommodating much layer-parallel shearing; the competent units deform by rigid-body trans-
lation/rotation, localized faulting and minor internal shearing. Model 2 tests the effect of
syn-kinematic sedimentation under identical boundary conditions: these sediments stabilize the
fold against gravitational instabilities and cause a concentration of deformation in the core of
the structure, leading to a tighter, narrower fold.

Many studies have considered mechanical strati-
graphy as an important control on the present-day
geometry of fault-related folds, influencing their
evolution (e.g. Homza & Wallace 1995, 1997;
Nalpas et al. 1999; Atkinson & Wallace 2003;
Mitra 2003; Hardy & Finch 2005; Hardy & Finch
2007). However, most of these works treat
mechanical stratigraphy in a qualitative manner,
either considering it as a possible theoretical
factor, or modelling a very simplified mechanical
stratigraphy. In addition, growth strata – a
common component of fault-related folds – have
been mainly used as an indicator of folding
mechanisms/kinematics, to estimate chronology
and sedimentation/uplift rates, to reveal fold
types and geometries or to recognize internal
deformation features in the syn-kinematic package
(e.g. Poblet & Hardy 1995; Poblet et al. 1997;
Storti & Poblet 1997; Nigro & Renda 2004;
Strayer et al. 2004; Casas-Sainz et al. 2005;
Grando & McClay 2007; Tavani et al. 2007).
However, most of these works neglect the effect
of the syn-kinematic sedimentary load on the evol-
ution of the fold itself.
The Pico del Águila is one of the best known
north –south anticlines in the Central External
Sierras (CES; Southern Pyrenees), which are inter-
preted to be in the hanging wall of the large-
displacement South-Pyrenean thrust that places the
Triassic décollement over a ramp that cuts far
up-section through Tertiary syn-tectonic deposits.
These anticlines are interpreted to have rotated
clockwise c. 408 (Pueyo et al. 2002), towards the
direction of tectonic transport. Previous numerical
modelling techniques applied to the Pico del
Águila anticline have used kinematic modelling
(Poblet & Hardy 1995; Poblet et al. 1997) and
inclined-shear restoration (Novoa et al. 2000).
Based on accurate observations/mapping of the
growth strata pattern, these studies focused on
folding mechanisms/kinematics, and assumed a
homogeneous pre-folding sequence. The main
drawback of these works is that they consider the
evolution of the structure only from geometrical
and kinematical viewpoints, overlooking the impor-
tance of mechanical heterogeneities in the pre-
folding sequence. As a result, even though the
obtained geometries broadly agree with field data,

From: Poblet, J. & Lisle, R. J. (eds) Kinematic Evolution and Structural Styles of Fold-and-Thrust Belts.
Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 349, 45– 60.
DOI: 10.1144/SP349.3 0305-8719/11/$15.00 # The Geological Society of London 2011.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Dalhousie University on July 31, 2012
46 O. VIDAL-ROYO ET AL.
the proposed folding mechanisms may not fully
represent the structural evolution of the Pico del
Águila anticline and its expression in the field,
which is far from being fully unravelled by those
techniques alone.
In contrast to these studies, this work uses a dis-
crete element model to explore the effects of a
complex (non-trivial) mechanical stratigraphy and
the syn-folding sedimentary load on the structural
evolution of a detachment fold.
The Pico del Águila provides a well-exposed
down-plunge view of a fold down to the Triassic
core, with a well described mechanical stratigraphy
and spectacular growth strata that record the fold
development. This provides an excellent basis to
compare how the mechanical stratigraphy behaved
in the natural fold v. the model, and how the syn-
kinematic sedimentation influenced the fold evol-
ution. Although the numerical model does not
purport to be a direct replica of the natural fold
(i.e. it is constrained to deform by plane strain,
does not contain vertical axis rotations, etc.), we
compare the results to the Pico del Águila anticline,
gaining insight on the folding mechanisms and
structural evolution of this area.
Geological setting of the Pico del Águila
anticline
The Pico del Águila is a widely studied anticline
in the External Sierras of the Spanish Southern
Pyrenees (Fig. 1). It grew from 42.67 + 0.02 Ma
(Upper Lutetian) until 34.8 + 1.72 Ma (Lower Pria-
bonian) (Poblet & Hardy 1995) and displays a spec-
tacular growth strata record (Millán et al. 1994;
Millán 1995; Poblet & Hardy 1995; Pueyo et al.
2002; Castelltort et al. 2003). A complete discussion
on the regional geology is beyond the scope of this
paper. The interested reader is referred to key
works such as Puigdefàbregas (1975), IGME
(1992), Millán et al. (1994) and Pueyo et al.
(2002). Nevertheless, since this study models the
effect of the mechanical stratigraphy in the fold
development, a brief description of the geological
setting and the stratigraphy of the Central External
Sierras is provided (CES; Figs 2 & 3a).
The External Sierras constitute the frontal emer-
gent part of the southernmost Pyrenean thrust sheets
(Soler & Puigdefàbregas 1970; IGME 1992; Millán
et al. 1994; Millán 1995; Pueyo et al. 2002) and
consist of a system of imbricated thrust sheets
detached on clayish, dolomitic and evaporitic Mid-
dle and Late Triassic facies (Keuper and Muschelk-
alk facies). The hanging wall of the frontal Pyrenean
thrust involves an Upper Triassic –Lower Miocene
sedimentary sequence (Puigdefàbregas 1975; Millán
et al. 1994; Millán 1995) which was displaced
southwards over the Tertiary sediments of the
Ebro foreland basin. During the early stages of the
evolution of the External Sierras (Early Lutetian –
Chattian), the thrust system was characterized by a
south-directed main thrust and a set of arcuate north-
eastward concave, oblique thrusts. Generated as
detachment folds on a hanging wall flat over foot-
wall flat thrust configuration, the north –south trend-
ing folds are interpreted as a more evolved stage of
the initially arcuate oblique thrusts. In addition to a
general translation towards the South, a regional
clockwise rotation characterized the kinematics of
the thrust system (up to 408 measured at the base
of Arguis Fm, western limb of Pico del Águila
anticline; Pueyo et al. 2002). However, during the
Chattian to the Early Miocene, the structural evol-
ution changed abruptly. The rotating thrust system
was folded and truncated by the formation of the
Santo Domingo detachment anticline and its associ-
ated south-directed thrust system, located in the
western sector of the External Sierras (beyond
the limits of Fig. 1, to the west). Consequently, the
remaining north–south trending folds occurred at
the hanging wall of the new Santo Domingo thrust
system, representing the northernmost portion of
those oblique structures (the rest of the structures
are supposed to be either buried under the conti-
nental deposits of the Ebro foreland basin or isolated
by erosion under the southern limb of the Santo
Domingo anticline, according to Pueyo et al.
(2002)). The emplacement of these north–south-
trending folds in a hanging wall flat over footwall
ramp position of the Santo Domingo thrust system
caused their 308 plunge towards the hinterland
(Millán 1995; Pueyo et al. 2002).
In common with other similar structures in
Central External Sierras, the Pico del Águila has
been commonly assessed to be either a detachment
fold (Millán et al. 1994; Poblet & Hardy 1995;
Pueyo et al. 2002; Castelltort et al. 2003) or a fault-
propagation fold (McElroy 1990; Millán et al.
1994). Based on field and mapping observations as
well as on ideas already suggested by previous
authors (cf. Millán 1995; Pueyo et al. 2002), it is
our hypothesis that the Pico del Águila anticline
generated as a detachment fold (on a hanging wall
flat over footwall flat thrust configuration according
to Pueyo et al. 2002) and, with increasing shorten-
ing, the core of the anticline broke through, propagat-
ing upwards while folding the upper units of Guara
Fm and overlying growth strata, finally evolving
into a hybrid detachment/fault-propagation fold.
The stratigraphic record of the Pico del Águila
anticline is composed by a pile of sedimentary
rocks from Triassic to Oligocene in age (Fig. 2).
The pre-folding stratigraphic sequence is made up
of a relatively thin Mesozoic pile, consisting of
Triassic limestone, dolomite and gypsum-bearing
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MECHANICAL STRATIGRAPHY IN FOLD DEVELOPMENT
Fig. 1. Geological map of Central External Sierras (modified from IGME 1992). BR, Bentué de Rasal anticline; PA, Pico del Águila anticline; G, Gabardiella anticline complex;
A, Arguis village; B, Belsué village; N, Nozito village.

47
 48

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O. VIDAL-ROYO ET AL.
Fig. 2. Stratigraphic sequence cropping out in Central External Sierras (modified after Millán et al. 1994) showing the deformation style that characterizes each unit: (a)
folded Keuper gypsiferous clays (photograph oriented east– west); (b) fracture pattern within the Guara limestones (photograph oriented NW–SE); (c) flexural slip and minor
fractures within the Arguis marls (photograph oriented SW– NE); (d) detail of a remnant slickenslide parallel to bedding in the Arguis marls (dipping 298 to the north), indicating
layer parallel displacement (c and d belong to different outcrops). Right side of the stratigraphic column: M is Muschelkalk, K is Keuper; DS-1, DS-2 and DS-3 are, respectively,
Depositional Sequences 1, 2 and 3 within Guara Fm.
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MECHANICAL STRATIGRAPHY IN FOLD DEVELOPMENT 49

Fig. 3. Comparison between stratigraphic sequences: (a) sequence seen in the field (modified after Millán et al. 1994)
with a brief description of the predominant lithologies observed in each unit (M, Muschelkalk; K, Keuper); and (b)
sequence used to model the mechanical behaviour of the natural sequence. Next to each field/model unit there is an
indication of its average mechanical behaviour: VHC, Very High Competence; HC, High Competence; MC, Medium
Competence; LC, Low Competence; VLC, Very Low Competence.
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50 O. VIDAL-ROYO ET AL.
clay (the oldest outcropping material), and Upper
Cretaceous shallow marine limestone. This is fol-
lowed by a thicker Palaeogene sequence comprising
the continental sandstone, siltstone and lacustrine
limestone of the Cretaceous –Paleocene transition
(Garumnian facies), and the heterogeneous Lutetian
shallow marine platform limestone of the Guara
Formation. The syn-folding stratigraphic sequence
comprises the uppermost part of the Guara Fm, the
shallow marine and transitional marl, limestone
and sandstone of the Arguis and Belsué-Atarés
Fms (Upper Lutetian to Middle Priabonian), and
the basal part of the fluvial mudstone, sandstone
and conglomerate of the Campodarbe Fm (Middle
Priabonian to Middle Oligocene).
It is important to highlight that the Muschelkalk
dolomites and limestones are the oldest outcropping
material exposed in the core of the anticline. How-
ever, data from the well Surpirenaica-1 located in
the Ebro basin (to the South, beyond the limits of
the studied area; IGME 1987) indicate the existence
of an underlying thin Middle Muschelkalk material
made up of clayish and evaporitic rocks, which
might have behaved as a basal décollement in the
CES. While we have no evidence of this material
beneath the Muschelkalk limestones and dolomites,
it is likely that the north–south anticlines of the CES
are detached on a very thin sequence of Middle
Muschelkalk claystone and evaporites. This unit is
expected to be relatively thin (around dozens of
metres) since it does not crop out in any of the
north–south anticlines of the CES.
Summarizing, the whole stratigraphic sequence
is an interlayering of competent and incompetent
units (see Fig. 3; Millán et al. 1994). We use ‘compe-
tent’ and ‘incompetent’ in this paper sensu lato, that
is we make the distinction between rocks that prefer-
entially show discrete localized deformation and
those that deform by more general distributed defor-
mation. The stratigraphic sequence is characterized
by the presence of at least two ‘incompetent’ levels
that can accommodate the deformation by means
of flexural slip/flow: the Upper Triassic evaporitic
clay (Keuper facies) and the mudstone– siltstone of
the Cretaceous –Paleocene transition (Garumnian
facies). Although less important, the Guara Fm
also presents mechanical heterogeneities with three
differentiated depositional sequences (DS’s; Millán
1995): a decametric sequence of sandstone, marl,
siltstone and microconglomerate (DS-1), interpreted
as a material of low competence; a hectometric
sequence of shallow marine platform limestone
rich in foraminifera (DS-2; middle competence);
and one hundred metres composed of a thin sequence
of sandstone overlain by limestone rich in Nummu-
lites and bivalves (DS-3; middle competence). As
such, the stratigraphic record of Pico del Águila
anticline shows large heterogeneities in terms of
mechanical behaviour which may have influenced
the growth and evolution of the structure.
Modelling methodology
Discrete-element modelling
In this work, a two dimensional discrete-element
modelling technique (DEM) has been used to test
the effect of mechanical stratigraphy and syn-
kinematic sedimentation on an idealized strati-
graphic sequence. Discrete-element models have
become commonly used in the description of the
non-linear interaction of a large number of particles
(e.g. Donzé et al. 1996; Kuhn 1999; Camborde et al.
2000; Finch et al. 2003; Hardy et al. 2009). Unlike
continuum techniques, these discontinuum methods
use simple particle interactions and, therefore,
permit the dynamic evolution of a system to be mod-
elled and observed. It is a technique well-suited to
studying problems in which mechanical discontinu-
ities (shear zones, faults, joints, or fractures) are
important as it allows deformation involving large
(unlimited) relative motion of individual elements,
and by definition does not require the complex
re-meshing at moderate to high strains that other
techniques such as finite-element typically require.
This method treats a rock mass as an assemblage
of circular elements (Fig. 4a) connected in pairs by
breakable springs or bonds (Fig. 4b). Thus, it is
possible to model different mechanical properties
(e.g. a stratigraphic sequence) by assigning different
values of breaking strains to each pair of elements
(cf. Hardy & Finch 2005), allowing us to test the
effect of a given mechanical stratigraphy on geome-
try, fold kinematics and folding mechanisms. As
such, the method provides more information than
previous kinematic modelling approaches. Further-
more, it allows for easy monitoring of displace-
ment/location of the elements through time. In
this way, the displacement path, the kinematic evo-
lution and the strain distribution within the body
can be easily tracked at any stage of the modelling.
Fig. 4. Illustration of the discrete-element technique
used in this work: (a) packing of particles with four
different radii; (b) relationship between a given particle
(grey shaded) and its neighbours (particles are connected
by breakable elastic springs).
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MECHANICAL STRATIGRAPHY IN FOLD DEVELOPMENT
Given the competent/incompetent interlayering
that characterizes the stratigraphic record (Fig. 3;
Millán et al. 1994), we believe it to be an ideal
method with which to model the Pico del Águila
anticline. Finally, while sandbox models can be
applied to similar complex boundary conditions,
they are not ideally suited to modelling complex
stratigraphic sequences and only rarely are model
results analysed in a quantitative way to extract,
for example, incremental shear strain.
Since this work aims to apply a DEM technique
to understand the evolution of the Pico del Águila
anticline, only a general overview of the method
will be given. For a detailed description of the
method as well as its mathematical background,
we refer the reader to previous works such as
Finch et al. (2003) or Hardy & Finch (2005,
2007). This modelling approach treats a rock mass
as an assemblage of circular elements that interact
in pairs, as if connected by breakable elastic springs.
The behaviour of the elements assumes that the
particles interact through a repulsive–attractive
force (Mora & Place 1993; Hardy & Finch 2005),
in which the resultant elastic-interaction force (Fs)
between two elements is given by:
8 Finch 2005, 2007), an approach used in previous
< K(r  R), r , r 0 , intact bond
F s ¼ K(r  R), r , R, broken bond (1)
: tary rocks in the upper crust. Deformation of the
0, r  R, broken bond
where K is the elastic constant (spring stiffness) of
the bond; R is the equilibrium separation between
the particles (i.e. the initial distance); r0 is a break-
ing separation that is a breaking threshold; and r is
the current separation between particles.
Particles within the model remain bonded until
the separation r exceeds the breaking threshold r0.
From that time onwards, the bond becomes irrever-
sibly broken and the particle pair will not experience
an attractive force anymore. However, if the pair of
elements return into a compressive contact (r , R),
a repulsive force acts between them. The force
acting on a bond at the breaking threshold is equiv-
alent to the force necessary for a bond to fail (i.e. the
stress acting on a particle at failure). Large values
of the threshold (e.g. 0.05R) produce ‘competent’
materials that fail by localized faulting. In contrast,
low threshold values (e.g. 0.002R) produce ‘incom-
petent’ materials that deform in a macroscopically
ductile manner as a result of non-localized defor-
mation (flow) caused by the relative motion of
many hundreds of elements.
The total elastic force applied on a particle is the
sum of the forces on each bond that links an element
to its neighbours. A viscous damping term (pro-
portional to the velocity of the particle) is also
included, in order to dampen reflected waves from
51
the edges of the model. This avoids a build-up of
kinetic energy within the system. In addition, grav-
itational forces are also considered, acting on each
element only in the y vertical direction. Particles are
displaced to their new positions within the model
at each discrete time step, by integrating their
equations of motion obeying Newtonian physics
and using a velocity Verlat-based solution scheme.
Finally, to avoid any isotropy in the orientation
of the strain/displacement fields of the particles
(i.e. preferential predefined breaking planes between
the particles) the assemblage is composed of par-
ticles of different sizes distributed at random. This
reduces the likelihood for preferred planes of weak-
ness and allows a non-predefined localization of
deformation.
Model setup and experimental parameters
In this work, the method described above is used
to test the role of both complex mechanical strati-
graphy (Model 1) and syn-kinematic sedimentation
(Model 2) in the evolution of the Pico del Águila
anticline. The behaviour of the simulated rock mass
is broadly elasto-plastic and frictionless (Place &
Mora 2001; Finch et al. 2003, 2004; Hardy &
studies to model the brittle deformation in sedimen-
modelled sedimentary sequence occurs in response
to shortening at a subduction slot at the base of the
model (a common configuration in sandbox exper-
iments). A velocity discontinuity is created at the
subduction slot in the central basal part of the box,
in which the right half of the model moves leftwards
at a continuous rate of 0.001 m per time step (Fig. 5).
A homogeneous rock density of 2500 kg m23 has
been used, a typical value of upper-crustal sedi-
mentary rocks. A value of 5.5  109 N m22 is used
for the elastic constant (K) in the experiments. Exper-
iments were run for 2 000 000 time steps with output
of the assembly every 25 000 time steps (i.e. every
25 m shortening) for Model 1 and every 100 000
steps (i.e. every 100 m shortening) for Model 2.
The total displacement in both experiments was
2 km. This provided a precise control on the struc-
tural evolution and variation of the strain distribution
(Models 1 and 2) and a well constrained geometry
of the syn-kinematic sedimentation (Model 2).
Within the modelling framework, one lattice
unit (LU) corresponds to 250 m. The initial particle
assembly contains 10 245 elements with four dif-
ferent radii of 0.125, 0.1, 0.075 and 0.05 LU
(i.e. 31.25, 25, 18.75 and 12.5 m, respectively) dis-
tributed at random in an enclosed rectangular
box. We believe these dimensions are suitable,
since they provide enough resolution to model a
kilometric-scale structure like the Pico del Águila
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52 O. VIDAL-ROYO ET AL.

Fig. 5. Initial setup and boundary conditions applied in both Models 1 & 2. The initial assembly contains 10 245
elements with radii of 31.25, 25, 18.75 and 12.5 m, positioned at random in a box that measures 12.5  1.25 km. The
assemblage is composed of 32 flat-lying layers that are later grouped in eight units with different mechanical properties.
Displacement is increased at 0.001 m/time-step. Fg corresponds to the force of gravity.

anticline, avoiding the generation of preferred Table 1. Correlation between field and model
planes of weakness and allowing a non-predefined stratigraphic units
localization of deformation that a homogeneous par-
ticle size would imply. After initial generation, the Field units Model units
elements are allowed to relax to a stable equilibrium
and are left to settle under gravity for c. 2 000 000 Campodarbe Growth strata
time steps to obtain a stable, well-packed initial Belsué Atarés Growth strata
Arguis Growth strata
assemblage and to further minimize void space. Guara DS-3 U7 and U8
The resulting initial assembly is 12.5 km long and Guara DS-2 U6
c. 1.25 km thick, simulating a continuous rock Guara DS-1 U5
mass that can deform by progressive bond breakage Garumnian U4
(fracturing/faulting) and bulk motion of unbroken Upper Cretaceous U3
pairs of elements (folding). In addition, in Model 2 Keuper U2
the syn-kinematic sedimentary sequence was mod- Muschelkalk U1
elled by adding incrementally a total of 11 708
elements.
The initial particle assembly was composed of
32 flat layers grouped into units with different mech- † Unit U6 – Medium competence unit. Six layers.
anical properties to create a complex mechanical bst ¼ 0.025R
stratigraphy (Figs 3 & 5). We have constructed a † Unit U7 – Medium competence unit. Four
mechanical stratigraphy that we believe is suitable layers. bst ¼ 0.02R
to model the behaviour of that observed in the † Unit U8 – Low competence unit. Two layers.
field (see Fig. 3 and Table 1 for a comparison bst ¼ 0.01R
between the sequence in the field and the model), The mechanical behaviour of the stratigraphy
reproducing a complex interlayering of compe- observed in the field is used to guide that of the
tent/incompetent units as described below (from modelled units. In this sense, U1 simulates the be-
bottom to top; Fig. 5): haviour of the M3 Muschelkalk facies; U2 models
† Unit U1 – Highly competent unit. Five layers. Keuper facies; U3 models Upper Cretaceous
Breaking separation (bst) ¼ 0.05R rocks; U4 models Garumnian facies; U5 models
† Unit U2 – Highly incompetent unit. Four layers. DS-1 of Guara Fm; U6 models DS-2 of Guara Fm;
bst ¼ 0.00R U7 models DS-3 of Guara Fm; and U8 models the
† Unit U3 – Competent unit. Five layers. top of the Guara Fm. The syn-kinematic materials
bst ¼ 0.04R deposited during shortening of Model 2 are regarded
† Unit U4 – Incompetent unit. Three layers. as being highly incompetent (i.e. bst ¼ 0.00R).
bst ¼ 0.002R The breaking strain values have been chosen
† Unit U5 – Low competence unit. Three layers. based on the expected mechanical behaviour of
bst ¼ 0.01R each unit guided by field observations (cf. Fig. 2).
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MECHANICAL STRATIGRAPHY IN FOLD DEVELOPMENT 53

Our previous work has discussed in detail the effect
of larger and smaller values of the breaking separ-
ation (see Finch et al. 2003, 2004). Large values
of the threshold (e.g. 0.05R), equivalent to high
elastic moduli, produce ‘competent’ materials
which fail by localized faulting, whereas low values
(e.g. 0.002R) produce ‘incompetent’ materials which
deform in a macroscopically ductile manner as a
result of non-localized deformation. It is important
to note that we have set up the elements of U1 to
be unlinked to the base of the box, in an attempt to
reproduce the geological setting of the Muschelkalk
dolomites and limestones, which are bounded by
two ductile materials: the Keuper evaporitic clay-
stone above and tentatively the unreported thin
Middle Muschelkalk claystone and evaporites
below: as such the basal décollement is the bound-
ary between U1 and the base of the model. Maps
of the shear strain distribution at every stage of the
model have also been generated, in order to identify
the locii of deformation during shortening. To do so,
we have used a free academic version of SSPXw
developed by N. Cardozo (Cardozo & Allmendinger
2009). SSPX calculates best-fitting strain tensors
given displacement or velocity vectors at a
minimum of three points in 2D. The shear strain
plots presented here were generated by SSPX
using a Delaunay algorithm to construct a mesh of
triangles (at the start and end of the considered
period) using the centre of each discrete element
as a vertex.
Experimental results
Two experiments have been carried out: Model 1
tests the effect of a complex mechanical stratigraphy
on fold development; Model 2 explores the addi-
tional influence of growth strata. Both experiments
have the same initial configuration with the afore-
mentioned mechanical properties.
Model 1: Complex interlayering of competent/
incompetent units
In this experiment, we only consider a pre-
kinematic sequence with the mechanical properties
described above (Fig. 5). The geometry and the
shear strain distribution of the model at five stages
are shown in Figure 6 and are discussed below.
As expected, the structure starts to grow above
the velocity discontinuity. After 4% bulk shorten-
ing (500 m; Fig. 6b) an open, gentle fold has

Fig. 6. Evolution of Model 1 shown at: (a) 0 m, (b) 500 m, (c) 1000 m, (d) 1500 m and (e) 2000 m. The left column
illustrates the geometrical evolution of the model as shortening continues. The right column shows the distribution
of the incremental shear strain at the reported stages. Scale at the top-right of the figure illustrates the range of shear
strain considered.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Dalhousie University on July 31, 2012
54 O. VIDAL-ROYO ET AL.
developed: in the lower parts of the stratigraphic
sequence it can be seen that a right-dipping fault
has developed within U1 in the core of the fold,
and that U2 has thickened in both flanks of the struc-
ture. In contrast, the upper units U3 –U8 display a
parallel, open anticline with no thickness variations
or faulting. At the right border of the model, a
small perturbation/fold has also formed due to the
boundary effect of the nearby moving wall and
this continues growing throughout the model run.
However, it does not propagate from the right
edge at any time and remains far from the central
detachment fold of interest. The shear strain distri-
bution map shows that shear strain (i.e. faulting) is
concentrated in the incompetent units U2 and U4,
and in the basal competent unit U1 (Fig. 6b). In
U2 and U4 shear strain is continuous and high
across much of the model from the right wall to the
growing structure and towards the left wall. In the
other units (U3 and U5–U8), shear strain is more
diffuse and discontinuous. After 8% bulk shortening
(1000 m; Fig. 6c) the disharmonic nature of the fold
has been accentuated. Units U1 and U2 are now
highly deformed, with marked hinge thickening
and rightward thrusting of U1 on top of U2.
However, above U2 an almost symmetric anticline
continues to grow. Normal faulting is now seen in
the crest of the structure, particularly in units U7
and U8. As before, U2 and U4 display high shear
strain, particularly in the right-hand limb of the struc-
ture. In the other units (U3 and U5 –U8), shear strain
is more diffuse and discontinuous (Fig. 6c). After
12% bulk shortening (1500 m; Fig. 6d) the lower
units, U1 and U2, are now complexly deformed.
The wavelength of the anticline has increased, and
the fold is now asymmetric with slight vergence
towards the right. Deformation in U4 (as illustrated
by incremental shear strain) is mainly concentrated
in the left-hand limb, in contrast to the previous
stage. During this stage fold growth is complex:
the left-hand limb grows by a combination of
limb-rotation and lengthening (this last one due to
transport of material into the limb through the
bounding synclinal hinge), with evident hinge
migration of the left-hand syncline towards the
left. Large hinge thickening of the anticline is
observed, particularly in U2. On the other hand,
the right-hand limb appears to grow mainly by
rotation. Stretching in the outer arc persists, as indi-
cated by continued normal faulting in the crestal
region (Fig. 6d). Finally, after 16% bulk shortening
(2000 m; Fig. 6e), the anticline appears to lock and
the right-hand limb shows evidence of rightward
thrusting cutting this limb. The right-hand limb is
now vertical in U3 and almost overturned in U5.
Crestal normal faulting has not developed further,
suggesting a cessation of outer arc stretching. How-
ever, the hinge and the crestal normal faults have
rotated clockwise (around 108) with respect to the
previous stage. Shear strain is particularly concen-
trated in the core of the structure (U1 and U2), but
also along the limbs in units such as U3 and U5
(Fig. 6e).
The final structure is shown after 2000 m of total
(boundary) shortening. At that stage, the central
structure had reached the maximum amount of
shortening that it could accommodate by folding.
However, of this total, only c. 1080 m of shortening
were needed to form the central structure. The rest
of the boundary displacement is consumed in layer-
parallel shortening and in the formation of the right-
border structure which in a regional/field sense can
be thought of as an earlier or contemporaneous
structure.
Model 2: Inclusion of syn-kinematic
sedimentation
This experiment explores the effect of the syn-
kinematic sedimentation on the structural evolution
of a growing fold. The initial setup (Figs 5 & 7a)
comprises the same mechanically-interlayered (pre-
kinematic) sequence as before. The geometrical and
shear strain evolution of this model are shown in
Figure 7.
After 4% bulk shortening (500 m; Fig. 7b) a
small, low amplitude, structure has started to grow
above the velocity discontinuity, as a perturbation
with layer-parallel geometry. The incompetent
units U2 and U4 exhibit high shear strain in both
the structure itself and some distance across the
model. Competent unit U1 shows high shear strain
and is complexly deformed in the core of the anti-
cline. The other pre-kinematic units only exhibit
low shear strain which is slightly accentuated in
the fold (Fig. 7b). On the other hand, the growth
strata show high but variable amounts of shear
strain. However, two types of strain within the
growth strata package must be distinguished.
Firstly, the shear strain due to the recent deposition
and ongoing compaction of the recently deposited
units, essentially restricted to the uppermost two
layers of the assembly (i.e. the thin horizontal
red area at the top of the strain distribution maps;
Fig. 7). Secondly, the shear strain exhibited by the
growth pile due to shortening and consequent fold
development. As in Model 1, a border-effect is gen-
erated at the right-hand edge of the model due to the
displacement of this wall towards the left. After 8%
bulk shortening (1000 m; Fig. 7c), the central struc-
ture has grown significantly, its limbs have steep-
ened and now it verges slightly towards the right.
Disharmonic folding is now observed in the strati-
graphic sequence. Below U4 minor folds have
developed, particularly in U2–U4 towards the right-
hand edge of the model, and the core of the structure
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MECHANICAL STRATIGRAPHY IN FOLD DEVELOPMENT 55

Fig. 7. Evolution of Model 2 shown at: (a) 0 m, (b) 500 m, (c) 1000 m, (d) 1500 m and (e) 2000 m. The left column
illustrates the geometrical evolution of the model as shortening continues. The right column shows the distribution
of the incremental shear strain at the reported stages. Scale at the top-right of the figure illustrates the range of shear
strain considered.

is now becoming complexly deformed in U1. Above
U4, the pre-kinematic units define a gentler fold
geometry, with no thickness changes or minor
folds observed. The syn-kinematic sequence now
shows marked thickness variations producing flank-
ing sedimentary wedges which thin towards the
crest of the anticline. In contrast to Model 1, no
normal faulting is observed in the crest of the struc-
ture. Within the growth strata package, moderate
to high shear strain is observed and a distinct con-
trast in shear strain is observed at the base of the
growth strata package. After 12% bulk shortening
(1500 m; Fig. 7d), thickening of the incompetent
units is seen in the hinge of both flanking synclines
and the core of the fold becomes highly deformed.
In particular, U1 starts to become dramatically
deformed, displaying a bottle-neck geometry. Small
folds continue to grow in U2 between the anticline
and the right-hand model border. Disharmonic
folding is observed in the hinge of the anticline,
with folding style above and below U4 differing
markedly. Shear strain continues to be concentrated
within the incompetent units involved in the fold
and their continuation towards the right-hand wall.
Growth strata continue to rotate and thin against
the growing structure displaying much internal
shear strain. At 16% bulk shortening (2000 m;
Fig. 7e) the anticline appears to cease to grow
upwards (note that growth strata now overlap the
structure) with the fold tightening by limb rotation.
However, the model shows a shift in the distribution
of shortening from the central fold to the right edge,
manifested by propagation of folding from the right
edge, and giving rise to small décollement folds
detached on U2. In the main fold, shear strain con-
tinues to be concentrated in the core of the structure,
together with shear of the fold limbs particularly
in U4 and U5. In the core of the fold U1 is further
‘pinched’ into a bottle-neck structure. At this
stage, the growth strata package is about 1.2 km
thick, similar to the one observed in nature at Pico
del Águila.
Discussion
The aim of this work has been to test the effect of a
complex mechanical stratigraphy and growth strata
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56 O. VIDAL-ROYO ET AL.

on the development of detachment folds and
compare the results to the Pico del Águila anticline
(Central External Sierras, Southern Pyrenees). This
was the primary motivation for this work: in the core
of this anticline, field observations and geological
mapping suggest a potentially complex structure
and only scarce, poor-quality seismic data are avail-
able. In addition, outcrop data do not help to reveal
much of the structure at depth (Fig. 8). Our objective
was therefore to use the discrete element approach
to provide new insights into the geometry and evol-
ution of this structure.
In general, the modelling results have proven
informative and the approach successful. In par-
ticular, model results have highlighted the dramatic
change in structural style between units U1–U2
and the overlying stratigraphic sequence. The
model results re-emphasize that the structural evol-
ution of a growing fold strongly depends on the
mechanical behaviour of the stratigraphic sequence
involved. The presence of multiple incompe-
tent levels (U2 and U4 in Models 1 and 2; and,
less importantly, the syn-kinematic package in
Model 2), leads to a complex partitioning of shear
strain within the stratigraphic sequence. As a con-
sequence, disharmonic folding is seen in both
Models 1 and 2.
In both models fold growth started at an early stage
above the velocity discontinuity as a nearly sym-
metric, constant-thickness, open fold with gently-
dipping limbs. Further shortening resulted in fold
growth by a combination of limb lengthening and
limb rotation. This development, however, is not
homogeneous throughout the stratigraphic sequence.
The upper units above U4 grew mainly by limb
lengthening whereas the units below grew mainly
by limb rotation. This led to disharmonic folding,
as the upper, outer layers dip more gently than the
inner ones, which reach vertical and overturned
dip values. It appears that folding mechanisms do
not solely depend on the mechanical behaviour of
a given unit, but they are also driven by its relation-
ship with the immediately adjacent units (i.e. the
mechanical contrast between a unit and its neigh-
bours, or brittle–ductile coupling in the sense of
Smit et al. 2003).

Fig. 8. Geological map of the Pico del Águila anticline (modified from IGME 1992). Notice the geometrical similarities
between the model results and the structure in nature: growth strata sedimentary prism, folding in the upper units,
and faulting in the lower units. See Figure 1 for legend.
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MECHANICAL STRATIGRAPHY IN FOLD DEVELOPMENT 57

Fig. 9. Final geometries of Model 1 (a) and Model 2 (b) after 2000 m of shortening. Both experiments had identical
initial configurations (see Fig. 5) and mechanical properties. However, Model 2 included sedimentation during
shortening, producing the observed growth strata pattern.

It is notable that small-scale extensional faulting
took place at the crest of the anticline in Model 1
(Fig. 9a). This was mainly due to the stretching
produced in the outer layers and to the gravitati-
onal instability of the structure produced as its
amplitude increased. This effect was diminished in
Model 2 as flanking sedimentation took place
during shortening and fold growth (Fig. 9b). Since
the pre-kinematic outer arc was buried under the
growth strata, the syn-kinematic sedimentary load
minimized the stretching and supported the fold,
reducing any potential gravitational instabilities.
Syn-kinematic materials have been modelled as
a mass of cohesionless elements and, thus, have
acted as an incompetent level on top of the pre-
kinematic sequence. Syn-kinematic materials are
thus deformed pervasively, as observed in the shear
strain distributions shown in Figure 7. This defor-
mation has been mainly by small-scale folding and
distributed faulting. However, due to the additional
load, the syn-kinematic pile also influences the
deformation within the pre-growth sequence. In
other words, this additional load confines the defor-
mation to the core of the structure, which is tighter
in Model 2 compared to in Model 1 (Fig. 9), by
means of multiple faults and disharmonic folding
(see the bottle-neck structure in Fig. 9b). As
observed in Model 1 (Figs 6 & 9a), the lack of a
syn-kinematic load leads to a fold which is more
open, and which widens with increasing shortening.
Summarizing, the effect of syn-kinematic sedi-
mentation in the development of a growing fold
is double: firstly, it minimizes stretching in the
upper, outer units of the structure; and secondly,
it influences growth of the anticline generating a
tighter, more complex and upright structure in the
inner, lower units.
In both models, it is also noticeable that shorten-
ing produces a detachment fold in a stratigraphic
sequence in which the basal unit is not a simple,
homogeneous ductile unit. Both competent and
incompetent units (U1 and U2) are involved and
highly deformed in the core of the anticline. The
lack of any bonding between U1 and the base of the
box (modelling the suspected interaction between
Muschelkalk dolomites and the underlying evapori-
tic clays) as well as the presence of the incompetent
U2 above it means that the basal highly competent
unit is bordered by two ductile materials and thus
it can fold freely.
Most of the features described above have paral-
lels in the Pico del Águila anticline. Given that the
anticline plunges towards the north up to 408, the
down-plunge view offered by the geological map
can be considered as an equivalent to a cross-section
of the structure (Fig. 8), comparable to the results
obtained in Models 1 and 2. The stratigraphic
record of the area is characterized by an
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58 O. VIDAL-ROYO ET AL.

Fig. 10. Photograph illustrating the disharmonic folding observed in the hinge of the Pico del Águila anticline (see
Fig. 8 for location): upper layers showing minor associated folds correspond to the base of Guara Fm, whereas lower
highly-vegetated layers correspond to the top of the Garumnian facies.

interlayering of competent/incompetent units of simple, single folding mechanisms/kinematics.

(Figs 2 & 3), which appear to have exerted a
strong influence on the generation and develop-
ment of the fold. As observed in Figure 8, a dramatic
change in structural style exists between the
lower and the upper units: the Muschelkalk-middle
Guara sequence is faulted and complexly deformed
whereas the overlying upper Guara-Campodarbe
sequence is more simply folded. Model 2 (Fig. 9b)
has reproduced this behaviour since the U1–U4
sequence is complexly faulted and folded whereas
the overlying strata are more simply folded. Such
disharmonic folding is observed in the hinge area
of Pico del Águila (Fig. 10). Model results sug-
gest a non-concentric geometry for the Pico del
Águila, in which some pre-kinematic units (U6,
U5 and U3) show minor disharmonic folds in
the crest of the anticline whereas U2 does not
display such behaviour. An almost identical
phenomenon is observed in Figure 10, where
Guara Fm shows minor metric folds in the crest of
the Pico del Águila, above the Garumnian, which
does not exhibit such disharmonic folding. In
addition, the geometry of the growth strata bears
a striking resemblance to that seen in Model 2,
including small scale reverse faulting along the
limbs (observed in the field) and very local normal
faulting in the crest of the anticline (see Fig. 8).
This crestal normal faulting, however, is not well
represented in Model 2 since the scale of these
faults in the field (c. 50 m) is within the order of
magnitude of the element sizes used in the models
(c. 12–31 m).
Summarizing, the modelling indicates that it is
unlikely that the complex interplay of parameters
occurring in nature can be easily explained in terms
Limb rotation, limb lengthening, faulting, hinge
migration, hinge thickening, among others, usually
act coevally depending on the mechanical properties
of individual units and their stratigraphic position.
In addition, this contribution indicates that growth
strata, when present during the evolution of a struc-
ture, are not just simple passive markers – rather
they are mechanically important in the evolution
of a structure.
Conclusions
A 2D discrete-element modelling technique has
been used to test the influence of complex compe-
tent/incompetent interlayering and the presence of
growth strata in the generation and development
of the Pico del Águila anticline. The model simu-
lates the sedimentary sequence as an assemblage of
circular elements that interact in pairs with elastic
forces influenced by gravity and obey Newton’s
equations of motion. The mechanical interlayering
leads to high shear strain and complex deformation
within the incompetent units, whereas the com-
petent units are subject to more distributed shear
strain and simple folding. As a result of the differing
mechanical responses to shortening, it is difficult to
explain the evolution of such a structure in terms of
simple kinematic models. Furthermore, the addition
of growth strata reduces the effects of stretching,
extensional faulting and gravitational instabilities
on the crest of the anticline. Finally, the load of
the syn-kinematic package also led the deformation
to be more confined to the core of the structure,
which is thus tighter than in the case where growth
strata are lacking.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Dalhousie University on July 31, 2012
MECHANICAL STRATIGRAPHY IN FOLD DEVELOPMENT
We would like to thank N. Cardozo for the free academic
use of SSPX to generate the shear strain distribution
maps presented in this work. In addition, discussions
with Stefano Tavani are gratefully acknowledged. The
Group of Geodynamics and Basin Analysis (GGAC) at
Universitat de Barcelona is also acknowledged for their
support (2005SGR 00397 and 2009 SGR 1198). This
research has also been supported by ICREA, StatoilHydro,
the Geomod 3D project (CGL2004-05816-C02-01/BTE),
the MODES-4D project (CGL2007-66431-C02-01/BTE)
and the Geomodels Institute Consortium. O. Vidal-Royo
is grateful to Agència de Gestió d’Ajuts Universitaris i a
la Recerca (AGAUR) for providing a PhD grant (2005 FI
00200). Dr W. Wallace, Dr S. Castelltort, Dr J. Poblet and
Dr R. J. Lisle are gratefully acknowledged for thorough
reviews that have definitely improved the quality of
this work.
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