URTeC: 2889846

Integration of Core Fracture and Lithofacies Descriptions in the

Wolfcamp Shale: Implications for Mechanical Stratigraphy and
Production
Anthony Salem (1); John Solum (1); Steve Naruk (1); Daniel Minisini (1); Patricio
Desjardins (2); James Hnat (2)
Institutions: 1. Shell International Exploration & Production, Inc., Houston, TX, United
States. 2. Shell Exploration & Production, Co, Houston, TX, United States
Copyright 2018, Unconventional Resources Technology Conference (URTeC) DOI 10.15530/urtec-2018-2889846
This paper was prepared for presentation at the Unconventional Resources Technology Conference held in Houston, Texas, USA, 23-25 July 2018.

The URTeC Technical Program Committee accepted this presentation on the basis of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). The contents of this paper
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Abstract

This study examines the role of natural fractures on water and oil production from the Wolfcamp Shale in the West
Texas Delaware Basin, one of Shell’s largest unconventional developments. Individual wells have sustained
production rates of 400-500 barrels of water per day and 100-200 barrels of oil per day, indicating the effective
permeability of the stimulated and naturally fractured reservoir is several orders of magnitude greater than the
matrix permeability of 20-35 nanodarcies. This study compares the fracture intensity in 6,500 feet of vertical whole
core from 16 wells, with water-oil ratios from the nearby horizontal wells. Results show no correlation between
natural fracture intensity and production, and that well and reservoir performance in this case are relatively
independent of fracture intensity. Individual cores may not be representative of the reservoir, and/or other factors
such as fluid pressure, saturation, aquifer drive mechanism and strength, and/or completion variables, are more
important factors than fracture intensity in terms of production.

Introduction

In hydraulically fractured reservoirs, the effective permeability of the reservoir can be orders of magnitude greater
than the matrix permeability (Figure 1). Similarly, natural fractures are assumed to have a similar impact on
performance, as they can be important controls on natural porosity and permeability at the scale of well drainage
areas (Gross et al., 2009; Strickland et al., 2013; Ferrill et al., 2014a).

This increase in effective permeability from fractures can have a positive effect on oil production such as in the
Niobrara Formation (e.g., Sonnenberg, 2011), or it can have a negative effect by increasing water production, such
as in the Mississippi Lime and Barnett Shale (Loucks et al., 2017).

Characterizations of fracture intensity are thus considered critical to understanding and predicting well and reservoir
in fractured reservoirs (Strickland et al., 2013; Ferrill et al., 2014b; Engelder et al., 2009; Bertotti et al., 2007; Gross
et al., 2009). In cores and many outcrops, the variations in fracture intensity are quantified through detailed
measurements of fracture geometries, spacings and apertures along scan lines of cores and outcrops (Gross et al.,
2009; Strickland et al., 2013). In many cases, the resulting variations in fracture intensity correlate with sequence
stratigraphic units, enabling the variations in fracture intensity observed in a well to be extrapolated over large areas
based on the sequence stratigraphy. These variations in fracture intensity are assumed to relate to variations in well
and reservoir performance (Gross et al., 2009; Strickland et al., 2013).
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This study compares detailed measurements of fracture intensity in Permian Wolfcamp cores with actual production
data from nearby wells. The original goal of the study was to develop general methods to predict the effective
permeability of fractured reservoirs directly from observations of fracture intensity in core, eliminating the need for
time-consuming and expensive extended well tests in the Permian and other basins and plays. The results show an
absence of a consistent mechanical or fracture stratigraphy, and a lack of correlation between fracture intensity and
water-oil ratio. Potential reasons for the lack of correlation are:
1. The fracture intensities measured in core are not representative of the well drainage areas;
2. The fracture intensities are uniform and pervasive such that a significant decrease in fracture intensity would
be required to result in a significant response;
3. The importance of fracture intensity is outweighed by dynamic factors such as fluid pressures and saturations,
and/or operational factors such as completions (none of which are evaluated in this study).

The West Texas Delaware Basin is an excellent study area for fracture characterization and analysis because of the
abundant core, log and production data, as well as the high degree of variability in oil and water production across
the basin, suggesting large variations in effective permeabilities. The Basin is one of several Late Paleozoic
foreland Ancestral Rockies Basins formed during the Marathon-Ouachita Orogeny. Prior to the Permian Period, the
basin was part of the stable passive margin covered by epicontinental seas. Beginning in the late Pennsylvanian and
continuing into the Permian, the Delaware Basin accumulated >15,000 feet of fine-grained clastics, down-dip of a
carbonate shelf surrounding the Basin on three sides. Subsequently the basin experienced variable uplift and
exhumation in the Tertiary (e.g., Ye et al., 1996; Brown, 2003; Sinclair, 2007; Yang and Dorobek, 1995).

Figure 1: Comparison of matrix permeabilities with effective permeabilities of fractured reservoirs determined from well tests, showing that
fractures can increase the effective permeability by greater than 3 orders of magnitude.

The Wolfcamp Shale is a thin-bedded, heterogeneous succession of deep marine deposits, including siliceous
organic-rich mudstones interbedded with calcareous mudstones, carbonate debrites, siliciclastic mass transport
deposits, and silts. It is subdivided into four main members, from youngest to oldest: A, B, C and D. The in-situ
matrix permeability of the shale is only 20-35 nanodarcies (Gale et al., 2017). However, individual wells have
sustained production rates of 400-500 BWPD and approximately 100 BOPD (Figure 2), suggesting that the
combined networks of natural and induced fractures increase the drainage areas and volumes of the wells.
URTeC 2889846 3

Figure 2: Typical production profile from a lateral adjacent to one of the cored wells.

Uplift of the Basin’s western margin relative to its eastern margin has inverted the thermal maturity gradient, such
that the shallower western area is currently in the gas generation window, while the deeper eastern area is in the oil
generation window. Basin modeling indicates the Wolfcamp is undercharged, having generated insufficient
hydrocarbons to fill the reservoir pore system.

Geochemical data indicate that the individual Wolfcamp members are self-sourced. GOR and PVT data from
hydrocarbons produced from laterals landing in the Wolfcamp A member correlate with the Wolfcamp A member
thermal maturity, indicating that the Wolfcamp A is the source of the hydrocarbons with minor exceptions.
Similarly, the geochemistry of the A member produced water indicates that it is primarily formation water. The
dissolved species and isotope characteristics (Br, Sr and H and O isotopes) of the produced water differ significantly
from meteoric and shallow aquifer waters and are consistent with a modified Permian seawater with negligible
meteoric influence (Gale et al, 2017)

Methodology

Fractures from 6,500 feet of 31 vertical whole cores spanning every member of the Wolfcamp were characterized.
The cores come from 16 wells widely spread across the basin (Figure 3). Fractures were classified into four groups:
inclined veins, horizontal veins (beef), joints and faults. Fracture intensity was quantified in terms of frequency
(fractures/ft. core) and areal density (fracture length/sq. ft. core). Fracture were measured then counted within a 3-ft.
window, then normalized to obtain fractures per foot. The fracture areal density was also sampled per 3 ft. window
of core, but was calculated as a moving average every 1.5 ft. Fracture intensity results were plotted as logs for
visualization. The results were also displayed as “box and whisker” plots, which show the statistical distribution of
average fracture intensity values by fracture type for each member of the Wolfcamp.
URTeC 2889846 4

Figure 3: Index map of Permian Basin and core location map.

The fracture intensity logs were integrated with lithofacies logs and descriptions. Fracture intensity logs were
analyzed to determine average fracture intensity by member, and maximum values per individual well and for all
wells. Median intensity values for each well were then mapped out to examine if there was a spatial correlation
between fracture intensity and mapped faults, position on structure, or spatial trends. Finally, maps were made of
WOR from selected wells in the Delaware Basin provided by the asset team, and were compared to median fracture
intensity to see if there was any correlation between WOR and fracture intensity.

Results

Fracture characterization

Near-vertical veins are the most prevalent type of fracture (Figure 4). The majority of these are cemented fractures,
typically less than 1 foot in length, with apertures of less than 1/25 in. Fractures range in apparent length from less
than 1 inch to greater than 4 ft. Apertures range from hairline to greater than 1/12 in. Orientations ranged from 70-90
degrees relative to bedding, which is approximately horizontal. The veins are partially to fully filled with calcite
cement, with local additional quartz and/or dolomite. Given their near-vertical orientation, it is likely that the
vertical cores significantly under sample the true intensity of these fractures in the subsurface. The veins occur in
virtually every lithofacies, although they are much more common in mudstones and carbonates compared to sand-
silt layers. They commonly terminate at or abut lithology changes or at horizontal veins, although locally they also
intersect and cut across the horizontal veins.

The near-vertical natural fractures are interpreted to have formed during Cenozoic uplift based on clumped isotope
analyses of fracture cements, and the composition and homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions in the
fracture cements (Gale et al., 2017).
URTeC 2889846 5

Figure 4: Upper Wolfcamp core photographs, showing its thinly bedded and highly heterogenous character, new-vertical veins, and bed-parallel
veins or “beef”

The horizontal veins range in length from 0.5 inches to core width (3 inches in most cases) and, in the subsurface,
could be considerably longer (see Figure 4). Apertures range from <1 mm up to 20 mm. These veins are filled with
calcite and display a fibrous texture approximately orthogonal to fracture faces, which is observed most clearly
when the vein aperture is >2 mm. Slickenlines and en echelon configurations of some of the veins indicate they
formed by a combination of shear and tensile failure. The horizontal veins occur exclusively within black
mudstones, suggesting an association with hydrocarbon generation. These kinds of horizontal veins are common in
shales worldwide, particularly organic-rich black shales, and are interpreted to form 1) because of overpressures
equal to or exceeding the vertical stress at the time of formation, and/or 2) compressive tectonics in which the
greatest principal stress (σ1) is horizontal and least principal stress (σ3) is vertical (Cobbels and Rodrigues, 2007;
Jamison, 2013). Cross cutting relationships indicate horizontal veins predate the near-vertical fractures. Horizontal
veins are interpreted to have formed during hydrocarbon generation.
Both near-vertical and horizontal veins contain hydrocarbon-bearing primary and secondary fluid inclusions,
indicating fracturing occurred during or following hydrocarbon generation (Gale et al., 2017). Integration of
clumped isotope and fluid inclusion analyses with the burial history show that the near-vertical veins most likely
formed during Miocene and younger uplift.

The joints are approximately vertical. They occur in the more competent and brittle lithofacies and are generally
bed-confined. They are distinguished from drilling induced and core handling fractures by the absence of petal
fractures and long centerline fractures.

Both syndepositional and postdepositional faults are present. The syndepositional faults occur primarily in mass
transport deposit (MTD) assemblages, have small normal and reverse offsets (< 1 cm), and are associated with
convoluted laminations, steeply dipping to overturned beds, loading/scouring structures. Postdepositional faults
were observed in only two wells, and were minor features with 1-2 cm offset.

Horizontal and vertical partings occur throughout the core. Many of the horizontal partings are core handling
features, where the core has broken along bedding planes. A few have slickenlines indicating a subsurface shear
origin. Generally speaking, highly layered lithofacies contain more of these horizontal partings.
URTeC 2889846 6

The vertical partings were initially believed to represent potential high permeability zones for water production.
These features were studied internally and were concluded to be induced near surface features. These partings are
open, but locally are filled with gypsum. These partings occur in random orientations and are characterized by
irregular surfaces. Typically, these features are observed mostly in calcareous mudstones, distal turbidite mudstones
and in MTD.

Quantitative Fracture Analysis: Intensity Logs and Fracture Distribution

Comparison of the fracture intensity logs of different wells shows overlapping ranges of fracture intensity within the
formations. The fracture intensity, recorded as both number of fractures per foot of core (Figure 5), and as total
length of fractures per square foot of core (Figure 6), are uniform between formations and between wells.

100 ft
100 ft

100 ft

100 ft
100 ft

Figure 5: North to South stratigraphic correlation section with representative fracture intensity logs, showing the number of fractures per foot of
core. Null values represent intervals without core. The results show a minor increase in fracture intensity from A
URTeC 2889846 7

100 ft

100 ft
100 ft

100 ft

100 ft

Figure 6: North to South stratigraphic correlation section with representative fracture intensity logs, showing the total length of fractures per
square foot of core. Null values represent intervals with no core. As above, the results show a minor increase in intensity from A to D, but the
absence of a systematic fracture or mechanical stratigraphy.

Thus, there is no consistent fracture stratigraphy at the formation level. High intensity fractured intervals can occur
in any part of the stratigraphy and the fracture intensities vary non-systematically between wells and up and down
section within any single well. Following Laubach et al. (2009) the term “fracture stratigraphy” is used in preference
to “mechanical stratigraphy,” because the data being compared are fracture intensities rather than mechanical
properties such as tensile strength, elastic stiffness, brittleness, etc.

The measured fracture intensities also do not correlate directly with sequence stratigraphy, showing the lack of
consistent fracture stratigraphy even at this more detailed level (Figure 7). Fracture intensity does correlate with
relatively brittle lithofacies, such as mudstones or carbonates, being more intensely fractured than less brittle
lithofacies, such as sandstones, siltstones and MTD. The lithofacies association does not result in any consistent
mechanical stratigraphy, however, because the lithofacies are so thin bedded and heterogeneous.
URTeC 2889846 8

Figure 7: Representative sequence stratigraphic correlation section of five B member cores, showing the heterogeneous lithostratigraphy; and non-
systematic variations in fracture intensity between wells, and with depth in any individual well.

Box and whisker plots of fracture intensity by member (Figure 8) show the overlapping ranges of fracture intensity.
In these plots, the bottom and top of the blue box represent the first and third quartile, the black lines represent the
minimum and maximum values, and the red lines represent the median. These show that the median fracture
intensity generally increases from A to D, but the ranges of fracture intensity overlap between the different
members.

Figure 8: Box and whisker plots of (a) average fracture count (foot of fractures per linear foot of core), and (b) average fracture density (ft.
fractures/ ft2 of core) by formation. Although the upper and lower quartile values overlap, the median values (red lines) generally increase from
the younger to older formations (Upper A to C/D).
URTeC 2889846 9

Discussion

Comparison of Fracture Intensity with Mapped Structures

There is no systematic correlation of fracture intensity with proximity to faults. Although there are no significant
faults at the Wolfcamp level in the study area, we compared fracture intensity to the location overlying and
underlying faults and lineaments. Relative fracture intensity of each core was classified qualitatively as a function
of the median and maximum fracture intensity in that core. The cores with the highest relative fracture intensities do
occur close to overlying and underlying faults. However, cores with above median fracture intensity occur both
close to faults and away from faults, as do cores with below median intensities.

Comparison of Fracture Intensity with WOR

Comparison of the fracture intensities with WOR values at the core locations, estimated from contour maps of WOR
for each member, show the lack of a relation of WOR and fracture intensity (Figure 10). The WOR contours for the
Wolfcamp A member are constrained by a reasonable number and distribution of control points (Figure 10b).
However, the WOR contours for the B and C/D members are only constrained by small and irregularly distributed
control points. Nevertheless, the maps show the absence of a relationship between fracture intensity and WOR. At
the Lower A level, core with above median fracture intensity occur at locations with high (> 9), medium (~ 5) and
low (~3) WOR values. In addition, the structure contours highlight the lack of correlation of WOR with structural
depth, and a general increase in WOR from the A member to the C/D members.

a b c

Figure 9: Maps of WOR by formation with formation structure contours, and relative core fracture intensities. a) Wolfcamp A, b) Wolfcamp B, c)
Wolfcamp C/D
URTeC 2889846 10

Figure 10: Comparison of average fractures per foot of core with estimated WOR for the core location from Figure 9.

Conclusions

Four main types of fractures occur in the Delaware Basin unconventional Wolfcamp shale cores: near-vertical veins,
horizontal veins (beef), joints and faults. The near-vertical veins represent ~80% of all fractures. Fracture intensity is
controlled primarily by lithofacies, with the finer-grained, more brittle lithofacies such as carbonates, lean dolomitic
mudstones and siliceous mudstones containing the most fractures. However, the lithofacies are thin-bedded and
highly heterogeneous, and do not correlate with the sequence stratigraphy, resulting in the absence of any consistent
mechanical or fracture stratigraphy. Measured matrix permeabilities are in the range of 20-35 nanodarcies. In
contrast, sustained well production plateau rates of hundreds of barrels of oil and water per day for 3-4 years
indicate that the fractures increase the effective permeability of the of the system by several orders of magnitude.
Both the median fracture intensity and the mean WOR of each formation increase from A to C. However, there is no
consistent fracture stratigraphy with the formations, and fracture intensity and the WOR of individual wells are not
related, indicating the core data alone are not an indicator of Wolfcamp well performance. The core may not be a
representative sample of the fractures or their connectivity. Alternatively, dynamic factors such as fluid pressure,
saturation, relative permeability, and/or aquifer drive mechanism and strength; and/or completion variables, may be
more important to productivity than fracture intensity.

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