Project Name

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
Mechanical Engineering
(2020)
BY

Submitted by:

Under the guidance of

CollegeLogo

College Name

Affiliated to
Dr. A.P.J.ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, LUCKNOW
 Contents
Contents...........................................................................................................................................2
Abstract -.........................................................................................................................................6
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................8
OBJECTIVES OF PROJECTS........................................................................................................9
Literature review............................................................................................................................11
ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES...................................................................................................11
FEATURES...................................................................................................................................11
Helve hammer.........................................................................................................................12
Methodology..................................................................................................................................17
COMPONENT..............................................................................................................................17
Calculations...................................................................................................................................21
OPERATION SHEETS........................................................................................................27
COST ESTIMATION..............................................................................................................32
PART AND ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS..............................................................................34
ADVANTAGES............................................................................................................................52
DISADVANTAGES......................................................................................................................52
APPLICATION.............................................................................................................................52
FUTURE SCOPE..........................................................................................................................52
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................55
DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project report entitled “Project Name” submitted is our original
work and the report has not formed the basis for the award of any degree, associate ship,
fellowship or any other similar title.

Signature:
Name:
CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled “Project Name” is the bona fide work carried
out by students of “College Name” during the year 2019 in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the Degree of B. Tech. The report has not formed the basis
for the award previously of any degree, diploma, associate ship, fellowship or any other
similar title.

Signature of the guide:

Date:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives me great pleasure to express my gratitude and heart full thanks to all those who are
helping me in complete this project.
I want to thank to “guide name”, who has always encouraged and help me in
making this project. In addition to this, I am grateful to other faculties too who made me in
right direction and gave me their precious time and expert guidance whenever necessary
through which I could achieve this extent.
At last but not the least I am feeling glad to say about my family whose wishes are
always with me, without which it was not possible for me to reach this extent.
I hope my work is praised and my efforts render fruitful result.

THANK YOU
Signature:
Name:
 ABSTRACT

As the basic law of Physics says ‘energy can neither be created nor be destroyed it can only
be converted from one form to another’. During huge amount of energy is lost to atmosphere
as heat. It will be good if we could store this energy somehow which is otherwise getting
wasted out and reuse it next time we started to accelerate. Regenerative braking refers to a
system in which the kinetic energy of the vehicle is stored temporarily, as an accumulative
energy, during deceleration, and is reused as kinetic energy during acceleration or running.
Regenerative braking is a small, yet very important, step toward our eventual independence
from fossil fuels. These kinds of brakes allow batteries to be used for longer periods of time
without the need to be plugged into an external charger. These types of brakes also extend
the driving range of fully electric vehicles. Regenerative braking is a way to extend range of
the electric vehicles. In many hybrid vehicles cases, this system is also applied hybrid
vehicles to improve fuel economy.
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
A Traditional Braking System, brake pads produce friction is produced between the slowed
wheels and the surface of the road. This friction is what turns the car’s kinetic energy into
heat.

A regenerative Brake is an energy recovery mechanism which slows a vehicle or object down
by converting its kinetic energy into another from, which can be either used immediately or
stored until needed.

TYPES OF BRAKING SYSTEM:-

1. PLUGGING TYPE BRAKING

2. DYNAMIC BRAKING

3. REGENERATIVE BRAKING

PLUGGING TYPE BRAKING

Another braking is plugging type braking. In this method the terminals of supply
are reversed, as a result the generator torque also reverses which resists the normal
rotation of the motor and as a result the speed decreases. During plugging external
resistance is also introduced into the circuit to limit the flowing current. The main
disadvantage of this method is that here power is wasted.

DYNAMIC BRAKING
Another method of reversing the direction of torque and braking the motor is dynamic
braking. In this method of braking the motor which is at a running condition is
disconnected from the source and connected across a resistance. When the motor is
disconnected from the source, the rotor keeps rotating due to inertia and it work as
self-excited generator. When the motor works as a generator the flow of the current
and torque reverses. During braking to maintain the steady torque sectional resistance
are cut out one by one.
REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM

Braking method in which the mechanical energy form the load is converted into electric
energy and Regenerated back into the line is shown as Regenerative Braking, The motor
operates as generator

Need of Regenerative Braking

Over a car that only has friction brakes. In low-speed, stop- and-go traffic
where little deceleration is required; the regenerative braking system can provide the
majority of the total braking force. This vastly improves fuel economy with a vehicle,
and further enhances the attractiveness of vehicles using regenerative braking for city
driving.

At higher speeds, too, regenerative braking has been shown to contribute to

improved fuel economy – by as much as 20%.Consider a heavy loaded truck having
very few stops on the road. It is operated near maximum engine efficiency. The 80%
of the energy produced is utilized to overcome the rolling and aerodynamic road
forces. The energy wasted in applying brake is about 2%. Also its brake specific fuel
consumption is 5%. Now consider a vehicle, which is operated in the main city where
traffic is a major problem here one has to apply brake frequently. For such vehicles
the wastage of energy by application of brake is about 60% to 65%.

Fig.(a) Graphical Representation of Energy usage of two vehicles

 REGENERATIVE BREAKING SYSTEM

2.1 BASIC IDEA OF REGENERATIVE BRAKEING

Concept of this regenerative brake is better understood from bicycle fitted

with dynamo. If our bicycle has a dynamo (a small electricity generator) on it for
powering the lights, we'll know it's harder to peddle when the dynamo is engaged
than when it's switched off. That's because some of our peddling energy is being
"stolen" by the dynamo and turned into electrical energy in the lights. If we're going
along at speed and we suddenly stop peddling and turn on the dynamo, it'll bring us to
a stop more quickly than we would normally, for the same reason: it's stealing our
kinetic energy. Now imagine a bicycle with a dynamo that's 100 times bigger and
more powerful. In theory, it could bring our bike to a halt relatively quickly by
converting our kinetic energy into electricity, which we could store in a battery and
use again later. And that's the basic idea behind regenerative brakes! Electric trains,
cars, and other electric vehicles are powered by electric motors connected to batteries.
When we're driving along, energy flows from the batteries to the motors,
turning the wheels and providing us with the kinetic energy we need to move. When
we stop and hit the brakes, the whole process goes into reverse: electronic circuits cut
the power to the motors. Now, our kinetic energy and momentum makes the wheels
turn the motors, so the motors work like generators and start producing electricity
instead of consuming it. Power flows back from these motor-generators to the
batteries, charging them up. So a good proportion of the energy we lose by braking is
returned to the batteries and can be reused when we start off again. In practice,
regenerative brakes take time to slow things down, so most vehicles that use them
also have ordinary (friction) brakes working alongside (that's also a good idea in case
the regenerative brakes fail).
That is a reason why regenerative brakes don't save 100 percent of our braking
energy.
 Fig.(b) Basic idea of Regenerative braking

Vehicles driven by electric motors use the motor as a generator when using
regenerative braking, it is operated as a generator during braking and its output is
supplied to an electrical load; the transfer of energy to the load provides the braking
effect. Regenerative braking is used on hybrid gas/electric automobiles to recoup
some of the energy lost during stopping. This energy is saved in a storage battery and
used later to power the motor whenever the car is in electric mode.

1.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF REGENERATIVE BREAKING

Fig.(c) Regenerative braking system

There is a driving wheel is used for regenerative braking system. It is directly connected with
motor/generator. And motor is connected with battery. Motor/generator set works due to
control system.
 When driving wheel starts rotate then motor also started running. Due to this
voltage is generated in motor. We can store this voltage in battery or also we can use
this voltage as our requirement.

Control system used in this system is nothing but braking provided to the
driving wheel. Due to braking on driving wheel, dc motor starts rotate. This energy
stored in energy sink. In energy sink battery, ultra-capacitor, flywheel are used.

2.3 BASIC ELEMENTS OF REGENERATIVE BREKING SYSTEM

There are four elements required which are necessary for the working of
regenerative braking system, these are:

2.3.1 Energy Storage Unit (ESU):

The ESU performs two primary functions

1) To recover & store braking energy

2) To absorb excess engine energy during light load

operation The selection criteria for effective energy
storage include:

I. High specific energy storage density II. High energy transfer rate

III. Small space requirement

The energy recaptured by regenerative braking might be stored in one of three

devices:
 1. An electrochemical battery

2. A flywheel

3. Compressed air

2.3.2 Batteries:

With this system as we know, the electric motor of a car becomes a generator when the brake
pedal is applied. The kinetic energy of the car is used to generate electricity that is then
used to recharge the batteries. With this system, traditional friction brakes must also be used
to ensure that the car slows down as much as necessary. Thus, not all of the kinetic energy of
the car can be harnessed for the batteries because some of it is "lost" to waste heat. Some
energy is also lost to resistance as the energy travels from the wheel and axle, through the
drive train and electric motor, and into the battery. When the brake pedal is depressed, the
battery receives a higher charge, which slows the vehicle down faster. The further the brake
pedal is depressed, the more the conventional friction brakes are employed. The
motor/generator produces AC, which is converted into DC, which is then used to charge the
Battery Module. So, the regenerative systems must have an electric controller that regulates
how much charge the battery receives and how much the friction brakes are used.

2.3.3 Fly wheels:

In this system, the translational energy of the vehicle is transferred into rotational energy in
the flywheel, which stores the energy until it is needed to accelerate the vehicle. Benefit of
using flywheel technology is that more of the forward inertial energy of the car can be
captured than in batteries, because the flywheel can be engaged even during relatively short
intervals of braking and acceleration. In the case of batteries, they are not able to accept
charge at these rapid intervals, and thus more energy is lost to friction. Another advantage of
flywheel technology is that the additional power supplied by the flywheel during acceleration
substantially supplements the power output of the small engine that hybrid vehicles are
equipped with.

2.3.4 Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT):

The energy storage unit requires a transmission that can handle torque and
speed demands in a steeples manner and smoothly control energy flow to and from
the vehicle wheels.

2.3.5 Controller:

An “ON-OFF” engine control system is used. That means that the engine is “ON”
until the energy storage unit has been reached the desired charge capacity and then is
decoupled and stopped until the energy storage unit charge fall below its minimum
requirement.

2.3.6 Regenerative Brake Controllers

Brake controllers are electronic devices that can control brakes remotely, deciding
when braking begins ends, and how quickly the brakes need to be applied. During the
braking operation, the brake controller directs the electricity produced by the motor
into the batteries or capacitors. It makes sure that an optimal amount of power is
received by the batteries, but also ensures that the inflow of electricity isn't more than
the batteries can handle. The most important function of the brake controller,
however, may be deciding whether the motor is currently capable of handling the
force necessary for stopping the car. If it isn't, the brake controller turns the job over
to the friction brakes. In vehicles that use these types of brakes, as much as any other
piece of electronics on board a hybrid or electric car, the brake controller makes the
entire regenerative braking process possible.
 CHAPTER - 3

WORKING MODEL OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM

Fig.(d) Model of Regenerative braking

When the wheel is in running condition, some gap between motors & wheel.
These two motors are placed on break shaft. So this motors work as a break. Now
wheel is in running condition, but when break is applied, then motors work as break.
Due to this motors start rotating. So, the power is produced in it. Multi meter is
connected with the motors. So the reading is display in multi meter. About 15 voltage
is generated in this system. Motor runs at 500 rpm. We also can store this power in a
battery. We can also use this power in our required application. For Example, we can
use this power in headlight of vehicle.
3.1 COMPONENTS OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM

1. DC GEARING MOTORS- (NOS-2) :

VOLTAGE RATING 15VOLT

SPEED 500 RPM

2. DRIVING WHEELS- (NOS-2)

 3. PULLY-(NOS-1)

BEARINGS
 Bearings permit smooth, low-friction movement between two surfaces. The
movement can be either rotary (a shaft rotating within a mount) or linear (one surface
moving along another).

Bearings can employ either a sliding or a rolling action. Bearings based on rolling
action are called rolling-element bearings. Those based on sliding action are called
plain bearings.

Bearing Materials

Babbitts

Tin and lead-base babbitts are among the most widely used bearing materials.
They have an ability to embed dirt and have excellent compatibility properties under
boundary-lubrication conditions.

In bushings for small motors and in automotive engine bearings, babbitt is

generally used as a thin coating over a steel strip. For larger bearings in heavy-duty
equipment, thick babbitt is cast on a rigid backing of steel or cast iron.
Bronzes and Copper Alloys

Dozens of copper alloys are available as bearing materials. Most of these can be grouped
into four classes: copper-lead, lead-bronze, tin-bronze, and aluminum-bronze.

Aluminum

Aluminum bearing alloys have high wear resistance, load-carrying capacity, fatigue
strength, and thermal conductivity; excellent corrosion resistance; and low cost. They
are used extensively in connecting rods and main bearings in internal-combustion
 engines; in hydraulic gear pumps, in oil-well pumping equipment, in roll-neck bearings
in steel mills; and in reciprocating compressors and aircraft equipment.

Porous Metals

Sintered-metal self-lubricating bearings, often called powdered-metal bearings, are simple

and low in cost. They are widely used in home appliances, small motors, machine tools,
business machines, and farm and construction equipment.
Common methods used w hen supplementary lubrication for oil-impregnated bearings is
needed are shown in Fig. 2.12.

Fig. 2.12 Supplementary Lubrication For Oi -

Impregnated Bearings.

Plastics
 Many bearings and bushi ngs are being produced in a large variety of plastic materials.
Many require no lubricatio n, and the high strength of modern plastics l ends to a variety
of applications.

PLAIN BEARIN GS

A plain bearing is any bearing that works by sliding action, with or without lubricant.
This group encompasses es sentially all types other than rolling-element bearings.
Plain bearings are of ten referred to as either sleeve bearings or thrust bearings, terms that
designate whether the bearing is loaded radially or axially.
Lubrication is critic al to the operation of plain bearings, so th eir application and function
is also often referred to according to the type of lubrication principle used. Thus,

terms such as hydrodynamic, fluid-film, hydrostatic, boundary-lu bricated, and self-

lubricated are designations for particular types of plain bearings.

Mostly bearings are oil-lubricated. The designs shown in Fig.2. 13 illustrate

simple, effective arrangements for providing supplementary lubrication.

Oil H ole in Shaft Oil Groove in Bearing

Fig. 2.13 Common Methods of Lubricating Plain Bear ings.

JOURNALS OR SLEEVE BEARINGS

These are cylindrica l or ring-shaped bearings designed to carry radial loads. The
terms sleeve and journal are used more or less synonymously since sleeve refers to the
general configuration while journal pertains to any portion of a shaft supported by a
bearing. In another sense, however, the term journal may be reserved for two-piece
bearings used to support the journals of an engine crankshaft.

The simplest and most widely used types of sleeve bearings are cast-bronze and
porous-bronze (powdered- metal) cylindrical bearings. Cast-bronze bearings are oil-, or
grease-lubricated. Porous b earings are impregnated with oil and often h ave an oil
reservoir in the housing.
Plastic bearings are b eing used increasingly in place of metal. Ori ginally, plastic
was used only in small, lightly loaded bearings where cost saving were the p rimary
objective.
More recently, plastics a re being used because of functional ad vantages, including
resistance to abrasion, and they are being made in large sizes.
2.3.3THRUST BEARING
This type of bearing differs from a sleeve bearing in that loads are supported
axially rather than radially. Thin, d isk like thrust bearings are called thrust was hers.
 Fig.2.15 Thrust Bearing
ANTIFRICTIO N BEARINGS

Ball, roller, and nee dle bearings are classified as antifriction be arings since
friction has been reduced to a minimum. They may be divided into two main groups:
radial bearings and thrust bearin gs. Except for special designs, ball and roller bearings
consist of two rings, a set of rolling elements, and a cage. The cage separates the r olling
elements and spaces them evenly around the periphery (circumference of the circle). The
nomenclature of an antifriction bearing is given in Fig. 2.16.

Fig. 2.16 Antifriction Bearings Nomenclature (SKF

Company)

BEARING LOADS

Radial Load
Loads acting perpendicular to the axis of the bearing are called radial loads. Although
radial bearings are designed primarily for straight radial service, they will withstand
considerable thrust loads when deep ball tracks in the raceway are used.

Thrust Load

Loads applied parallel to the axis of the bearing are called thrust loads. Thrust bearings
are not designed to carry radial loads.

Fig.2.17 Types of Bearing Loads

Combination Radial and Thrust Loads

When loads are exerted both parallel and perpendicular to the axis of the bearings, a
combination radial and thrust bearing is used. See Fig.2.17(C). The load ratings listed in
the manufacturers’ catalogs for this type of bearing are for either pure thrust loads or a
combination of both radial and thrust loads.
BALL BEARINGS

Ball bearings fall roughly into three classes: radial, thrust, and angular-contact.
Angular-contact bearings are used for combined radial and thrust loads and where
precise shaft location is needed. Uses of the other two types are described by their
names: radial bearings for radial loads and thrust bearings for thrust loads. See Fig.
2.3.6.

Fig.2.18 Ball Bearings (SKF Company)

Radial Bearings

Deep-groove bearings are the most widely used ball bearings. In addition to radial
loads, they can carry substantial thrust loads at high speeds, in either direction. They
require careful alignment between shaft and housing.

Self-aligning bearings come in two types: internal and external. In internal

bearings, the outer-ring ball groove is ground as a spherical surface.

Externally self-aligning bearings have a spherical surface on the outside of the

outer ring, which matches a concave spherical housing.
 Double-row, deep-groove bearings embody the same principle of design as single-
row bearings. Double-row bearings can be used where high radial and thrust rigidity is
needed and space is limited. They are about 60 to 80 percent wider than comparable
single-row, deep-groove bearings, and they have about 50 percent more radial capacity.

Angular-contact thrust bearings can support a heavy thrust load in one direction
combined with a moderate radial load. High shoulders on the inner and outer rings
provide steep contact angles for high thrust capacity and axial rigidity.

Thrust Bearings

In a sense, thrust bearings can be considered to be angular-contact bearings. They

support pure thrust loads at moderate speeds, but for practical purposes their radial load
capacity is nil. Because they cannot support radial loads, ball thrust bearings must be
used together with radial bearings.

Flat-race bearings consist of a pair of flat washers separated by the ball

complement and a shaft-piloted retainer, so load capacity is limited. Contact stresses are
high, and torque resistance is low.

One-directional, grooved-race bearings have grooved races very similar to those

found in radial bearings.

Two-directional, groove-race bearings consist of two stationary races, one rotating

race, and two ball complements.

ROLLER BEARINGS

The principal types of roller bearings are cylindrical, needle, tapered, and spherical. In
general, they have higher load capacities than ball bearings of the same size and are
widely used in heavy-duty, moderate-speed applications. However, except for
cylindrical bearings, they have lower speed capabilities than ball bearings. See Fig.
2.3.7.

Fig. 2.19 Roller Bearings

Cylindrical Bearings

Cylindrical roller bearings have high radial capacity and provide accurate guidance to
the rollers. Their low friction permits operation at high speed, and thrust loads of some
magnitude can be carried through the flange-roller end contacts.

Needle Bearings

Needle bearings are roller bearings with rollers that have high length-to-diameter
ratios. Compared with other roller bearings, needle bearings have much smaller rollers
for a given bore size.

Loose-needle bearings are simply a full complement of needles in the annular

space between two hardened machine components, which form the bearing raceways.
They provide an effective and inexpensive bearing assembly with moderate speed
capability, but they are sensitive to misalignment.

Caged assemblies are simply a roller complement with a retainer, placed between
two hardened machine elements that act as raceways. Their speed capability is about
3times higher than that of loose-needle bearings, but the smaller complement of needles
reduces load capacity for the caged assemblies.

Thrust bearings are caged bearings with rollers assembled like the spokes of a
wheel in a wafer like retainer.

Tapered Bearings

Tapered roller bearings are widely used in roll-neck applications in rolling mills,
transmissions, gear reducers, geared shafting, steering mechanisms, and machine-tool
spindles. Where speeds are low, grease lubrication suffices, but high speeds demand oil
lubrication, and very high speeds demand special lubricating arrangements.

Spherical Bearings

Spherical roller bearings offer an unequaled combination of high load capacity,

high tolerance to shock loads, and self-aligning ability, but they are speed-limited.

Single-row bearings are the most widely used tapered roller bearings. They have a
high radial capacity and a thrust capacity about 60 percent of radial capacity.

Two-row bearings can replace two single-row bearings mounted back-to-back or

face-to-face when the required capacity exceeds that of a single-row bearing.

BEARING SELECTION
Machine designers have a large variety of bearing types and sizes from which to choose.
Each of these types has characteristics, which make it best for a certain application.
Although selection may sometimes present a complex problem requiring considerable
experience, the following considerations are listed to serve as a general guide for
conventional applications.

1. Generally, ball bearings are the less expensive choice in the smaller sizes with
lighter loads, while roller bearings are less expensive for the larger sizes with
heavier loads.

2. Roller bearings are more satisfactory under shock or impact loading than ball
bearings.

3. If there is misalignment between housing and shaft, either a self-aligning ball or

spherical roller bearing should be used.

4. Ball thrust bearings should be subjected to pure thrust loads only. At high speeds,
am,deep-groove or angular-contact ball bearing will usually be a be tter choice
even for pure thrust loads.

5. Self-aligning ball bearings and cylindrical roller bearings have very low friction
coefficients.

6. Deep-groove ball bearings are available with seals built into the bearings so that
the bearing can be pre-lubricated and thus operate for long periods without
attention.

DRILLING
 Drilling is the ope ration of producing circular hole in the work-piece by using a
rotating cutter called DRIL L.

The machine used for drilling is called drilling machine.

The drilling operation can also be accomplished in lathe, in which the drill is
held in tailstock and the work is held by the chuck.

The most comm on drill used is the twist drill.

Fig 2.20 Drill fixed to a spindle

DRILLING MA CHINE

· It is the simplest and accurate machine used in production shop.

· The work piece is held stationary ie. Clamped in position and the drill rotates to
make a hole.
2.4.2 TYPES
 1) Based on construction:
Portable,
Sensitive,
Radial, up-
right, Gang,
Multi-
spindle

2) Based on Feed:

Hand driven

Power driven

Sensitive or Bench Drilling Machine

· This type of drill machine is used for very light works. Fig.1 illustrates the
sketch of sensitive drilling machine.

· The vertical column carries a swiveling table the height of which can be
adjusted according to the work piece height.

· The table can also be swung to any desired position.

· At the top of the column there are two pulleys connected by a belt, one pulley is
mounted on the motor shaft and other on the machine spindle.

· Vertical movement to the spindle is given by the feed handle by the operator.
 · Operator senses the cutting action so sensitive drilling machine.

· Drill holes from 1.5 to 15mm

Fig 2.21Sensitive Drilling Machine

Up-Right Drilling Machine

· These are medium heavy duty machines.

· It specifically differs from sensitive drill in its weight, rigidity, application of

power feed and wider range of spindle speed. Fig.2 shows the line sketch of up-
right drilling machine.

· This machine usually has a gear driven mechanism for different spindle speed
and an automatic or power feed device.

· Table can move vertically and radially.

· Drill holes up to 50mm

 Fig 2.4.2 Up-Right Drilling Machine

Radial Drilling Machine

· It the largest and most versatile used for drilling medium to large and heavy work
pieces.

· Radial drilling machine belong to power feed type.

The column and radial drilling machine supports the radial arm, drill head and motor.
Fig.3 shows the line sketch of radial drilling machine.

Fig 2.23 Radial Drilling Machine

· The radial arm slides up and down on the column with the help of elevating screw
provided on the side of the column, which is driven by a motor.

· The drill head is mounted on the radial arm and moves on the guide ways provided
the radial arm can also be swiveled around the column.
 · The drill head is equipped with a separate motor to drive the spindle, which carries
the drill bit. A drill head may be moved on the arm manually or by power.

Feed can be either manual or automatic with reversal mechanism.

DRILLING OPERATIONS

Operations that can be performed in a drilling machine are

Drilling
Reamin
g
Boring

Counter
boring
Countersinkin
g Tapping

PRECAUTIONS FOR DRILLING MACHINE

Lubrication is important to remove heat and

friction. Machines should be cleaned after use.

Chips should be removed using brush.

T-slots, grooves, spindles sleeves, belts, and pulley should be

cleaned. Machines should be lightly oiled to prevent from rusting
 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Do not support the work piece by hand – use work ho lding

device. Use brush to clean the chip

No adjustments while the machine is operating

Ensure for the cutting tools running straight before starting the
operation. Never place tools on the drilling table
Avoid loose clothing and protect the eyes.
Ease the feed if drill breaks inside the work piece.

GAS WELDING AND CUTTING

Oxy-fuel welding, commonly referred to as oxy welding or gas welding is a

process of joining metals by application of heat created by gas flame. The fuel gas
commonly acetylene, when mixed with proper proportion of oxygen in a mixing
chamber of welding torch, produces a very hot flame of about 5700-5800°F. With this
flame it is possible to bring any of the so-called commercial metals, namely: cast iron,
steel, copper, and aluminum, to a molten state and cause a fusion of two pieces of like
metals in such a manner that the point of fusion will very closely approach the strength
of the metal fused.
If more metal of like nature is added, the union is made even stronger than the original.

This method is called oxy-acetylene welding.

Chemistry of Oxy Acetylene Process

The most common fuel used in welding is acetylene. It has a two stage reaction;
the first stage primary reaction involves the acetylene disassociating in the presence of
oxygen to produce heat, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen gas.
Oxy Fuel welding Gases

Commercial fuel gases have one common property: they all require oxygen to support
combustion. To be suitable for welding operations, a fuel gas, when burned with
oxygen, must have the following:

a. High flame temperature

b. High rate of flame propagation

c. Adequate heat content

d. Minimum chemical reaction of the flame with base and filler metals

Among the commercially available fuel gases such as propane, liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG), natural gas, propylene, hydrogen and MAPP gas, “Acetylene” most closely
meets all the above requirements.
 CHAPTER-4

ADVANTAGES & LIMITATIONS OF REGENERATIVE

BRAKING SYSTEM

4.1 ADVANTAGES
 Better fuel economy.

 Reduced CO2 emissions.

 Approximately 30% saving in fuel consumption

 Improved Performance

 The lower operating and environment cost of the vehicle with

regenerative Braking System

 Reduction in Engine wears.

4.2 LIMITATIONS

 Added weight – extra components can increase weight.

 Complexity- depends on control necessary for operation of regenerative

braking System.
 Cost of components, engineering, manufacturing and installation is high.
 Friction brakes are still necessary.
 CHAPTER-5

APPLICATION OF REGENERATIVE BRANKIG SYSTEM

1. Super Capacitor Accept and release charge much more quickly.

Fig.(e) Super capacitor in MZADA A-6

 Super capacitor accepted and release charge much more quickly.

 It can be discharged and recharge many more times and with far deterioration
than a battery.

 The MAZDA unit can accept a full charge in just 8-10seconds.

 The capacitor may take up to about 113s when the load is an minimum about
18A.
2. Regenerative Braking Systems are also used in electric railway vehicle
Jaipur metro uses the regenerative braking system & save 35% of
electricity.

3. For recovering Kinetic energy of vehicle lost during braking process.

4. Regenerative braking is used in some elevator and crane hoist

motors. (London Undergrounded & Virgin Trains).
APPLICATIONS

Some of vehicles using regenerative brake:-

1) Toyota Prius
2) Ford FUSION
3) Tesla Roadster Electric Car
4) Vectrix Electric Maxi-Scooter
5) KERS is used in F1 cars

Fig: Ford FUSION

COMPARISIONS

6.1 Advantages of regenerative braking over conventional braking

Energy Conservation:

The flywheel absorbs energy when braking via a clutch system slowing the car down and
speeding up the wheel. To accelerate, another clutch system connects the flywheel to the
drive train, speeding up the car and slowing down the flywheel. Energy is therefore
conserved rather than wasted as heat and light which is what normally happens in the
contemporary shoe/disc system.

Wear Reduction:

An electric drive train also allows for regenerative breaking which increases Efficiency and
reduces wear on the vehicle brakes.
In regenerative braking, when the motor is not receiving power from the battery pack, it
resists the turning of the wheels, capturing some of the energy of motion as if it were a
generator and returning that energy to the battery pack. In mechanical brakes; lessening wear
and extending brake life is not possible. This reduces the use of use the brake.
Fuel Consumption:

The fuel consumption of the conventional vehicles and regenerative braking

system vehicles was evaluated over a course of various fixed urban driving schedules.
The results are compared as shown in figure. Representing the significant cost saying to its
owner, it has been proved the regenerative braking is very fuel-efficient. The Delhi Metro
saved around 90,000 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) from being released into the atmosphere
by regenerating 112,500 megawatt hours of electricity through the use of regenerative
braking systems between 2004 and 2007. It is expected that the Delhi Metro will save over
100,000 tons of CO2 from being emitted per year once its phase II is complete through the
use of regenerative braking. The energy efficiency of a conventional car is only about 20
percent, with the remaining 80 percent of its energy being converted to heat through friction.
The miraculous thing about regenerative braking is that it may be able to capture as much as
half of that wasted energy and put it back to work. This could reduce fuel consumption by 10
to 25 percent. Hydraulic regenerative braking systems could provide even more impressive
gains, potentially reducing fuel use by 25 to 45 percent.

Braking is not total loss:

Conventional brakes apply friction to convert a vehicle’s kinetic energy into heat. In energy
terms, therefore, braking is a total loss: once heat is generated, it is very difficult to reuse.
The regenerative braking system, however, slows a vehicle down in a different way.
6.2 Comparison of Dynamic brakes and Regenerative brakes

Dynamic brakes ("rheostatic brakes" in the UK), unlike regenerative brakes, dissipate the
electric energy as heat by passing the current through large banks of variable resistors.
Vehicles that use dynamic brakes include forklifts, Diesel-electric locomotives, and
streetcars. This heat can be used to warm the vehicle interior, or dissipated externally by
large radiator-like cowls to house the resistor banks.
The main disadvantage of regenerative brakes when compared with dynamic brakes is the
need to closely match the generated current with the supply characteristics and increased
maintenance cost of the lines. With DC supplies, this requires that the voltage be closely
controlled. Only with the development of power electronics has this been possible with AC
supplies, where the supply frequency must also be matched (this mainly applies to
locomotives where an AC supply is rectified for DC motors).
A small number of mountain railways have used 3-phase power supplies and 3- phase
induction motors. This results in a near constant speed for all trains as the motors rotate with
the supply frequency both when motoring and braking.
6.3 Why Regenerative Brakes are assisted with the Frictional Brake??

Traditional friction-based braking is used in conjunction with mechanical regenerative

braking for the following reasons:
 The regenerative braking effect drops off at lower speeds; therefore the friction brake is
still required in order to bring the vehicle to a complete halt. Physical locking of the rotor is
also required to prevent vehicles from rolling down hills.
 The friction brake is a necessary back-up in the event of failure of the regenerative brake.
 Most road vehicles with regenerative braking only have power on some wheels (as in a
two-wheel drive car) and regenerative braking power only applies to such wheels, so in order
to provide controlled braking under difficult conditions (such as in wet roads) friction based
braking is necessary on the other wheels.
 The amount of electrical energy capable of dissipation is limited by either the capacity of
the supply system to absorb this energy or on the state of charge of the battery or capacitors.
No regenerative braking effect can occur if another electrical component on the same supply
system is not currently drawing power and if the battery or capacitors are already charged.
For this reason, it is normal to also incorporate dynamic braking to absorb the excess energy.
 Under emergency braking it is desirable that the braking force exerted be the maximum
allowed by the friction between the wheels and the surface without slipping, over the entire
speed range from the vehicle's maximum speed down to zero. The maximum force available
for acceleration is typically much less than this except in the case of extreme high-
performance vehicles. Therefore, the power required to be dissipated by the braking system
under emergency braking conditions may be many times the maximum power which is
delivered under acceleration. Traction motors sized to handle the drive power may not be
able to cope with the extra load and the battery may not be able to accept charge at a
sufficiently high rate. Friction braking is required to absorb the surplus energy in order to
allow an acceptable emergency braking performance.
For these reasons there is typically the need to control the regenerative braking and match the
friction and regenerative braking to produce the desired total braking output.

CONCLUSION
The beginning of the 21st century could very well mark the final period in which internal
combustion engines are commonly used in cars. Already automakers are moving toward
alternative energy carriers, such as electric batteries, hydrogen fuel and even compressed air.
Regenerative braking is a small, yet very important, step toward our eventual independence
from fossil fuels. These kinds of brakes allow batteries to be used for longer periods of time
without the need to be plugged into an external charger. These types of brakes also extend
the driving range of fully electric vehicles. In fact, this technology has already helped bring
us cars like the Tesla Roadster, which runs entirely on battery power. Sure, these cars may
use fossil fuels at the recharging stage -- that is, if the source of the electricity comes from a
fossil fuel such as coal -- but when they're out there on the road, they can operate with no use
of fossil fuels at all, and that's a big step forward. When you think about the energy losses
incurred by battery-electric hybrid systems, it seems plausible to reason that efficient
flywheel hybrids would soon become the norm. But of course it’s not quite so black and
white, and further analysis shows that a combination of battery-electric and flywheel energy
storage is probably the ideal solution for hybrid vehicles.
As designers and engineers perfect regenerative braking systems, they will become more and
more common. All vehicles in motion can benefit from utilizing regeneration to recapture
energy that would otherwise be lost.

REFERENCES
1. http://www.wikipedia.com/

2. http://www.electrical4u.com/

3. http:/www.google.com/

4. Scribd.com