East African Campaign

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Coordinates: 6°18′25.2″S 34°51′14.4″E
East African campaign (World War I)

The East African campaign in World War I
East African campaign
was a series of battles and guerrilla actions,
which started in German East Africa (GEA) and Part of the African theatre of World War I
spread to portions of Portuguese Mozambique,
Northern Rhodesia, British East Africa, the
Uganda Protectorate, and the Belgian Congo.
The campaign all but ended in German East
Africa in November 1917 when the Germans
entered Portuguese Mozambique and continued
the campaign living off Portuguese supplies.[14]
The strategy of the German colonial forces, led

by Lieutenant Colonel (later "Generalmajor")
Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, was to divert Allied
forces from the Western Front to Africa. His
strategy achieved only mixed results after 1916 An Askari company ready to march in German East
when he was driven out of German East Africa. Africa (Deutsch-Ostafrika)
The campaign in Africa consumed considerable
Date 3 August 1914 – 25 November 1918
amounts of money and war material that could
have gone to other fronts.[2][15] Location Modern Tanzania, Zambia, Mozambique,
Rwanda, Burundi, Kenya, Uganda, the
The Germans in East Africa fought for the Democratic Republic of the Congo
whole of the war, receiving word of the 6°18′25.2″S 34°51′14.4″E
armistice on 14 November 1918 at 07:30 hours.
Result Allied victory
Both sides waited for confirmation, with the
Germans formally surrendering on 25 Territorial
German East Africa partitioned by Britain,
November. GEA became two League of Nations changes Belgium and Portugal
Class B Mandates, Tanganyika Territory of the
Belligerents
United Kingdom and Ruanda-Urundi of
Belgium, while the Kionga Triangle was ceded
to Portugal. United Kingdom Germany
South Africa German East Africa

India
Contents Rhodesia
Background East Africa
German East Africa
Nyasaland
German strategy
Uganda
Initial fighting, 1914–1915
Nigeria
Outbreak and early German attacks
British land and naval offensive Belgium
Lake Tanganyika expedition
Allied offensives, 1916–1917 Congo
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_I) 1/14
British Empire reinforcements, 1916 Portugal

Belgian offensives, 1916–17
British offensive, 1917 Mozambique
German offensives, 1917–18 Commanders and leaders

Portuguese Mozambique Jan Smuts
Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck
Northern Rhodesia Jacob van Deventer

Heinrich Schnee (POW)
Arthur Hoskins
Kurt Wahle
Aftermath
Charles Tombeur
Analysis
Armand Huyghé
Society and economy

Ferreira Gil
Casualties
João Teixeira Pinto †
Notes
Strength
Footnotes
British Empire
Regulars (Schutztruppe)
Bibliography Initially: 2 battalions[1]

initially: 2,700[a]
Further reading 12,000–20,000 soldiers

maximum: 18,000[b]
External links Total: 250,000 soldiers[2]

1918: 1,283[c]
600,000 porters[3] Total: 22,000[d]
Irregulars (Ruga-Ruga)
Background 12,000+[7][e]
Casualties and losses
German East Africa 22,000

16,000+ military
11,189 soldiers killed
casualties
95,000 porters died
5,000
2,029 killed[9][10][f]
2,849 deserted[9][11][g]
15,650 porters died
4,512 missing[9][11][6]
12,000+

7,122 POW[9][11][h]
5,640 soldiers 7,000 porters died[6]
missing/ (POW)
unknown number of
A map of the proposed Mittelafrika porter deaths
with German territory in brown, Total: 40,000+ military

British in pink. casualties
c. 20,000 dead
German East Africa (Deutsch-Ostafrika) was
colonized by the Germans in 1885. The territory
itself spanned 384,180 square miles 365,000 civilians died in war-related famines.[i]
(995,000 km2) and covered the areas of
modern-day Rwanda, Burundi and 135,000 in German Africa
Tanzania.[16] The colony's indigenous 30,000 in British Africa
population numbered seven and a half million
150,000 in Belgian Africa
and was governed by just 5,300 Europeans.
Although the colonial regime was relatively 50,000 in Portuguese Africa
secure, the colony had recently been shaken by
the Maji Maji Rebellion of 1904-5. The German colonial administration could call on a military
Schutztruppe ("Protection force") of 260 Europeans and 2,470 Africans, in addition to 2,700 white
settlers who were part of the reservist Landsturm, as well as a small paramilitary Gendarmerie.[16]
The outbreak of World War I in Europe led to the increased popularity of German colonial expansion
and the creation of a Deutsch-Mittelafrika ("German Central Africa") which would parallel a
resurgent German Empire in Europe. Mittelafrika effectively involved the annexation of territory,
mostly occupied by the Belgian Congo, in order to link the existing German colonies in East, South-
west and West Africa. The territory would dominate central Africa and would make Germany as by far
the most powerful colonial power on the African continent.[17] Nevertheless, the German colonial
military in Africa was weak, poorly equipped and widely dispersed. Although better trained and more
experienced than their opponents, many of the German soldiers were reliant on weapons like the
Model 1871 rifle which used obsolete black powder.[18] At the same time, however, the militaries of
the Allied powers were also encountering similar problems of poor equipment and low numbers; most
colonial militaries were intended to serve as local paramilitary police to suppress resistance to
colonial rule and were neither equipped nor structured to fight against foreign powers.[19] Even so,
the largest military concentration in the German colonial empire was in East Africa.
German strategy
The objective of the German forces in East Africa, led by Lieutenant-Colonel Paul von Lettow-
Vorbeck, was to divert Allied forces and supplies from Europe to Africa. By threatening the important
British Uganda Railway, Lettow hoped to force British troops to invade East Africa, where he could
fight a defensive campaign.[20] In 1912, the German government had formed a defensive strategy for
East Africa in which the military would withdraw to the hinterland and fight a guerilla campaign.[21]
The German colony in East Africa was a threat to the neutral Belgian Congo but the Belgian
government hoped to continue its neutrality in Africa. The Force Publique was constrained to adopt a
defensive strategy until 15 August 1914, when German ships on Lake Tanganyika bombarded the port
of Mokolobu and then the Lukuga post a week later. Some Belgian officials viewed hostilities in East
Africa as an opportunity to expand Belgian holdings in Africa; the capture of Ruanda and Urundi
could increase the bargaining power of the De Broqueville government to ensure the restoration of
Belgium after the war.[22] During the post-war negotiation of the Treaty of Versailles, the Colonial
Minister, Jules Renkin, sought to trade Belgian territorial gains in German East Africa for the
Portuguese allocation in northern Angola, to gain Belgian Congo a longer coast.[23]
Initial fighting, 1914–1915
Outbreak and early German attacks
The governors of the British and German East Africa wanted to avoid war and preferred a neutrality
agreement based on the Congo Act of 1885, against the wishes of the local military commanders and
their metropolitan governments. The agreement caused confusion in the opening weeks of the
conflict. On 31 July, implementing contingency plans, the cruiser SMS Königsberg sailed from Dar-
es-Salaam for operations against British commerce. She narrowly avoided cruisers from the Cape
Squadron sent to shadow the ship and be ready to sink it.[24] On 5 August 1914, troops from the
Uganda protectorate assaulted German river outposts near Lake Victoria.[25]
On the same day, the British War Cabinet ordered an Indian

Expeditionary Force (IEF) to be sent to East Africa to eliminate
bases for raiders.[26] On 8 August, the Royal Navy cruiser
HMS Astraea shelled the wireless station at Dar es Salaam, then
agreed a ceasefire, on condition the town remained an open
city.[27] This agreement caused discord between Vorbeck and
Governor Heinrich Schnee, his nominal superior, who opposed
and later ignored the agreement; it also caused the captain of
Astraea to be reprimanded for exceeding his authority. Before the
Battle of Tanga when the IEF attempted to land at Tanga, the
Royal Navy felt obliged to give warning that they were abrogating
A map of the German colonial
the agreement, forfeiting surprise.[28]
empire; German East Africa is in
dark blue.
In August 1914, the military and para-military forces in both
colonies were mobilised, despite restrictions imposed by the two
governors. The German Schutztruppe in East Africa had
260 Germans of all ranks and 2,472 Askari, equivalent to the two battalions of the King's African
Rifles (KAR) in the British East African colonies.[29][1] On 7 August, German troops at Moshi were
informed that the neutrality agreement was at an end and ordered to raid across the border. On 15
August, Askari in the Neu Moshi region engaged in their first offensive operation of the campaign.
Taveta on the British side of Kilimanjaro fell, to two companies of Askari (300 men) with the British
firing a token volley and retiring in good order.[30] The Askari detachment on Lake Tanganyika raided
Belgian facilities seeking to destroy the steamer Commune and gain control of the lake. On 24 August,
German troops attacked Portuguese outposts across the Rovuma, unsure of the intentions of Portugal,
which was not yet a British ally, which caused a diplomatic incident which was only smoothed over
with difficulty.[19]
In September, the Germans began to raid deeper into British Kenya and Uganda. German naval
power on Lake Victoria was limited to Hedwig von Wissmann and Kingani a tugboat armed with one
pom-pom-gun, causing minor damage and a great deal of noise. The British armed the Uganda
Railway lake steamers SS William Mackinnon, SS Kavirondo, SS Winifred and SS Sybil as
improvised gunboats; the tug was trapped and then scuttled by the Germans.[31] The Germans later
raised Kingani, dismounted her gun and used the tug as a transport; with the tug disarmed and her
"teeth removed, British command of Lake Victoria was no longer in dispute."[32]
British land and naval offensive
To solve the raiding nuisance and to capture the northern,

colonised region of the German colony, the British devised a plan
for a two-pronged invasion. IEF "B" of 8,000 troops in two
brigades, would carry out an amphibious landing at Tanga on 2
November 1914, to capture the city and gain control the Indian
Ocean terminus of the Usambara Railway. In the Kilimanjaro
area, IEF "C" of 4,000 men in one brigade would advance from
British East Africa on Neu-Moshi on 3 November 1914, to the
western terminus of the railroad (see Battle of Kilimanjaro). After
German Schutztruppe with
capturing Tanga, IEF "B" would rapidly move north-west, join
Königsberg gun
IEF "C" and mop up the remaining German forces. Although
outnumbered 8:1 at Tanga and 4:1 at Longido, the Schutztruppe
under Vorbeck prevailed. In the East Africa volume of the British official history (1941), Charles
Hordern described the events as one of "the most notable failures in British military history".[33]
Only two British regiments were involved in the East African campaign. The 2nd Battalion, Loyal
North Lancashire Regiment arrived with the Indian Army invasion force at Tanga and after this
stayed on the border between British and German East Africa. The 25th (Frontiersmen) Battalion,
Royal Fusiliers was raised for service in East Africa in early 1915 and served throughout the war. In
addition, white contingents were supplied by Rhodesia in 1914-15, the 2nd Rhodesia Regiment,
Nyasaland and South Africa including the South African Expeditionary Force which arrived in
February 1916.[34]
Königsberg of the Imperial German Navy was in the Indian Ocean when war was declared. In the
Battle of Zanzibar, Königsberg sank the old protected cruiser HMS Pegasus in Zanzibar harbour and
then retired into the Rufiji River delta.[35] After being cornered by warships of the British Cape
Squadron, including an old pre-dreadnought battleship, two shallow-draught monitors with 6 in
(150 mm) guns were brought from England and demolished the cruiser on 11 July 1915.[36] The
British salvaged and used six 4 in (100 mm) guns from Pegasus, which became known as the Peggy
guns; the crew of Königsberg and the 4.1 in (100 mm) main battery guns were taken over by the
Schutztruppe and were used until the end of hostilities.[37]
Lake Tanganyika expedition
The Germans had controlled the lake since the outbreak of the war, with three armed steamers and
two unarmed motor boats. In 1915, two British motorboats, HMS Mimi and Toutou each armed with a
3-pounder and a Maxim gun, were transported 3,000 mi (4,800 km) by land to the British shore of
Lake Tanganyika. They captured the German ship Kingani on 26 December, renaming it HMS Fifi
and with two Belgian ships under the command of Commander Geoffrey Spicer-Simson, attacked and
sank the German ship Hedwig von Wissmann. The Graf von Götzen and the Wami, an unarmed
motor boat, became the only German ships left on the lake. In February 1916, the Wami was
intercepted and run ashore by the crew and burned.[38] Lettow-Vorbeck then had its Königsberg gun
removed and sent by rail to the main fighting front.[39] The ship was scuttled in mid-July after a
seaplane bombing attack by the Belgians on Kigoma and before advancing Belgian colonial troops
could capture it; Wami was later re-floated and used by the British.[40][j]
Allied offensives, 1916–1917
British Empire reinforcements, 1916
General Horace Smith-Dorrien was assigned with orders to find and fight the Schutztruppe but he
contracted pneumonia during the voyage to South Africa, which prevented him from taking
command. In 1916, General Jan Smuts was given the task of defeating Lettow-Vorbeck.[42] Smuts had
a large army (for the area), some 13,000 South Africans including Boers, British, Rhodesians and
7,000 Indian and African troops, a ration strength of 73,300 men.[k] There was a Belgian force and a
larger but ineffective group of Portuguese military units based in Mozambique. A large Carrier Corps
composed of African porters under British command, carried supplies into the interior. Despite the
Allied nature of the effort, it was a South African operation of the British Empire. During the previous
year, Lettow-Vorbeck had also gained personnel and his army was now 13,800 strong.[43]
Smuts attacked from several directions, the main attack coming

from British East Africa (Kenya) in the north, while substantial
forces from the Belgian Congo advanced from the west in two
columns, crossing Lake Victoria on the British troop ships
SS Rusinga and SS Usoga and into the Rift Valley. Another
contingent advanced over Lake Nyasa (Lake Malawi) from the
south-east. All these forces failed to capture Lettow-Vorbeck and
they all suffered from disease along the march. The 9th South
African Infantry, started with 1,135 men in February, and by
October its strength was reduced to 116 fit troops, with little
fighting. The Germans nearly always retreated from the larger
British troop concentrations and by September 1916, the German
Central Railway from the coast at Dar es Salaam to Ujiji was fully
under British control.[44]
With Lettow-Vorbeck confined to the southern part of German The East African Theatre in World
East Africa, Smuts began to withdraw the South African, War I.
Rhodesian and Indian troops and replace them with Askari of the
King's African Rifles (KAR), which by November 1918 had
35,424 men. By the start of 1917, more than half the British Army in the theatre was composed of
Africans and by the end of the war, it was nearly all-African. Smuts left the area in January 1917, to
join the Imperial War Cabinet at London.[45]
Belgian offensives, 1916–17
The British conscripted 120,000 carriers to move Belgian

supplies and equipment to Kivu (in the east of the Belgian Congo)
between late 1915 and early 1916. The lines of communication in
the Congo required c. 260,000 carriers, who were barred by the
Belgian government from crossing into German East Africa and
Belgian troops were expected to live off the land. To avoid the
plundering of civilians, loss of food stocks and risk of famine, with
many farmers already conscripted and moved away from their
land, the British set up the Congo Carrier Section of the East
India Transport Corps (Carbel) with 7,238 carriers, conscripted
from Ugandan civilians and assembled at Mbarara in April 1916.
The Force Publique, started its campaign on 18 April 1916 under
Soldiers of the Belgian Congo's
the command of General Charles Tombeur, Colonel Philippe Force Publique, pictured in East
Molitor and Colonel Frederik-Valdemar Olsen and captured Africa
Kigali in Rwanda on 6 May.[46]
The German Askari in Burundi were forced to retreat by the

numerical superiority of the Force Publique and by 17 June, Burundi and Rwanda were occupied. The
Force Publique and the British Lake Force then started a thrust to capture Tabora, an administrative
centre of central German East Africa. Three columns took Biharamuro, Mwanza, Karema, Kigoma
and Ujiji. At the Battle of Tabora on 19 September, the Germans were defeated and the village
occupied.[47] During the march, Carbel lost 1,191 carriers died or missing presumed dead, a rate of
1:7, which occurred despite the presence of two doctors and adequate medical supplies.[48] To prevent
Belgian claims on German territory in a post-war settlement, Smuts ordered their forces to return to
the Congo, leaving them as occupiers only in Rwanda and Burundi. The British were obliged to recall
Belgian troops in 1917 and the two allies coordinated campaign plans.[49]
British offensive, 1917
Major-General Arthur Hoskins (KAR), formerly the commander of the 1st East Africa Division, took
over command of the campaign. After four months spent reorganising the lines of communication, he
was then replaced by South African Major-General Jacob van Deventer. Deventer began an offensive
in July 1917, which by early autumn had pushed the Germans 100 mi (160 km) to the south.[50] From
15–19 October 1917, Lettow-Vorbeck fought a costly battle at Mahiwa, with 519 German casualties and
2,700 British losses in the Nigerian brigade.[51] After the news of the battle reached Germany, Lettow-
Vorbeck was promoted to Generalmajor.[52][l]
German offensives, 1917–18
Portuguese Mozambique
British units forced the Schutztruppe south and on 23 November,

Lettow-Vorbeck crossed into Portuguese Mozambique to plunder
supplies from Portuguese garrisons. Lettow-Vorbeck divided his
force into three groups on the march; a detachment of 1,000 men
under Hauptmann Theodor Tafel ran out of food and
ammunition and was forced to surrender before reaching
Mozambique. Lettow and Tafel were unaware they were only one
day's march apart. The Germans fought the Battle of Ngomano in Lettow surrendering his forces at
which the Portuguese garrison was routed, then marched through Abercorn, as seen by an African
Mozambique in caravans of troops, carriers, wives and children artist
for nine months but were unable to gain much strength.[54] In
Mozambique, the Schutztruppe won a number of important
victories which allowed it to remain active but also came close to destruction during the Battle of
Lioma and Battle of Pere Hills.[55][56]
Northern Rhodesia
The Germans returned to German East Africa and crossed into Northern Rhodesia in August 1918. On
13 November, two days after the Armistice was signed in France, the German Army took Kasama,
which had been evacuated by the British. The next day at the Chambezi River, Lettow-Vorbeck was
handed a telegram announcing the signing of the armistice and he agreed to a cease-fire. Lettow-
Vorbeck marched his force to Abercorn and formally surrendered on 25 November 1918.[57][m] The
campaign cost the British c. £12 billion at 2007 prices.[58]
Aftermath
Analysis
Nearly 400,000 Allied soldiers, sailors, merchant marine crews, builders, bureaucrats and support
personnel participated in the East Africa campaign. They were assisted in the field by 600,000
African bearers. The Allies employed nearly one million people in their fruitless pursuit of Lettow-
Vorbeck and his small force.[3] Lettow-Vorbeck was cut off and could entertain no hope of victory. His
strategy was to keep as many British forces diverted to his pursuit for as long as possible and to make
the British expend the largest amount of resources in men, shipping and supplies against him.
Although diverting in excess of 200,000 Indian and South African troops against his forces and
garrison German East Africa in his wake, he could divert no more Allied manpower from the
European theatre after 1916. While some shipping was diverted to the African theatre, it was not
enough to inflict significant difficulties on the Allied navies.[14]
Society and economy
The fighting in East Africa led to an export boom in British East

Africa and an increase in the political influence of White Kenyans.
In 1914, the Kenyan economy was in decline but because of
emergency legislation giving white colonists control over black-
owned land in 1915, exports rose from £3.35 million to £5.9
million by 1916. The increase in the value of exports was mostly
due to products like raw cotton and tea. White control of the
Schutztruppe askaris who were economy rose from 14 per cent to 70 per cent by 1919.[59]
captured in southern German East
Africa in late 1917, wait for their
The campaign and recruiting in Nyasaland contributed to the
rations at a prisoner-of-war camp.
outbreak of the Chilembwe rebellion in January 1915, by John
Chilembwe, an American-educated Baptist minister. Chilembwe
was motivated by grievances against the colonial system including
forced labour and racial discrimination. The revolt broke out in the evening of 23 January 1915 when
rebels, incited by Chilembwe, attacked the headquarters of the A. L. Bruce Plantation at Magomero
and killed three white colonists. An abortive attack on an armoury in Blantyre followed during the
night. By the morning of 24 January the colonial authorities had mobilised the colonial militia and
redeployed regular military units from the KAR. After a failed attack by government troops on
Mbombwe on 25 January, the rebels attacked a Christian mission at Nguludi and burned it down.
Mbombwe was retaken by government forces unopposed on 26 January. Many of the rebels, including
Chilembwe, fled towards Portuguese Mozambique but most were captured. About forty rebels were
executed in the aftermath and 300 were imprisoned; Chilembwe was shot dead by a police patrol near
the border on 3 February. Although the rebellion did not achieve lasting success, it is commonly cited
as a watershed in Malawian history.
Casualties
In 2001, Hew Strachan estimated that British losses in the East African campaign were 3,443 killed in
action, 6,558 died of disease and c. 90,000 African porters died.[60] In 2007, Paice recorded
c. 22,000 British casualties in the East African campaign, of whom 11,189 died, 9 percent of the
126,972 troops in the campaign. By 1917, the conscription of c. 1,000,000 Africans as carriers,
depopulated many districts and c. 95,000 porters had died, among them 20 percent of the Carrier
Corps in East Africa.[61] Of the porters who died, 45,000 were Kenyan, amounting to 13 percent of the
male population. The campaign cost the British £70 million, close to the war budget set in
1914.[62][63] A Colonial Office official wrote that the East African campaign had not become a scandal
only "... because the people who suffered most were the carriers - and after all, who cares about native
carriers?".[64] The Belgian record of 5,000 casualties includes

2,620 soldiers killed in action or died of disease but excludes
15,650 porter deaths.[65] Portuguese casualties in Africa were
5,533 soldiers killed, 5,640 troops missing or captured and an
unknown but significant number wounded.[66]
In the German colonies, no

records of the number of
people conscripted or
casualties were kept but in
Der Weltkrieg, the German African porters in European service
suffered high rates of casualties
official history, Ludwig Boell
from disease
(1951) wrote "... of the loss of
levies, carriers, and boys (sic)
[we could] make no overall
Memorial to the German soldiers
count due to the absence of detailed sickness records". Paice
killed during the campaign in Iringa,
wrote of a 1989 estimate of 350,000 casualties and a death rate of
Tanzania 1-in-7 people. Carriers were rarely paid and food and cattle were
requisitioned from civilians; a famine caused by the subsequent
food shortage and poor rains in 1917 led to another
300,000 civilian deaths in German East Africa. The conscription of farm labour in British East Africa
and the failure of the 1917–1918 rains, led to famine and in September the 1918 flu pandemic reached
sub-Saharan Africa. In Kenya and Uganda 160,000–200,000 people died, in South Africa there were
250,000–350,000 deaths and in German East Africa 10–20 percent of the population died of famine
and disease; in sub-Saharan Africa, 1,500,000–2,000,000 people died in the flu epidemic.[67]
Notes
a. 200 Europeans and 2,500 Askari.[4]
b. 3,000 Europeans and 15,000 Askari.[5]
c. 115 Europeans and 1,168 Askari.[5]
d. 5,000 Europeans and 17,000 Askari.[6]
e. The exact number of irregulars in German service is unknown; the British War Office estimated
that it was 12,000. Numbers of Ruga-Ruga in German service also tended fluctuate greatly due to
the fact that they fought, left or deserted when they saw fit.[8]
f. According to Clodfelter, this includes 1,290 Askari and 739 Germans (100 officers); 874 Germans
were also wounded including those captured.[6]
g. According to Clodfelter, 2,487 Askari and 2 Germans.[12]
h. According to Clodfelter, 2,847 Germans and 4,275 Askari.[6]
i. The proportions of African civilians who died of war-related causes are Kenya 30,000, Tanzania
100,000, Mozambique 50,000, Rwanda 15,000, Burundi 20,000 and Belgian Congo 150,000.[13]
j. The ship is still in service as the Liemba, plying the lake under the Tanzanian flag.[41]
k. The Allied force in East Africa became composed almost entirely of South African, Indian, and
other colonial troops. Black South African troops were not considered for European service as a
matter of policy, while all Indian units had been withdrawn from the Western Front by the end of
1915.
l. In early November 1917, the German naval dirigible L.59 travelled over 4,200 mi (6,800 km) in 95
hours towards East Africa, but was recalled by the German admiralty before it arrived.[53]
m. The Lettow-Vorbeck Memorial marks the spot in Zambia.[58]
Footnotes
1. Miller 1974, p. 41. 35. Hordern 1990, p. 45.
2. Holmes 2001, p. 359. 36. Hordern 1990, p. 153.
3. Garfield 2007, p. 274. 37. Hordern 1990, p. 45, 162.
4. Contey 2002, p. 46. 38. Newbolt 2003, pp. 80–85.
5. Crowson 2003, p. 87. 39. Miller 1974, p. 211.
6. Clodfelter 2017, p. 416. 40. Foden 2004.
7. Pesek (2014), p. 94. 41. Paice 2009, p. 230.
8. Pesek (2014), pp. 94–97. 42. Strachan 2003, p. 602.
9. Morlang 2008, p. 91. 43. Strachan 2003, p. 599.
10. Paice 2009, p. 388. 44. Strachan 2003, p. 618.
11. Michels 2009, p. 117. 45. Strachan 2003, pp. 627–628.
12. Clodfelter 2017, p. 415. 46. Strachan 2003, p. 617.
13. Erlikman 2004, p. 88. 47. Strachan 2003, pp. 617–619.
14. Holmes 2001, p. 361. 48. Paice 2009, pp. 284–285.
15. Strachan 2004, p. 642. 49. Strachan 2003, p. 630.
16. Chappell 2005, p. 11. 50. Miller 1974, p. 281.
17. Louis 1963, p. 207. 51. Miller 1974, p. 287.
18. Anderson 2004, p. 27. 52. Hoyt 1981, p. 175.
19. Anderson 2004, p. 21. 53. Willmott 2003, p. 192.
20. Louis 1963, pp. 207–208. 54. Miller 1974, p. 297.
21. Strachan 2003, pp. 575–576. 55. Paice (2009), pp. 379–383.
22. Strachan 2003, p. 585. 56. Miller (1974), p. 318.
23. Strachan 2004, p. 112. 57. Alexander 1961, pp. 440–442.
24. Corbett 2009, p. 152. 58. Paice 2009, p. 1.
25. Hordern 1990, pp. 41–42. 59. Strachan 2004, p. 115.
26. Hordern 1990, pp. 30–31. 60. Strachan 2003, pp. 641, 568.
27. Farwell 1989, p. 122. 61. Paice 2009, pp. 392–393.
28. Farwell 1989, p. 166. 62. Sondhaus 2011, p. 120.
29. Farwell 1989, p. 109. 63. Chantrill 2016.
30. Miller 1974, p. 43. 64. Paice 2009, p. 393.
31. Hordern 1990, pp. 28, 55. 65. Annuaire 1922, p. 100.
32. Miller 1974, p. 195. 66. Statistics 1920, pp. 352–357.
33. Farwell 1989, p. 178. 67. Paice 2009, pp. 393–398.
34. East Africa (https://awayfromthewesternfront.
org/campaigns/africa/east-africa/)
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other Figures, 1492–2015 (4th ed.). Jefferson, NC: McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-7470-7.
Corbett, J. S. (2009) [1938]. Naval Operations (https://archive.org/details/navaloperations01corb).
History of the Great War based on Official Documents. I (2nd repr. Imperial War Museum and
Naval & Military Press ed.). London: Longmans, Green. ISBN 978-1-84342-489-5. Retrieved
18 January 2018.
Crowson, T. A. (2003). When Elephants Clash. A Critical Analysis of Major General Paul Emil von
Lettow-Vorbeck in the East African Theatre of the Great War. NTIS, Springfield, VA.: Storming
Media. OCLC 634605194 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/634605194).
Erlikman, Vadim (2004). Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke [Population Losses in the Twentieth
Century: A Handbook]. Moscow: Russkai︠ a︡ panorama. ISBN 978-5-93165-107-1.
Farwell, B. (1989). The Great War in Africa, 1914–1918. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
ISBN 978-0-393-30564-7.
Foden, G. (2004). Mimi and Toutou Go Forth: The Bizarre Battle for Lake Tanganyika. London:
Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-100984-1.
Garfield, Brian (2007). The Meinertzhagen Mystery. Washington, DC: Potomac Books. ISBN 978-
1-59797-041-9.
Hordern, C. (1990) [1941]. Military Operations East Africa: August 1914 – September 1916. I
(Imperial War Museum & Battery Press ed.). London: HMSO. ISBN 978-0-89839-158-9.
Holmes, Richard (2001). The Oxford Companion to Military History. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-860696-3.
Hoyt, E. P. (1981). Guerilla: Colonel von Lettow-Vorbeck and Germany's East African Empire (http
s://archive.org/details/guerillacolonelv00hoyt). New York: MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-02-555210-4.
Michels, Stefanie (2009). Schwarze Deutsche Kolonialsoldaten. Mehrdeutige
Repräsentationsräume und früher Kosmopolitismus in Afrika [Black German Colonial Soldiers.
Ambiguous Representational Spaces and Former Cosmopolitanism in Africa]. Histoire Transcript
(Firm) (in German). Bielefeld: transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8376-1054-3.
Miller, C. (1974). Battle for the Bundu: The First World War in East Africa. New York: MacMillan.
ISBN 978-0-02-584930-3.
Morlang, Thomas (2008). Askari und Fitafita. "Farbige" Söldner in den deutschen Kolonien [Askari
and Fitafita. 'Colored' Mercenaries in the German Colonies]. Schlaglichter der Kolonialgeschichte
(in German). Berlin: Ch. Links Verlag. ISBN 978-3-86153-476-1.
Newbolt, H. (2003) [1928]. History of the Great War Based on Official Documents: Naval
Operations (https://archive.org/details/navaloperations04corb). IV (Naval & Military Press ed.).
London: Longmans. ISBN 978-1-84342-492-5. Retrieved 18 January 2016.
Paice, E. (2009) [2007]. Tip and Run: The Untold Tragedy of the Great War in Africa
(Phoenix ed.). London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-7538-2349-1.
Pesek, Michael (2014). "Ruga-ruga: The History of an African Profession, 1820–1918". In
Berman, Nina; Mühlhahn, Klaus; Nganang, Patrice (eds.). German Colonialism Revisited: African,
Asian, and Oceanic Experiences. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. pp. 85–100.
Louis, Wm. Roger (1963). Ruanda-Urundi, 1884–1919. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OCLC 445674
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/445674).
Sondhaus, L. (2011). World War One: The Global Revolution. London: Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 978-0-521-73626-8.
Statistics of the Military Effort of the British Empire During the Great War 1914–1920 (https://archi
ve.org/details/statisticsofmili00grea) (online ed.). London: War Office. 1920. OCLC 1318955 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1318955). Retrieved 23 November 2016.
Strachan, H. (2003) [2001]. The First World War: To Arms. I (pbk. ed.). Oxford: OUP. ISBN 978-0-
19-926191-8.
Strachan, H. (2004). The First World War in Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-
19-925728-7.
Willmott, H. P. (2003). First World War. London: Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 978-1-4053-0029-2.
Journals
Alexander, G. A. M. (1961). "The Evacuation of Kasama in 1918" (http://www.nrzam.org.uk/NRJ/V

4N5/V4N5.htm). The Northern Rhodesia Journal. IV (5). ISSN 0549-9674 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/issn/0549-9674). Retrieved 7 March 2007.
"Annuaire statistique de la Belgique et du Congo Belge 1915–1919" [Statistics of Belgium and the
Belgian Congo Annual]. Annuaire Statistique de la Belgique et du Congo Belge. Bruxelles: Institut
national de statistique for Ministère des affaires économiques. 1922. ISSN 0770-2221 (https://ww
w.worldcat.org/issn/0770-2221).
Contey, F. (2002). "Zeppelin Mission to East Africa". Aviation History. Weider History Group. XIII
(1). ISSN 1076-8858 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1076-8858).
Websites
Chantrill, C. (29 November 2016). "Spending / Pie Chart 1914" (http://www.ukpublicspending.co.u

k/total_spending_1914UKmn). ukpublicspending co uk. Retrieved 29 November 2016.
Further reading
Books
Abbott, P. (2002). Armies in East Africa 1914–1918. Osprey. ISBN 978-1-84176-489-4.

Calvert, A. F. (1915). South-West Africa During the German Occupation, 1884–1914 (https://archi
ve.org/details/southwestafricad00calvuoft). London: T. W. Laurie. OCLC 7534413 (https://www.wo
rldcat.org/oclc/7534413). Retrieved 2 March 2014.
Calvert, A. F. (1917). German East Africa (https://archive.org/details/germaneastafrica00calvrich).
London: T. W. Laurie. OCLC 1088504 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1088504). Retrieved
2 March 2014.
Clifford, H. C. (2013) [1920]. The Gold Coast Regiment in the East African Campaign (https://archi
ve.org/details/goldcoastregimen00clif) (Naval & Military Press ed.). London: John Murray.
ISBN 978-1-78331-012-8. Retrieved 23 March 2014.
Dane, E. (1919). British Campaigns in Africa and the Pacific, 1914–1918 (https://archive.org/detail
s/britishcampaigns00dane). London: Hodder and Stoughton. OCLC 2460289 (https://www.worldc
at.org/oclc/2460289). Retrieved 2 March 2014.
Difford, I. D. (1920). The Story of the 1st Battalion Cape Corps, 1915–1919 (https://archive.org/det
ails/storyof1stbattal00diffuoft). Cape Town: Hortors. OCLC 13300378 (https://www.worldcat.org/oc
lc/13300378). Retrieved 2 March 2014.
Downes, W. D. (1919). With the Nigerians in German East Africa (https://archive.org/details/withni
geriansing00down). London: Methuen. OCLC 10329057 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1032905
7). Retrieved 3 March 2014.

Fendall, C. P. (1992) [1921]. The East African Force 1915–1919 (https://archive.org/details/eastafr
icanforce00fend) (Battery Press ed.). London: H. F. & G. Witherby. ISBN 978-0-89839-174-9.
Retrieved 25 February 2014.
Frenssen, G. (1914) [1906]. Peter Moors Fahrt nach Südwest (https://archive.org/details/petermo
orsjourn00frengoog) [Peter Moor's Journey to South-West Africa: A Narrative of the German
Campaign] (Houghton Mifflin, NY ed.). Berlin: Grote. OCLC 2953336 (https://www.worldcat.org/ocl
c/2953336). Retrieved 2 March 2014.
Gardner, B. (1963). On to Kilimanjaro. Philadelphia: Macrae Smith. ISBN 978-1-111-04620-0.
Hodges, G., ed. (1999). The Carrier Corps: The Story of the Military Labor Forces in the Conquest
of German East Africa, 1914–1919 (2nd revised ed.). Nairobi: Nairobi University Press.
OCLC 605134579 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/605134579).
Hoyt, E. P. (1968). The Germans Who Never Lost. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. ISBN 978-0-09-
096400-0.
Millais, J. G. (1919). Life of Frederick Courtenay Selous, D.S.O., Capt. 25th Royal Fusiliers (http
s://archive.org/details/lifefrederickco00millgoog). London: Longmans, Green. OCLC 5322545 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/oclc/5322545). Retrieved 2 March 2014.
Mosley, L. (1963). Duel for Kilimanjaro: An Account of the East African Campaign 1914–1918.
New York: Ballantine Books. OCLC 655839799 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/655839799).
Northrup, D. (1988). Beyond the Bend in the River: African Labor in Eastern Zaire, 1865–1940 (htt
ps://archive.org/details/beyondbendinrive00nort). Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Center for
International Studies. ISBN 978-0-89680-151-6. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
Patience, K. (1997). Konigsberg: A German East African Raider (2001 revised ed.). Bahrain:
Author. OCLC 223264994 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/223264994).
Rutherford, A. (2001). Kaputala: The Diary of Arthur Beagle & The East Africa Campaign 1916–
1918. Hand Over Fist Press. ISBN 978-0-9540517-0-9.
Sheppard, S. H. (1919). Some Notes on Tactics in the East African Campaign (https://archive.org/
details/somenotesontacti00sheprich). India: Simla?. OCLC 609954711 (https://www.worldcat.org/o
clc/609954711). Retrieved 2 March 2014.
Sibley, J. R. (1973). Tanganyikan Guerilla. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0-345-09801-6.
Stapleton, T. (2005). The Rhodesia Native Regiment and the East Africa Campaign of the First
World War. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. ISBN 978-0-88920-498-0.
Stevenson, W. (1981). The Ghosts of Africa (https://archive.org/details/ghostsofafricano00stev).
New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0-345-29793-8.
Whittall, W. (1917). With Botha and Smuts in Africa (https://archive.org/details/withbothaandsmu0
0whitgoog). London: Cassell. OCLC 3504908 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/3504908). Retrieved
2 March 2014.
Young, F. B. (1917). Marching on Tanga. New York: E. P. Dutton. OCLC 717640690 (https://www.
worldcat.org/oclc/717640690).
Theses
Anderson, R. (2001). World War I in East Africa, 1916–1918 (http://theses.gla.ac.uk/5195/).

theses.gla.ac.uk (PhD). University of Glasgow. OCLC 498854094 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4
98854094). EThOS uk.bl.ethos.252464 (http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.25246
4). Retrieved 2 July 2014.
External links
The Evacuation of Kasama in 1918 (http://www.nrzam.org.uk/NRJ/V4N5/V4N5.htm)
The German East Africa Campaign 1914–1918 (http://samilitaryhistory.org/vol066ed.html)

The War with Germany in East Africa (http://www.ntz.info/gen/b00628.html#03534)
Rutherford, Alan. Kaputala, 2nd edition, Hand Over Fist Press, 2014. (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20150402142714/http://www.arbr03694.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/KaputalaSecondEdition.html)
The Zeppelin Airship Era (https://web.archive.org/web/20160808213738/http://www.zeppelin.com/
en/PDF/Zeppelin_era_airship.pdf)
Cana, Frank R. (1922). "East Africa, Military Operations" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1922_Enc
yclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/East_Africa,_Military_Operations). Encyclopædia Britannica. 30
(12th ed.). pp. 875–886.
Digre, Brian : Colonial Warfare and Occupation (Africa) (https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.ne
t/article/colonial_warfare_and_occupation_africa/), in: 1914-1918-online. International
Encyclopedia of the First World War (https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/).
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9/9/21, 2:44 PM East African campaign (World War I) - Wikipedia

Coordinates: 6°18′25.2″S 34°51′14.4″E

East African campaign (World War I)

the campaign living off Portuguese supplies.[14]

The strategy of the German colonial forces, led

South Africa German East Africa

British Empire reinforcements, 1916 Portugal

German offensives, 1917–18 Commanders and leaders

Northern Rhodesia Jacob van Deventer

Society and economy

Bibliography Initially: 2 battalions[1]

Further reading 12,000–20,000 soldiers

External links Total: 250,000 soldiers[2]

600,000 porters[3] Total: 22,000[d]

German East Africa 22,000

5,533 soldiers killed

with German territory in brown, Total: 40,000+ military

Initial fighting, 1914–1915

Outbreak and early German attacks

On the same day, the British War Cabinet ordered an Indian

British land and naval offensive

To solve the raiding nuisance and to capture the northern,

Lake Tanganyika expedition

Allied offensives, 1916–1917

British Empire reinforcements, 1916

Smuts attacked from several directions, the main attack coming

Belgian offensives, 1916–17

The British conscripted 120,000 carriers to move Belgian

The German Askari in Burundi were forced to retreat by the

British offensive, 1917

German offensives, 1917–18

British units forced the Schutztruppe south and on 23 November,

Society and economy

The fighting in East Africa led to an export boom in British East

carriers?".[64] The Belgian record of 5,000 casualties includes

In the German colonies, no

m. The Lettow-Vorbeck Memorial marks the spot in Zambia.[58]

Alexander, G. A. M. (1961). "The Evacuation of Kasama in 1918" (http://www.nrzam.org.uk/NRJ/V

Chantrill, C. (29 November 2016). "Spending / Pie Chart 1914" (http://www.ukpublicspending.co.u

Abbott, P. (2002). Armies in East Africa 1914–1918. Osprey. ISBN 978-1-84176-489-4.

7). Retrieved 3 March 2014.

Anderson, R. (2001). World War I in East Africa, 1916–1918 (http://theses.gla.ac.uk/5195/).

The German East Africa Campaign 1914–1918 (http://samilitaryhistory.org/vol066ed.html)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_African_campaign_(World_War_I)&oldid=1034410651"

This page was last edited on 19 July 2021, at 18:07 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;

You might also like