In a Nutshell

Each of the theories we have dealt with so far show us

how classical theories break down when we proceed to
realms remote from common experience. Classical
Newtonian physics fails when we have systems that
travel very fast, or we journey into very strong gravity,
or we consider cosmic expanses of space. Special
relativity prevails in domains of very high speeds;
general relativity in domains of very strong gravitation;
relativistic cosmology over enormous distances.

                          

Classical Newtonian physics also breaks down when

we consider very small systems, such as individual
atoms and the particles from which they are made.
Quantum theory gives us our best account of nature
in the very small. The standard quantum theory we
shall consider here makes no changes to the ideas of
space and time of relativity theory. Most standard
quantum theories are formulated within spaces and
times that conform to Einstein's special theory of
relativity or even just to Newton's account. While some
versions of quantum theory are set within in the
spacetimes of general relativity, a complete adaptation
of quantum theory and Einstein's general theory of
relativity remains beyond our grasp.

 
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atom_diagram.png

Quantum theory is a theory of matter; or more

precisely it is a theory of the small components that
comprise familiar matter. The ordinary matter of tables
and chairs, omelettes and elephants is made up of
particles, like electrons, protons and neutrons.
Quantum theory provides us our best account of these
particles. It also provides us with an account of matter
in the form of radiation, such as light. It is commonly
known that light somehow consists both of light waves
and also particle-like photons. The notion of these
 photons comes from quantum theory (and from Einstein
directly, who first introduced them in 1905 as "light
quanta").

The central novelty of quantum theory  lies in the

description of the state of these particles. It turns out
that this state does not coincide perfectly with any state
we are familiar with from classical physics. In some
ways, the particles of quantum theory are like little tiny
points of matter, as the name "particle" suggests. In
others, they are like little bundles of waves. A full
account requires us to see that fundamental particles
have properties of both at the same time. There is no
easy way to visualize this necessary combination;
indeed there may be no fully admissible image at all.
The problem of arriving at it remains a challenge today.
That problem, however, has proved to be no obstacle
to the theory itself. Modern quantum theory has
enjoyed enormous empirical success, accounting for a
huge array of phenomena and making striking
predictions.

       
Katsushika Hokusai's Great Wave off Kanagawa: A classic artwork that has passed into the public domain.
It is possible to describe the basic posits of quantum
theory compactly. However these posits are very
likely to appear arbitrary and even a little bewildering
on first acquaintance. What is needed is some
understanding of why those posits were chosen and
what problems they are intended to solve. The best
way to arrive at this understanding is to review the
historical developments in the course of the first
quarter of the twentieth century that led to quantum
theory. For in that historical development one can see
a naturally growing sequence of problems and
solutions that eventually issues in the modern theory.
It is interesting to reflect on why this historical approach is the one
now chosen, but it was not used for the exposition here of special and
general relativity. The reason is that the basic phenomena to which those
theories apply are already somewhat familiar; or it takes very little to
introduce those phenomena. We all can imagine things moving very fast,
for example, and it takes only a little more to imagine that somehow we
cannot accelerated even fast moving things through the speed of light.
Matters are different with quantum theory. The phenomena that control
the theory are generally unfamiliar. Those outside physics rarely
have a conception of Ehrenfest's "catastrophe in the ultraviolet" for heat
radiation; or the odd dependency of the photoelectric effect on frequency;
or why the discreteness of the lines of an emission spectrum is
classically worrisome. The historical approach familiarizes us with these
classically puzzling phenomena. Then, when the resolution emerges as
quantum theory, its design and role are immediately apparent.

Unlike relativity theory, the birth of quantum theory was

slow and required many hands. It emerged in the
course of the first quarter of the twentieth century with
contributions from many physicists, including Einstein.

Theories of Matter at the End of the Nineteenth

Century
At the end of the nineteenth century, matter was
understood to come in two forms.

One was particles, localized lumps of stuff that flew about like little bullets. The best investigated of the
fundamental particles was the electron. Thomson had found in 1896 that the cathode rays found in cathode
ray tubes--the precursor of old fashioned glass TV tubes--were deflected by electric and magnetic fields just
as if they were tiny little lumps of electrically charged matter. Atoms, a bound collection of various particles,
were also particulate in character.