MODULE 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER 3
I. INTRODUCTION

A research design is the set of methods and procedures used in collecting and
analyzing measures of the variables specified in the problem research. The design of a
study defines the study type and sub-type, research problem, hypotheses, independent
and dependent variables, experimental design, and, if applicable, data collection
methods and a statistical analysis plan. A research design is a framework that has been
created to find answers to research questions.
Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a
researcher. The design allows researchers to hone in on research methods that are
suitable for the subject matter and set up their studies up for success.

III. RESEARCH DESIGN

There are many ways to classify research designs where an arrangement or collection
of data are seen.
The following are the classification of design:
1. Descriptive, examples are case study, naturalistic observation, and survey.
2. Correlational, examples are case- control study and observational study.
3. Experimental, examples are field experiment, controlled experiment and quasi –
experiment.
4. Review, examples are literature review and systematic review.
5. Meta – analytic or meta – analysis.

The essential elements of the research design are:

1. Accurate purpose statement
2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
3. The method applied for analyzing collected details
4. Type of research methodology
5. Probable objections for research
6. Settings for the research study
7. Timeline
8. Measurement of analysis
Proper research design sets your study up for success. Successful research studies
provide insights that are accurate and unbiased. You’ll need to create a survey that
meets all of the main characteristics of a design. There are four key characteristics of
research design:

Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make assumptions about the
data you expect to collect. The results projected in the research design should be free
from bias and neutral. Understand opinions about the final evaluated scores and
conclusion from multiple individuals and consider those who agree with the derived
results.

Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher involved expects similar

results every time. Your design should indicate how to form research questions to
ensure the standard of results. You’ll only be able to reach the expected results if your
design is reliable.

Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only correct
measuring tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the
objective of the research. The questioners developed from this design will then be valid.

Generalization: 
The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not just a restricted
sample. A generalized design implies that your survey can be conducted on any part of
a population with similar accuracy.

The above factors affect the way respondents answer the research questions and so all
the above characteristics should be balanced in a good design.

A researcher must have a clear understanding of the various types of research design
to select which model to implement for a study. Like research itself, the design of your
study can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative.

Qualitative research design: 

Determines relationships between collected data and observations based on
mathematical calculations. Theories related to a naturally existing phenomenon can be
proved or disproved using statistical methods. Researchers rely on qualitative research
design methods that conclude “why” a particular theory exists along with “what”
respondents have to say about it.

Quantitative research design: 

 is for cases where statistical conclusions to collect actionable insights are essential.
Numbers provide a better perspective to make critical business decisions. Quantitative
research design methods are necessary for the growth of any organization. Insights
drawn from hard numerical data and analysis prove to be highly effective when making
decisions related to the future of the business.
You can further break down the types of research design into five categories:

1. Descriptive research design:

 In a descriptive design, a researcher is solely interested in describing the
situation or case under their research study. It is a theory-based design method
which is created by gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected data. This
allows a researcher to provide insights into the why and how of research.
Descriptive design helps others better understand the need for the research. If
the problem statement is not clear, you can conduct exploratory research. 

2. Experimental research design:

 It establishes a relationship between the cause and effect of a situation. It is a
causal design where one observes the impact caused by the independent
variable on the dependent variable. For example, one monitors the influence of
an independent variable such as a price on a dependent variable such as
customer satisfaction or brand loyalty. It is a highly practical research design
method as it contributes to solving a problem at hand. The independent variables
are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent variable. It is
often used in social sciences to observe human behavior by analyzing two
groups. Researchers can have participants change their actions and study how
the people around them react to gain a better understanding of social
psychology.

3. Correlational research design: 

It is a non-experimental research design technique that helps researchers
establish a relationship between two closely connected variables. This type of
research requires two different groups. There is no assumption while evaluating
a relationship between two different variables, and statistical analysis techniques
calculate the relationship between them.
A correlation coefficient determines the correlation between two variables, whose
value ranges between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it
indicates a positive relationship between the variables and -1 means a negative
relationship between the two variables.

4. Diagnostic research design: 

In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to evaluate the underlying cause
of a specific topic or phenomenon. This method helps one learn more about the
factors that create troublesome situations. 
This design has three parts of the research:
· Inception of the issue
· Diagnosis of the issue
· Solution for the issue
 5. Explanatory research design:
 Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas and thoughts on a subject to
further explore their theories. The research explains unexplored aspects of a
subject and details about what, how, and why of research question.

To discuss further, here are Qualitative Research Methods

The following are the brief description of five qualitative approaches in research taken
from Creswell and Poth (2018) and Creswell (2013).
1. Narrative Research
A narrative study has many forms. It uses diverse analytical practices and is grounded
on different disciplines of social sciences and humanities. Narrative may be understood
as a concept assigned to any discourse or it might be discourse within the context of a
manner of inquiry in qualitative research. It has specific focus on the stories told by
individuals. A narrative can be a method and the phenomenon of study. As a method, it
starts with the experiences as disclosed in the lived and told stories of persons of
interest. Researchers have provided ways for analyzing and understanding stories that
are lived and told. A narrative research may also be a type of qualitative design where a
narrative is understood as spoken or written account of an event/ action or series of the
same that are chronologically connected. The procedures for implementing this
research consist in focusing on studying one or two individuals, gathering data through
the collection of their stories, reporting individual experiences, and chronologically
ordering (or using life course stages) them according to their meanings or existential
relevance.

2. Phenomenological Research
A phenomenological study is description of the lived experiences of several individuals.
Phenomenological researchers describe what all participants have in common as they
experience a phenomenon (e.g. joy is universally experienced). The main purpose of
phenomenology is to reduce individual experiences with a phenomenon to a description
of a universal essence (a grasp of the very nature of the thing). Qualitative researchers
identify a phenomenon or an object of human experience. This experience may be a
phenomena associated with fulfillment, commitment, resilience, redemption, etc. The
researcher generates data from persons who have experienced the phenomenon, and
develops a composite description of the essence of the same experiences.
Phenomenological research process ends with the description what persons
experienced and how they experienced it.
3. Grounded Theory Research
The goal of grounded theory is to move beyond description and to generate or discover
a theory or explanation, an abstract analytical schema of a process (or action or
interaction). Co-researchers or co-participants in the study have experienced process.
Theory development captures and explains the practice thereby providing a framework
for further study. A key idea is that this theory-development is generated or grounded
in the data from the participants who have experienced the process. Thus, grounded
theory is a qualitative research design in which the inquirer (and his co-participants)
generates a general explanation (a theory) of a process, action, or interaction shaped
by the views and perspectives of a number of persons.

4. Ethnographic Research
Ethnographic research considers an entire cultural group. A cultural group involves
persons (e.g. a few individuals belonging to a discipline or a community) who interact
over time (teachers in an entire school, a community social group). Ethnography is a
qualitative research design where the researcher describes and interprets the shared
and learned patterns of values, behaviors, belief and language of a culture-sharing
group. Ethnography is a way of studying a culture-sharing group as well as the final
written product of that research. As a research process, ethnography includes extended
observations of the group. It requires the researcher’s immersion in the day-to-day lives
of the people and observing and interviewing them. Ethnographers study the meaning
of symbols, behavior, language and the interaction among the members of the culture-
sharing group.

5. Case Study Research

Case study considers issue(s) explored through one or more cases within a bounded
system (i.e. a setting, a context). Some authors do not consider case study research a
methodology but a choice of what is to be studied (i.e. a case within a bounded system).
But some present it as strategy for inquiry, methodology or a comprehensive research
strategy. Understood as methodology, case study may be described as a type of
qualitative research design, as an object of study, and as product of inquiry.
Researchers using case study explores a bounded system (a case) or a multiple
bounded systems (cases) over time, through detailed, in-depth data collection involving
multiple sources of information (e.g. observations, interviews, audiovisual materials,
documents and reports), and reports a case description and case-based themes. For
example, several programs (a multi-site study) or a single program (a within-site study)
maybe selected for study.
 METHODOLOGY FOR A QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

This chapter starts with a transition paragraph introducing the contents/ parts of the
chapter. The different sections are; Research Design; Population and Sampling;
Respondents of the Study; Instrumentation; Validation and Test of Reliability of
Instrument; Data Gathering Procedure; and Statistical Treatment of Data.

A brief discussion on what each part of the chapter contains is hereunder presented:

Research Design

The researcher discusses here the method used as defined by an authority or

authorities (the source(s) must be cited). This part must demonstrate the importance
and bearing of the research method or research design considering the thrust or
objective of the study.

Population and Sampling

The population refers to the complete enumeration of the individuals/ subjects that
possess the characteristics or information that are of interest to the researcher for
inferential purposes. Sampling or sample, on the other hand, is a proportion of the
population chosen for the study that represents the specific population of interest.

The researcher describes the sampling procedures in detail. The sampling technique
used in the choice of subjects/ respondents for the study explains how the group/s
was/were selected, whether representative of the population of interest. He may use
any of the several sampling techniques: random, systematic, stratified random, cluster,
quota, convenience, etc.

The researcher should consider the following guidelines in choosing the sampling
techniques:
1. Is the research population clearly identified?
2. Is the sampling clearly representative of the population to which the results are to
be generalized?
3. Are there adequate safeguards used to remove sampling bias?
Respondents/ Participants of the Study

The researcher places here the well-defined population, the systematic sampling
procedure, and the total enumeration or delimited population in terms of the percentage
of samples or respondents used in the study.

The researcher should explain in this part of the study, the characteristics of the
respondents and the reasons why they are chosen as respondents. The number of
respondents depends on the extensiveness/ intensiveness of verifiable data needed in
the study.

Research Instrument

The researcher discusses here the instrument used to gather the necessary data to
answer the specific problems posed/ raised in the study.

This portion indicates if the instrument is a self-made and adapted (using a conceptual
framework) taking into consideration the object (variables or constructs) of the study; or
adopted, standardized/ copyrighted (following a theoretical framework)

The researcher clarifies in this section the mode of responses and the scale to be used
as part of the assessment tool or measure

The constructs or variables contained in the research instrument must coincide with
those of the study’s framework and statement of the problem. There must be an
essential connection between the statement of the problem, the research framework,
hypothesis(es), the adopted tool or instrument and the research design (Flores, 2016).

The following guidelines in the formulation and evaluation of the research instrument
must be considered:
1. Are the statements or questions stated clearly?
2. Are the responses to the questions/items verifiable and testable in terms of the
hypothesis(es) posed by the study?
3. Is the scale used appropriate to elicit the response needed?

Validation/ Reliability of the Instrument

The researcher includes here the procedure on how the instrument was validated and
tested for reliability The researcher is therefore required to indicate the results of the
test of validity and reliability of the instrument (Results must be placed in the appendix).

Data Gathering Procedure

This section contains the procedure followed by the researcher from the time of the
distribution of the instrument/questionnaire up to the time of retrieval. The researcher
documents and gives a brief but precise narration of the procedure and discusses the
details of every step/ procedure undertaken in the course of gathering data.

Statistical Treatment of Data

The researcher enumerates here the appropriate statistical tool(s) used in treating the
data. He/ she includes here the relevance of the statistical measure(s) to be employed
considering the problem(s) of the study. He/ she does not need to write the formula. The
researcher should indicate the title of the statistical package used (must be licensed), if
there’s any, in processing the data.

METHODOLOGY FOR THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

This chapter starts with a transition paragraph introducing the contents/ parts of the
chapter. The different sections are; Research Design; Data Generation and Selection of
Co-participants; Data Analysis and Literature Comparison.

A brief discussion on what each part of the chapter contains is hereunder presented

Research Design

The researcher discusses here the method used as defined by an authority or

authorities (the source(s) must be cited). This part also includes the importance of using
the research method or research design deemed appropriate to the thrust or objective
of the study.

Data Generation and Selection of Co-participants or Co-researchers

Qualitative research does not sample population but the lived-experiences of co-
participants or co-researchers. The systematic sampling (by way of coding and
memoing) procedure follows the principles enshrined in the qualitative approach or
method being employed (Corbin and Strauss, 2015; Charmaz, 2014; Moustakas, 1994).

The researcher should explain in this part of the study the characteristics of the co-
participants or co-researchers and the reasons why they are chosen as such. The
number of co-participants or co-researchers depends on the extensiveness/
intensiveness of the data needed in the study.

Qualitative research ordinarily employs in-depth interviews that may last from forty-five
(45) minutes to one (1) hour. The interview can be unstructured or semi-structured
depending upon the method adopted for the study. It may also employ appreciation of
documents and symbols associated to the object of the study. The researcher gives a
brief but precise narration of the procedure and discusses the details of every step/
procedure undertaken in the course of the generation of the data.

Data Analysis

The researcher should show and explain in this part the method he/ she employs in the
analysis of the data (narrative inquiry, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography,
case study). Only licensed software (e.g. NVIVO, MAXQDA, etc.) must be utilized to
facilitate data organization and analysis.

Literature Comparison

The researcher should demonstrate in this part the place of his/ her study in the existing
related/ technical literature.

Example of Research Design:

The descriptive-survey method was used for the present study which aimed to assess
the acceptability of the developed “enhanced activities” for selected topics in Pre-
Calculus for STEM students. A descriptive quantitative study typically uses a survey or
an assessment approach to collect information to enable the researcher to expound on
the characteristics of persons and their perceptions (Best & Khan, 2003).

Research Locale
 is a term that refers to a specified area and/or subject that is being studied in a
research project.

Research Population 
It is the population in research to which the researchers can apply their conclusions.
This population is a subset of the target population and is also known as the study
population. It is from the accessible population that researchers draw their samples.

Example of Research Population Locale:

Population and Locale of the Study
The study was held in randomly selected schools in the 4 th Congressional District
of Quezon Province. It involved five (5) math experts and sixty (60) math teachers from
secondary schools in the Fourth Congressional District of Quezon.

Research Instrument
 It is the general term that researchers use for a measurement device (survey, test,
questionnaire, etc.). To help distinguish between instrument and instrumentation,
consider that the instrument is the device and instrumentation is the course of
action (the process of developing, testing, and using the device).
Instruments fall into two broad categories, researcher-completed and subject-
completed, distinguished by those instruments that researchers administer versus those
that are completed by participants. Researchers chose which type of instrument, or
instruments, to use based on the research question. Examples are listed below:

Researcher-completed
Instruments Subject-completed Instruments

Rating scales Questionnaires

Interview schedules/guides Self-checklists

Tally sheets Attitude scales

Flowcharts Personality inventories

Performance checklists Achievement/aptitude tests

Time-and-motion logs Projective devices

Observation forms Sociometric devices

Usability

Usability refers to the ease with which an instrument can be administered, interpreted

by the participant, and scored/interpreted by the researcher. Example usability problems
include:
1. Students are asked to rate a lesson immediately after class, but there are only a
few minutes before the next class begins (problem with administration).
2. Students are asked to keep self-checklists of their after school activities, but the
directions are complicated and the item descriptions confusing (problem with
interpretation).
3. Teachers are asked about their attitudes regarding school policy, but some
questions are worded poorly which results in low completion rates (problem with
scoring/interpretation).

Validity and reliability concerns (discussed below) will help alleviate usability issues. For
now, we can identify five usability considerations:

1. How long will it take to administer?

2. Are the directions clear?
3. How easy is it to score?
4. Do equivalent forms exist?
5. Have any problems been reported by others who used it?

It is best to use an existing instrument, one that has been developed and tested
numerous times, such as can be found in the Mental Measurements Yearbook. We will
turn to why next.

Relating Reliability and Validity

Reliability is directly related to the validity of the measure. There are several important
principles. First, a test can be considered reliable, but not valid. Consider the SAT, used
as a predictor of success in college. It is a reliable test (high scores relate to high GPA),
though only a moderately valid indicator of success (due to the lack of structured
environment – class attendance, parent-regulated study, and sleeping habits – each
holistically related to success).

Second, validity is more important than reliability. Using the above example, college
admissions may consider the SAT a reliable test, but not necessarily a valid measure of
other quantities colleges seek, such as leadership capability, altruism, and civic
involvement. The combination of these aspects, alongside the SAT, is a more valid
measure of the applicant’s potential for graduation, later social involvement, and
generosity (alumni giving) toward the alma mater.

Finally, the most useful instrument is both valid and reliable. Proponents of the SAT
argue that it is both. It is a moderately reliable predictor of future success and a
moderately valid measure of a student’s knowledge in Mathematics, Critical Reading,
and Writing.

Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research

Thus far, we have discussed Instrumentation as related to mostly quantitative
measurement. Establishing validity and reliability in qualitative research can be less
precise, though participant/member checks, peer evaluation (another researcher checks
the researcher’s inferences based on the instrument (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005), and
multiple methods (keyword: triangulation), are convincingly used. Some qualitative
researchers reject the concept of validity due to the constructivist viewpoint that reality
is unique to the individual, and cannot be generalized. These researchers argue for a
different standard for judging research quality. For a more complete discussion of
trustworthiness, see

Data Gathering Collection

it is the technique used to obtain the information used in a dissertation to substantiate
the claims made by a writer. To get the perfect outcome, you should use the best
procedure. If you are unsure of how to obtain your data, it is advisable to hire experts in
this field to offer assistance. We have data experts who can help with these tasks.

What are the data collection methods that you can use? They are explained below:

 Use of surveys

The method is mainly effective for those who need qualitative data to use in their
academic documents. In surveys, open-ended questions are used. What kind of
information can be collected using this method? They include the perception people
have on a product, attitudes towards government policy, the beliefs people hold, or the
knowledge people have on a given issue, among other information types. For the exact
information needed, the questions should not be leading and should cover the exact
areas needed by the researchers. The data is later analyzed to obtain the conclusions
needed.

 Conducting interviews

This quantitative research data gathering procedure is used to obtain from people on a
one-on-one basis. In this case, the researcher should have several predetermined
questions. The interview questions can be close-ended, like in the case where the
interviewees are expected to provide the ‘YES’ or ‘NO’ type of responses. It can also
have open-ended questions in which the respondent has the freedom to provide a
response they are comfortable with. To ensure the data collected is rich in the content
required, the interviewer should ensure there are follow-up questions for areas where
the respondent may provide ambiguous information.

There are different ways the interviews can be conducted. The first way is to do it face-
to-face. As the respondent provides the answers, the interviewee can record them by
writing or tape-recording. The data collected is later sorted and written in the paper. The
other method is through phone conversations. Your respondent should provide the
answers required as you keep a clean record that you can use later to write the paper
needed.

 Taking a focus group

In this case, the interviewee can take a group and get the information from them. There
is a set of predetermined questions that are inquired from the respondents in turns. The
method is effective when different people hold varied opinions on the same issue.
Focus groups differ depending on the type of responses required in the probe. To get
the most reliable results from this method, the number of people in the group should be
between 5 and 10 people.

 Direct observation

The data gathering procedure for qualitative research applies the sensory organs such
as the eyes to see what is going on, ears to hear the things going on, and the ears to
smell. The method helps the researcher to avoid bias in what people say.

 Content Analysis
 The researcher uses data that is already available and supports their point of view.
Different documents can be used in this case, including newspapers with reputation,
research articles from known experts, approved government reports, and other online
data sources that can be of help in this case. For the reliability of the data, different
sources should be used for research.

It is you to determine the methodology that can work for your case when it comes to
data collection. Choosing a wrong procedure may mean that you obtain unreliable or
irrelevant data. You do not want to face the frustrations of presenting data that is
unrelated to your topic. Therefore, it is advisable to hire an expert who understands how
things work as far as data is concerned. We come in handy in such situations. Do not
use faulty data gathering procedures when we can assist you in collecting the best data
using our proven collection techniques.

Statistical Treatment
9. In Data Analysis: Applying any statistical method — like regression or calculating
a mean — to data.
10. In Factor Analysis: Any combination of factor levels is called a treatment.
11. In a Thesis or Experiment: A statistical treatment is a summary of the procedure,
including statistical methods used.